Analysis of Algorithms

Recurrences

(Appendix A, Chapter 4)
 Recurrences and Running Time
• An equation or inequality that describes a function in
terms of its value on smaller inputs.
T(n) = T(n-1) + n
no 1
f
so_
• Recurrences arise when an algorithm contains recursive
calls to itself

• What is the actual running time of the algorithm?

• Need to solve the recurrence
– Find an explicit formula of the expression
– Bound the recurrence by an expression that involves n

2
 Example Recurrences
• T(n) = T(n-1) + n Θ(n2)
– Recursive algorithm that loops through the input to
eliminate one item
• T(n) = T(n/2) + c Θ(lgn)
o
– Recursive algorithm that halves the input in one step
• T(n) = T(n/2) + n Θ(n)
0
– Recursive algorithm that halves the input but must
examine every item in the input
• T(n) = 2T(n/2) + 1
0
Θ(n)
– Recursive algorithm that splits the input into 2 halves
and does a constant amount of other work
3
 Recurrent Algorithms
BINARY-SEARCH
• for an ordered array A, finds if x is in the array A[lo…hi]

Alg.: BINARY-SEARCH (A, lo, hi, x)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

if (lo > hi) 2 3 5 7 9 10 11 12

return FALSE
mid  (lo+hi)/2 mid
lo hi
if x = A[mid]
return TRUE
if ( x < A[mid] )
BINARY-SEARCH (A, lo, mid-1, x)
if ( x > A[mid] )
BINARY-SEARCH (A, mid+1, hi, x)
4
 Example
• A[8] = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9, 11}
– lo = 1 hi = 8 x = 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

1 2 3 4 5 7 9 11 mid = 4, lo = 5, hi = 8

5 6 7 8

1 2 3 4 5 7 9 11 mid = 6, A[mid] = x
Found!

5
 Another Example
• A[8] = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9, 11}
– lo = 1 hi = 8 x=6
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

1 2 3 4 5 7 9 11 mid = 4, lo = 5, hi = 8
low high

1 2 3 4 5 7 9 11 mid = 6, A[6] = 7, lo = 5, hi = 5
low high
1 2 3 4 5 7 9 11 mid = 5, A[5] = 5, lo = 6, hi = 5
NOT FOUND!

1 2 3 4 5 7 9 11
high low

6
 Analysis of BINARY-SEARCH
Alg.: BINARY-SEARCH (A, lo, hi, x)
if (lo > hi) constant time: c1
return FALSE
mid  (lo+hi)/2 constant time: c2
if x = A[mid] constant time: c3
return TRUE
if ( x < A[mid] )
BINARY-SEARCH (A, lo, mid-1, x) same problem of size n/2
if ( x > A[mid] )
BINARY-SEARCH (A, mid+1, hi, x) same problem of size n/2

• T(n) = c + T(n/2)
– T(n) – running time for an array of size n
7
 Methods for Solving Recurrences

• Iteration method

• Substitution method

• Recursion tree method

• Master method

8
 The Iteration Method
• Convert the recurrence into a summation and try
to bound it using known series
– Iterate the recurrence until the initial condition is
reached.
– Use back-substitution to express the recurrence in
terms of n and the initial (boundary) condition.

9
 The Iteration Method
T(n) = c + T(n/2)
T(n) = c + T(n/2) T(n/2) = c + T(n/4)
= c + c + T(n/4) T(n/4) = c + T(n/8)
= c + c + c + T(n/8)
Assume n = 2k
T(n) = c + c + … + c + T(1)
k times
= clgn + T(1)
= Θ(lgn)

10
 iteration method
solve this Rec using

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9
0
 Iteration Method – Example
T(n) = n + 2T(n/2) Assume: n = 2k
T(n) = n + 2T(n/2) T(n/2) = n/2 + 2T(n/4)
= n + 2(n/2 + 2T(n/4))
= n + n + 4T(n/4)
= n + n + 4(n/4 + 2T(n/8))
= n + n + n + 8T(n/8)
… = in + 2iT(n/2i)
= kn + 2kT(1)

0
= nlgn + nT(1) = Θ(nlgn)

12
The substitution method

1. Guess a solution

2. Use induction to prove that the

solution works

13
 Substitution method
• Guess a solution
– T(n) = O(g(n))

– Induction goal: apply the definition of the asymptotic notation

• T(n) ≤ d g(n), for some d > 0 and n ≥ n0

– Induction hypothesis: T(k) ≤ d g(k) for all k < n (strong induction)

• Prove the induction goal

– Use the induction hypothesis to find some values of the
constants d and n0 for which the induction goal holds

14
 Example: Binary Search
T(n) = c + T(n/2)
• Guess: T(n) = O(lgn)
– Induction goal: T(n) ≤ d lgn, for some d and n ≥ n0
– Induction hypothesis: T(n/2) ≤ d lg(n/2)

• Proof of induction goal:

T(n) = T(n/2) + c ≤ d lg(n/2) + c
= d lgn – d + c ≤ d lgn
if: – d + c ≤ 0, d ≥ c
• Base case? 15
 this Rec using sub Method
Solve

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 Example 2
T(n) = T(n-1) + n
• Guess: T(n) = O(n2)
– Induction goal: T(n) ≤ c n2, for some c and n ≥ n0
– Induction hypothesis: T(n-1) ≤ c(n-1)2 for all k < n

• Proof of induction goal:

T(n) = T(n-1) + n ≤ c (n-1)2 + n
= cn2 – (2cn – c - n) ≤ cn2
if: 2cn – c – n ≥ 0  c ≥ n/(2n-1)  c ≥ 1/(2 – 1/n)
– For n ≥ 1  2 – 1/n ≥ 1  any c ≥ 1 will work

17
 Example 3
T(n) = 2T(n/2) + n
• Guess: T(n) = O(nlgn)
– Induction goal: T(n) ≤ cn lgn, for some c and n ≥ n0
– Induction hypothesis: T(n/2) ≤ cn/2 lg(n/2)

• Proof of induction goal:

T(n) = 2T(n/2) + n ≤ 2c (n/2)lg(n/2) + n
= cn lgn – cn + n ≤ cn lgn
if: - cn + n ≤ 0  c ≥ 1
• Base case? 18
 Changing variables
T(n) = 2T( n ) + lgn
– Rename: m = lgn  n = 2m
T (2m) = 2T(2m/2) + m
– Rename: S(m) = T(2m)
S(m) = 2S(m/2) + m  S(m) = O(mlgm)
(demonstrated before)
T(n) = T(2m) = S(m) = O(mlgm)=O(lgnlglgn)
Idea: transform the recurrence to one that you
have seen before
19
20
The recursion-tree method

Convert the recurrence into a tree:

– Each node represents the cost incurred at various
levels of recursion

– Sum up the costs of all levels

Used to “guess” a solution for the recurrence

21
 Example 1
W(n) = 2W(n/2) + n2

• Subproblem size at level i is: n/2i

• Subproblem size hits 1 when 1 = n/2i  i = lgn
• Cost of the problem at level i = (n/2i)2 No. of nodes at level i = 2i
• Total cost: lg n −1 2
n lg n −1
1
i 
1
i
1
W ( n) = 2
i =0
lg n
i
+ 2 W (1) = n
2 2
  2 
i =0
+nn
2
  2 
i =0
+ O(n) =n
1− 1
+ O ( n) = 2n 2
2
 W(n) = O(n2)
22
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 Example 2
E.g.: T(n) = 3T(n/4) + cn2
e

• Subproblem size at level i is: n/4i

• Subproblem size hits 1 when 1 = n/4i  i = log4n
• Cost of a node at level i = c(n/4i)2
• Number of nodes at level i = 3i  last level has 3log4n = nlog43 nodes
• Total cost:
log 4 n −1 i i

( ) ( ) ( )

3 2 3 1
T ( n) =    cn +  n
 16 
log 4 3
    cn 2 +  n log 4 3 =
i = 0  16 
3
cn 2 +  n log 4 3 = O(n 2 )
i =0
1−
16
 T(n) = O(n ) 2 24
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 Example 2 - Substitution
T(n) = 3T(n/4) + cn2
• Guess: T(n) = O(n2)
– Induction goal: T(n) ≤ dn2, for some d and n ≥ n0
– Induction hypothesis: T(n/4) ≤ d (n/4)2
• Proof of induction goal:
T(n) = 3T(n/4) + cn2
≤ 3d (n/4)2 + cn2
= (3/16) d n2 + cn2
≤ d n2 if: d ≥ (16/13)c

• Therefore: T(n) = O(n2)

25
 Example 3 (simpler proof)
W(n) = W(n/3) + W(2n/3) + n

• The longest path from the root to

a leaf is:
n → (2/3)n → (2/3)2 n → … → 1

• Subproblem size hits 1 when

1 = (2/3)in  i=log3/2n

• Cost of the problem at level i = n

• Total cost:
lg n
W (n)  n + n + ... = n(log 3/ 2 n) = n = O(n lg n)
3
lg
2
 W(n) = O(nlgn) 26
 Example 3
W(n) = W(n/3) + W(2n/3) + n

• The longest path from the root to

a leaf is:
n → (2/3)n → (2/3)2 n → … → 1

• Subproblem size hits 1 when

1 = (2/3)in  i=log3/2n

• Cost of the problem at level i = n

• Total cost:
(log3 / 2 n ) −1
W (n)  n + n + ... = i =0
n + 2(log3 / 2 n ) W (1) 
log3 / 2 n
lg n 1
n 
i =0
1 + nlog3 / 2 2 = n log 3/ 2 n + O(n) = n
lg 3 / 2
+ O ( n) =
lg 3 / 2
n lg n + O(n)

 W(n) = O(nlgn) 27
28
 Example 3 - Substitution
W(n) = W(n/3) + W(2n/3) + O(n)
• Guess: W(n) = O(nlgn)
– Induction goal: W(n) ≤ dnlgn, for some d and n ≥ n0
– Induction hypothesis: W(k) ≤ d klgk for any K < n
(n/3, 2n/3)
• Proof of induction goal:
Try it out as an exercise!!
• T(n) = O(nlgn)

29
 Master’s method
• “Cookbook” for solving recurrences of the form:
n
T (n) = aT   + f (n)
b
where, a ≥ 1, b > 1, and f(n) > 0

Idea: compare f(n) with nlogba

• f(n) is asymptotically smaller or larger than nlogba by

a polynomial factor n

• f(n) is asymptotically equal with nlogba

30
 Master’s method
• “Cookbook” for solving recurrences of the form:

n
T (n) = aT   + f (n)
b
where, a ≥ 1, b > 1, and f(n) > 0

Case 1: if f(n) = O(nlogba -) for some  > 0, then: T(n) = (nlogba)

Case 2: if f(n) = (nlogba), then: T(n) = (nlogba lgn)

Case 3: if f(n) = (nlogba +) for some  > 0, and if

af(n/b) ≤ cf(n) for some c < 1 and all sufficiently large n, then:

T(n) = (f(n))
regularity condition
31
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 Examples

T(n) = 2T(n/2) + n

a = 2, b = 2, log22 = 1

Compare nlog22 with f(n) = n

 f(n) = (n)  Case 2

 T(n) = (nlgn)

34
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 Examples
T(n) = 2T(n/2) + n2
a = 2, b = 2, log22 = 1
Compare n with f(n) = n2
 f(n) = (n1+) Case 3  verify regularity cond.
a f(n/b) ≤ c f(n)
 2 n2/4 ≤ c n2  c = ½ is a solution (c<1)
 T(n) = (n2)

36
37
 Examples (cont.)

T(n) = 2T(n/2) + n

a = 2, b = 2, log22 = 1

Compare n with f(n) = n1/2

 f(n) = O(n1-) Case 1

 T(n) = (n)

38
 Examples

T(n) = 3T(n/4) + nlgn

a = 3, b = 4, log43 = 0.793

Compare n0.793 with f(n) = nlgn

f(n) = (nlog43+) Case 3

Check regularity condition:

3(n/4)lg(n/4) ≤ (3/4)nlgn = c f(n), c=3/4

T(n) = (nlgn)
39
40
 Examples

T(n) = 2T(n/2) + nlgn

a = 2, b = 2, log22 = 1

• Compare n with f(n) = nlgn

– seems like case 3 should apply

• f(n) must be polynomially larger by a factor of n

• In this case it is only larger by a factor of lgn

41
42
Readings

43