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CSS-23 & CSS-24
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INDEX

 UNIVERSE
 BIG BANG THEORY
 GALAXY AND ITS TYPES
 SOLAR SYSTEM
 Earth AND ITS STRUCTURE
 ATMOSPHERE OF THE EARTH
 SOLAR AND LUNAR ECLIPSE
 ROTATION AND REVOLUTION OF THE EARTH
 EARTHQUACKE ITS CAUSES AND IMPACTS
 TSUNAMI
 VOLCANOES AND ITS TYPES
 AVALANCHES
 CYCLONES & ITS TYPES
 ENERGY SOURCES : RENEWABLE AND NON-RENEWABLE
 ANTIBIOTICS AND ITS USE
 VACCINES
 PESTICIDES
 CELL : ITS STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS
 BIO-MOLECULES
 VITAMINS AND ITS FUNCTIONS
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WHAT IS UNIVERSE ?
All existing matter and space considered as a whole; the cosmos. The universe is
believed to be at least 10 billion light years in diameter and contains a vast number
of galaxies; it has been expanding since its creation in the Big Bang about 13 billion
years ago.
The Universe is thought to consist of three types of substance: normal matter,
‘dark matter’ and ‘dark energy’.

Normal matter consists of the atoms that make up stars, planets, human beings

and every other visible object in the Universe. As humbling as it sounds, normal

matter almost certainly accounts for the smallest proportion of the Universe,

somewhere between 1% and 10%.In the currently popular model of the Universe,

70% is thought to be dark energy, 25% dark matter and 5% normal matter.
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When was the Universe created?

The exact age of our universe is unknown. However, scientists have been able to
trace back the time our Universe began to expand from its original state. This is
known as The Big Bang theory.

The Big Bang Theory

In 1927, a Belgium Professor of Physics, Georges Lemaître, revealed his theory that
the entire universe was conceived from a single atom at a particular point in time.
This was met by wide disapproval in the scientific community, as orthodox beliefs
claimed that Space, and all contents within Space such as planets, were static.
However, in 1930 an American astronomer named Edwin Hubble discovered that
planets and galaxies were moving away from Earth at speeds that were
proportionate to their distance. This provided strong evidence towards Lemaître’s
theory, and it then started to become widely acknowledged. The discovery of the
Cosmic Microwave Background in 1964 (the leftover radiation from the Big Bang)
provided further evidence that Lemaître’s theory was correct.

Before the ‘Big Bang’, the universe did not exist how we know it as today. It had no
stars, galaxies, planets or atoms. Around 13.7 billion years ago, for reasons that we
do not fully understand yet, there was a sudden hot, dense explosion. The universe
rapidly expanded and cooled. Particles began to form, and the universe as we
know it today began its existence.

What is a Galaxy?
A galaxy is a sprawling space system which is composed of stars, dust, interstellar
gas, stellar remnants, and dark matter and all held together by gravity. The word
‘Galaxy’ is termed from the Greek word ‘galaxies‘. It is tough to tell how big the
universe is! The universe has many galaxies, and each carries millions of stars
which are bounded by a unique force known as gravitational force. There are
approximately 70,000 million stars in the universe. The solar system where our
earth exists is in the Milky Way Galaxy.
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Galaxies differ from each other in shape, size, colour and composition. There are
three types of galaxies that we find in the universe.

Elliptical Galaxies
These type of galaxies are like flattened balls of old stars and contain very little gas.
It also includes the most massive galaxies containing a trillion stars.

Spiral Galaxies
Spiral galaxies have a flattened shape. They have a bulge in the centre composed
of old stars surrounded by a disk of young stars and are arranged in spiral arms.

Irregular Galaxies
As its name suggests, Irregular Galaxies have no particular shape. There are billions
of galaxies in the universe, the centre of the galaxy releases a huge amount of
heat, radiation, radio waves and x-rays.

Galaxies are too far from us, that is, a spacecraft that moves with a speed of
60,000 km/hr reaches Alpha Centauri Galaxy which is 4.2 light-years after 80,000
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years. The Milky Way Galaxy includes the sun, earth, and our solar system. It
contains dust particles, huge clouds, and gases that lie throughout it and depths of
interstellar space. The term Milky Way refers to the large portion of the Milky Way
galaxy that can be seen from earth as well.
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The Solar System

Solar system consists of an average star we call the Sun, the
planets Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto.
It includes: the satellites of the planets; numerous comets, asteroids, and
meteoroids; and the interplanetary medium. The Sun is the richest source of
electromagnetic energy (mostly in the form of heat and light) in the solar system.
The Sun's nearest known stellar neighbor is a red dwarf star called Proxima
Centauri, at a distance of 4.3 light years away. The whole solar system, together
with the local stars visible on a clear night, orbits the center of our home galaxy, a
spiral disk of 200 billion stars we call the Milky Way. The Milky Way has two small
galaxies orbiting it nearby, which are visible from the southern hemisphere. They
are called the Large Magellanic Cloud and the Small Magellanic Cloud. The nearest
large galaxy is the Andromeda Galaxy. It is a spiral galaxy like the Milky Way but is 4
times as massive and is 2 million light years away. Our galaxy, one of billions of
galaxies known, is traveling through intergalactic space.

The planets, most of the satellites of the planets and the asteroids revolve around
the Sun in the same direction, in nearly circular orbits. When looking down from
above the Sun's north pole, the planets orbit in a counter-clockwise direction. The
planets orbit the Sun in or near the same plane, called the ecliptic. Pluto is a special
case in that its orbit is the most highly inclined (18 degrees) and the most highly
elliptical of all the planets. Because of this, for part of its orbit, Pluto is closer to the
Sun than is Neptune. The axis of rotation for most of the planets is nearly
perpendicular to the ecliptic. The exceptions are Uranus and Pluto, which are
tipped on their sides.

Composition Of The Solar System

The Sun contains 99.85% of all the matter in the Solar System. The planets, which
condensed out of the same disk of material that formed the Sun, contain only
0.135% of the mass of the solar system. Jupiter contains more than twice the
matter of all the other planets combined. Satellites of the planets, comets,
asteroids, meteoroids, and the interplanetary medium constitute the remaining
0.015%. The following table is a list of the mass distribution within our Solar
System.

 Sun: 99.85%
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 Planets: 0.135%
 Comets: 0.01% ?
 Satellites: 0.00005%
 Minor Planets: 0.0000002% ?
 Meteoroids: 0.0000001% ?
 Interplanetary Medium: 0.0000001% ?

Interplanetary Space

Nearly all the solar system by volume appears to be an empty void. Far from being
nothingness, this vacuum of "space" comprises the interplanetary medium. It
includes various forms of energy and at least two material components:
interplanetary dust and interplanetary gas. Interplanetary dust consists of
microscopic solid particles. Interplanetary gas is a tenuous flow of gas and charged
particles, mostly protons and electrons -- plasma -- which stream from the Sun,
called the solar wind.

The Terrestrial Planets

The terrestrial planets are the four innermost planets in the solar
system, Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars. They are called terrestrial because they
have a compact, rocky surface like the Earth's. The planets, Venus, Earth, and Mars
have significant atmospheres while Mercury has almost none. The following
diagram shows the approximate distance of the terrestrial planets to the Sun.
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The Jovian Planets

Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune are known as the Jovian (Jupiter-like) planets,
because they are all gigantic compared with Earth, and they have a gaseous nature
like Jupiter's. The Jovian planets are also referred to as the gas giants, although
some or all of them might have small solid cores. The following diagram shows the
approximate distance of the Jovian planets to the Sun.

SUMMARY
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Structure of the earth

The earth is made up of three different layers: the crust, the mantle and the core.
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The Crust
This is the outside layer of the earth and is made of solid rock, mostly basalt and
granite. There are two types of crust; oceanic and continental. Oceanic crust is
denser and thinner and mainly composed of basalt. Continental crust is less dense,
thicker, and mainly composed of granite.

The Mantle
The mantle lies below the crust and is up to 2900 km thick. It consists of hot,
dense, iron and magnesium-rich solid rock. The crust and the upper part of the
mantle make up the lithosphere, which is broken into plates, both large and small.

The Core
The core is the centre of the earth and is made up of two parts: the liquid outer
core and solid inner core. The outer core is made of nickel, iron and molten rock.
Temperatures here can reach up to 50,000 C.

Atmosphere of the earth

 Composition:
o Earth’s atmosphere is composed of about 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and
1% other gases.
 Nitrogen (N2): It is the most plentiful gas in the air. It is one of the
primary nutrients critical for the survival of all living organisms.
 Oxygen (O2): Humans and animals take oxygen from the air as they
breathe. Green plants produce oxygen during photosynthesis. In this
way oxygen content in the air remains constant.
 Carbon dioxide (CO2): It is an important heat-trapping gas,
or greenhouse gas, that comes from the extraction and burning of
fossil fuels.
o These gases are found in atmospheric layers defined by unique features
such as temperature and pressure.
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What are the Different Layers of the Atmosphere?

 Troposphere:
o Earth’s troposphere extends from Earth’s surface to, on average, about
12 kilometers in height, with its height lower at Earth’s poles and higher
at the equator.
 Yet this very shallow layer is tasked with holding all the air that plants
need for photosynthesis and animals need to breathe, and
also contains about 99% of all water vapor and aerosols (minute solid
or liquid particles suspended in the atmosphere).
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o The temperature in the troposphere also decreases with height. On top of

this layer is what is referred to as tropopause.
o It is the densest atmospheric layer, compressed by the weight of the rest
of the atmosphere above it.
o Most of Earth’s weather happens here, and almost all clouds that are
generated by weather are found here.
 Most aviation takes place here, including in the transition region
between the troposphere and the stratosphere.
 Stratosphere:
o Located between approximately 12 and 50 kilometers above Earth’s
surface, the stratosphere is perhaps best known as home to Earth’s ozone
layer.
o In this region, the temperature increases with height. Heat is produced in
the process of the formation of Ozone, and this heat is responsible for
temperature increase.
o It is nearly cloud- and weather-free, but polar stratospheric clouds (occur
mainly at high latitudes during the winter) are sometimes present in its
lowest, coldest altitudes.
 It’s also the highest part of the atmosphere that jet planes can reach.
 Mesosphere:
o Located between about 50 and 80 kilometers above Earth’s surface, the
mesosphere gets progressively colder with altitude.
 The top of this layer is the coldest place found within the Earth
system, with an average temperature of about minus 85 °C (-120 °F).
o The very scarce water vapor present at the top of the mesosphere forms
noctilucent clouds, the highest clouds in Earth’s atmosphere.
o Most meteors burn up in this atmospheric layer. Sounding rockets and
rocket-powered aircraft can reach the mesosphere.
 The transition boundary which separates the mesosphere from the
stratosphere is called the stratopause.
 Thermosphere:
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o It is located between about 80 and 700 kilometers above Earth’s surface,

whose lowest part contains the ionosphere.
 Because this layer is much closer to the sun, it can reach
temperatures up to 2,000 °C (3,600 °F)
o In this layer, temperatures increase with altitude due to the very low
density of molecules found here. It is both cloud- and water-vapor-free.
o The aurora borealis (Northern lights) and aurora australis (Southern lights)
are sometimes seen here.
 The International Space Station (ISS) orbits in the thermosphere.
o Ionosphere:
 It is not a distinct layer as the others mentioned above. Instead, the
ionosphere overlaps the mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere.
 It’s a very active part of the atmosphere, and it grows and shrinks
depending on the energy it absorbs from the sun.
 It is an electrically conducting region capable of reflecting radio
signals back to Earth.
 The electrically charged atoms and molecules that are formed in this
way are called ions, giving the ionosphere its name and endowing this
region with some special properties.
 Exosphere:
o It is located between about 700 and 10,000 kilometers above
Earth’s surface, the exosphere is the highest layer of Earth’s
atmosphere and, at its top, merges with the solar wind.
o Molecules found here are of extremely low density, so this layer
doesn’t behave like a gas, and particles here escape into space.
o While there’s no weather in the exosphere, the aurora borealis and
aurora australis are sometimes seen in its lowest part.
 Most Earth satellites orbit in this layer.
Significance:
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o Protection from Harmful Radiations: The atmosphere protects life on Earth by

shielding it from incoming ultraviolet (UV) radiation, keeping the planet warm
through insulation, and preventing extremes between day and night
temperatures.
o Weather and climate: The atmosphere play a crucial role in determining
weather and climate patterns, including temperature, precipitation, and wind.
These patterns have a significant impact on ecosystems, agriculture, and
human activities.
o Regulates the Earth's Temperature: The atmosphere helps regulate the Earth's
temperature by trapping heat from the sun and preventing it from escaping
into space. This process, known as the greenhouse effect, helps keep the
planet warm enough to support life.
o A Major Role in the Water Cycle: The atmosphere helps regulate the Earth's
water cycle by transporting water vapor from the oceans to the land, where it
falls as precipitation
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Natural Processes
What is a solar eclipse?

AN ECLIPSE, IN GENERAL, IS DEFINED AS:

 the total or partial obscuring of one celestial body by another

 the passing into the shadow of a celestial body

Two types of eclipses

There are two types of eclipses, following each situation defined above.

LUNAR ECLIPSE
A lunar eclipse is caused by the moon passing through the Earth’s shadow. This
phenomenon is relatively common since all it requires is two celestial bodies to be
lined up. Once it does happen, half of Earth -- the half that can see the moon at
night -- can observe the phenomenon.

SOLAR ECLIPSE
A solar eclipse occurs when the moon “eclipses” the sun. This means that the
moon, as it orbits the Earth, comes in between the sun and the Earth, thereby
blocking the sun and preventing any sunlight from reaching us.

There are four types of solar eclipses

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Partial solar eclipse: The moon blocks the sun, but only partially. As a result, some
part of the sun is visible, whereas the blocked part appears dark. A partial solar
eclipse is the most common type of solar eclipse.

Annular solar eclipse: The moon blocks out the sun in such a way that the periphery
of the sun remains visible. The unobscured and glowing ring, or “annulus,” around
the sun is also popularly known as the “ring of fire.” This is the second most
common type of eclipse.

Total solar eclipse: As the word "total" suggests, the moon totally blocks out the
sun for a few minutes, leading to a period of darkness -- and the resulting eclipse is
called a total solar eclipse. During this period of darkness, one can witness the
solar corona, which is usually too dim to notice when the sun is at its full glory. Also
noticeable is the diamond ring effect, or "Baily's beads," which occurs when some
of the sunlight is able to reach us because the moon's surface is not perfectly
round. These imperfections (in the form of craters and valleys) can allow sunlight
to pass through, and this appears just like a bright, shining diamond.

Hybrid solar eclipse: The rarest of all eclipses is a hybrid eclipse, which shifts
between a total and annular eclipse. During a hybrid eclipse, some locations on
Earth will witness the moon completely blocking the sun (a total eclipse), whereas
other regions will observe an annular eclipse.
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Earth's Rotation
The Earth rotates on its axis relative to the Sun every 24.0 hours mean solar time,
with an inclination of 23.45 degrees from the plane of its orbit around the Sun.
Mean solar time represents an average of the variations caused by Earth's non-
circular orbit.

Effects of Rotation of the Earth

1. Day and night

2. Difference of 1 hour between meridians 15° apart.
3. Deflection of winds and ocean currents
4. variation in speed of air masses
5. rising and falling of ocean tides
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Revolution of Earth
Earth revolves in orbit around the Sun in 365 days, 6 hours, 9 minutes with
reference to the stars, at a speed ranging from 29.29 to 30.29 km/s. The 6 hours, 9
minutes adds up to about an extra day every fourth year, which is designated a
leap year, with the extra day added as February 29th.
The revolution of Earth is caused by the Sun's gravitational pull and results in an
elliptical orbit. An elliptical orbit is an elongated path or flattened circle with two
different foci. The Earth's orbital eccentricity or the deviation of its orbit's shape
from a circle is approximately 0.01671.
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Effects of the revoltion of the earth

The Earth's revolution has several effects including the seasons and the variable
duration of days/ nights. Also, the Earth's tilt and axis relative to its orbital plane
have a significant effect as well. This results in one hemisphere tilting toward the
sun and the contralateral hemisphere tilting away.

Earthquake causes and impacts

An earthquake is an intense shaking of Earth’s surface. The shaking is caused by
movements in Earth’s outermost layer.

Why Do Earthquakes Happen?

Although the Earth looks like a pretty solid place from the surface, it’s actually
extremely active just below the surface. The Earth is made of four basic layers: a
solid crust, a hot, nearly solid mantle, a liquid outer core and a solid inner core.
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The solid crust and top, stiff layer of the mantle make up a region called
the lithosphere. The lithosphere isn’t a continuous piece that wraps around the
whole Earth like an eggshell. It’s actually made up of giant puzzle pieces
called tectonic plates. Tectonic plates are constantly shifting as they drift around
on the viscous, or slowly flowing, mantle layer below.
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This non-stop movement causes stress on Earth’s crust. When the stresses get too
large, it leads to cracks called faults. When tectonic plates move, it also causes
movements at the faults. An earthquake is the sudden movement of Earth’s crust
at a fault line.
How Do We Measure Earthquakes?

The energy from an earthquake travels through Earth in vibrations called seismic
waves. Scientists can measure these seismic waves on instruments called
seismometer. A seismometer detects seismic waves below the instrument and
records them as a series of zig-zags.
Scientists can determine the time, location and intensity of an earthquake from
the information recorded by a seismometer. This record also provides information
about the rocks the seismic waves traveled through
What Is a Tsuna
Tsunami is a Japanese word that means "harbor wave." It is a large wave caused by
movements in Earth's outer layer, or crust, which move ocean water. For example,
an earthquake or a volcano in the ocean could cause a tsunami.
Earth's crust is made up of pieces called tectonic plates. An earthquake happens
when these plates push against each other so hard that one of them slips or
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breaks. Imagine leaning against a friend. If you push against each other harder and
harder, one or both of you will fall over. When Earth's plates push against each
other, they can move a lot.
If an earthquake happens in the ocean, a large piece of Earth's crust can be thrust
upward or slip from side to side. The movement of a large chunk of Earth displaces
the water above it, meaning it takes up the space where the water used to be. So
where does the water go? It ripples out from the earthquake in waves.

What Is a Tsunami?
This can also happen if a volcano erupts in the ocean. The lava flowing out of the
volcano displaces the water around it. That water can turn into a large wave.
If the earthquake or volcano is very big, then the wave can be very big, too. Big
tsunamis usually begin in the deep ocean, where a large volume of water can be
displaced. As the wave moves closer to the shore, it grows taller as the ocean
becomes shallower. If the water recedes—or moves away from the coast—after an
earthquake, a big tsunami may be on its way.
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Tsunamis can be hundreds of feet tall, and they travel very fast. This means they
can be dangerous even for people who aren't on the beach. Tsunamis can be
extremely destructive and can knock down whole buildings.
But not all earthquakes or volcanic eruptions cause tsunamis. Whether a tsunami
forms can depend on a lot of things. The shape of the ocean floor can determine if
a tsunami happens. So can the distance and direction of the earthquake.
If there's a chance a tsunami is on its way, you don't want to be near the coast. So
how can we tell if a tsunami is coming? We use satellites!
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VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS
A volcano eruption occurs where there is a break in the earths crust, hot lava,
volcanic ash, and gases escape from a magma chamber below the surface.
Volcanic Eruptions have been releasing molten rock, hot ash, and gas since Earth
formed billions of years ago.More than 80 percent of the earths surface has been
created by volcanic eruptions, ultimately allowing life to evolve.

Major causes of volcanic eruption:

1-Tectonic movement. 2- Sea floor spreading.
 Earthquake.
 Tsunami.

 Subsurface magma movement.

 Features of a Volcanic Eruption
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Is
Volcanic eruptions can be explosive and produce dangerous lava flows, poisonous
gases, and flying rocks and ash. Many volcanic eruptions are also associated with
other natural disasters, including earthquakes, landslides, debris flows, flash
floods, fires and tsunamis.
Types of Volcanic Eruptions
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A shield volcano is a wide volcano that has shallow sloping sides. They are formed
by repeated lava flows. The lava has a low viscosity which means it flows easily.
Shield volcano are named for its low profile that resembles a warrior’s shield lying
on the ground.
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A stratovolcano is a tall, conical volcano composed of layers of hardened lava,

tephra, and volcanic ash. They are characterized by a steep profile and explosive
eruptions. The lava that flows from these volcanoes is highly viscous, which means
it flows slowly, and cools and hardens before spreading very far.
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A fissure vent, also known as a volcanic fissure, eruption fissure or simply a fissure,
is a linear volcanic vent through which lava erupts, usually without any explosive
activity. The vent is often a few metres wide and may be many kilometres long.
Fissure vents can cause large flood basalts which run first in lava channels and later
in lava tubes. After some time, the eruption tends to become focused at one or
more spatter cones. Small fissure vents may not be easily discernible from the air,
but the crater rows (see Laki) or the canyons (see Eldgjá) built up by some of them
are.
cinder cone

A cinder cone (or scoria cone[1]) is a steep conical hill of

loose pyroclastic fragments, such as volcanic clinkers, volcanic ash, or scoria that
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has been built around a volcanic vent.[2][3] The pyroclastic fragments are formed by
explosive eruptions or lava fountains from a single, typically cylindrical, vent. As the
gas-charged lava is blown violently into the air, it breaks into small fragments that
solidify and fall as either cinders, clinkers, or scoria around the vent to form a cone
that often is symmetrical; with slopes between 30 and 40°; and a nearly circular
ground plan.[4] Most cinder cones have a bowl-shaped crater at the summit.

What is an avalanche?
An avalanche is a mass of material rapidly moving down a slope. It is typically
triggered when the material on a slope breaks loose from its surroundings, and this
material quickly collects and carries additional material down the slope.
An avalanche occurs when a layer of snow collapses and slides downhill.
Avalanches are caused by four factors: a steep slope, snow cover, a weak layer in
the snow cover and a trigger. Roads and railway tracks may be rerouted to reduce
risks. Safe avalanches may be triggered in dangerous snow packs.
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Causes of Avalanche

1. Snowstorm and Wind Direction:

Heavy snowstorms are more likely to cause Avalanches. Wind normally

blows from one side of the slope of mountain to another side.

2. Heavy snowfall:

Heavy snowfall is the first, since it deposits snow in unstable areas and puts
pressure on the snow-pack. Precipitation during the summer months is the
leading cause of wet snow avalanches

3. Human Activity:

Humans have contributed to the start of many avalanches in recent years.

Winter sports that require steep slopes often put pressure on the snow-pack
which it cannot deal.

4. Vibration or Movement:

The use of All Terrain Vehicles and Snowmobiles creates vibrations within
the snow that it cannot withstand. Coupled with the gravitational pull, it is
one of the quickest ways to cause an avalanche.

5. Layers of Snow:

There are conditions where snow is already on the mountains and has
turned into ice. Then, fresh snow falls on top which can easily slide down.

6. Warm Temperature:

Warm temperatures that can last several hours a day can weaken some of
the upper layers of snow and cause it to slide down.

Impacts of avalanche
An avalanche is an incredibly destructive force of nature; flattening trees on the
hillside, and in the process, destroying the ecosystem and killing plants, animals,
insects, and unfortunately sometimes people.
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Cyclones
What are Cyclones?
Cyclones are nothing but ocean storms. In simple words, these are storms that
take place on a large water body, specifically the ocean. The water spins around an
area of low pressure, which is called the technical term eye. The eye is right in the
center of these storms, and the outer portions of the spinning storm give rise to
immense wind and rainfall. The causes of cyclones are a continuous rise of hot air
and filling of the gap by cool air around
What are the Types of Cyclones?
Cyclones are classified into multiple types as well, based on their place of origin.
Here is a brief explanation of how are cyclones formed along with their types –
 Tropical cyclones
 Polar cyclones
 Mesocyclones

Tropical Cyclones When you think about cyclones, do you normally associate
them with hurricanes or typhoons? If that's the case, then it's tropical cyclones
you're thinking of. Tropical cyclones are formed by winds funneling into low-
pressure areas and evaporating warm surface water. This evaporated water
vapor then rises higher and becomes a cloud formation around the circling
winds. These cyclones are typically known as just "Cyclones" in the South-Asian
areas, whereas they are known as "Hurricanes" in the North Atlantic and
Northeast Pacific areas, and as "Typhoons" in the Northwest Pacific areas.

Mesocyclones are also known as "tornado factories." Although cyclones and

tornadoes are often used interchangeably, they are two completely different
storm formations. Mesocyclones are formed due to extremely strong
thunderstorms, called super cell thunderstorms. These thunderstorms create a
rising funnel of extremely high-speed winds, even higher than tropical cyclones.
Sometimes, mesocyclones may result in rotating "wall clouds" that slowly
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descend towards the ground. If those wall clouds touch the ground, they
become what are known as tornadoes.
Extratropical Cyclones these cyclones, also known as midlatitude cyclones, form
in the middle latitude areas due to temperature gradients between adjacent air
masses. The cyclones produced here tend to cover a much larger area than
tropical cyclones, although the winds also tend to be weaker.
Polar Lows, also known as Arctic Hurricanes, form in the Arctic and Antarctic
oceans. These cyclones are caused by extremely cold air moving over slightly
warmer waters. Although they have a similar formation as the tropical cyclones,
they generally form much faster and are harder to predict.
What are the Causes and Effects of Cyclones?
 As you look for cyclone causes and effects, go through the following
points to gain clarity.
 They are caused in areas with lower atmospheric pressure.
 Usually, areas located near the equator face cyclones.
 What causes cyclones is the rising of warm air over the ocean surface.
 Once the warm air rises, the surrounding cool air rushes into this space.
 The cool air heats up and again rises in the atmosphere.
 This process goes on to take place continuously.
 The rapid rise causes the formation of an eye-like structure in the center.
 Likewise, the low-pressure area gets continually filled with high-pressure
wind.
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What Is Energy?
The classical description of energy is the ability of a system to perform work, but as
energy exists in so many forms, it is hard to find one comprehensive definition. It is
the property of an object that can be transferred from one object to another or
converted to different forms but cannot be created or destroyed. There are
numerous sources of energy. In the next few sections, let us discuss the about
different sources of energy in detail.

Sources Of Energy
Sources of energy can be classified into:

 Renewable Sources
 Non-renewable Sources
Renewable sources of energy are available plentiful in nature and are sustainable.
These resources of energy can be naturally replenished and are safe for the
environment.
Examples of renewable sources of energy are: Solar energy, geothermal energy,
wind energy, biomass, hydropower and tidal energy.
A non-renewable resource is a natural resource that is found underneath the
earth. These type of energy resources do not replenish at the same speed at which
it is used. They take millions of years to replenish. The main examples of non-
renewable resources are coal, oil and natural gas.
Examples of non-renewable sources of energy are: Natural gas, coal, petroleum,
nuclear energy and hydrocarbon gas liquids.

Difference between Renewable and Non-renewable Sources of Energy

Renewable Non-renewable

The resources that can be renewed once The resources that cannot be renewed
they are consumed are called renewable once they are consumed are called
sources of energy. non-renewable sources of energy.
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These resources do not cause any These resources cause environmental

environmental pollution. pollution..

Non- Renewable resources are

Renewable resources are inexhaustible.
exhaustible.

Renewable resources are not affected by Non- Renewable resources are affected
human activities. by human activities.

Examples of Renewable resources- Air, water Examples of Non-renewable resources-

and solar energy. natural gas, coal and nuclear energy.

Natural Sources of Energy

During the stone age, it was wood. During the iron age, we had coal. In the modern
age, we have fossil fuels like petroleum and natural gas. So how do we choose the
source of energy?
Good sources of energy should have the following qualities:

 Optimum heat production per unit of volume/mass used

 Easy to transport
 Least Polluting
 Economical

Types of Natural Sources of Energy

There are two types of natural sources of energy classified by their popularity and
use,

 Conventional Sources of Energy

 Non-Conventional Sources of Energy
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Difference between Conventional and Non-conventional Sources of Energy

Conventional Non-conventional

These resources are exhaustible. These resources are inexhaustible.

These resources cause pollution as they emit These resources are usually pollution-
smoke and ash. free.

These resources are very expensive to be These resources are less expensive for
maintained, stored and transmitted. local use and can easily be maintained.

Examples- coal, natural gas, petroleum, and Examples- solar, biomass, wind, biogas,
water power. and tidal, geothermal.
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What are Antibiotics?

Antibiotics, also known as antibacterials, are medications that destroy or slow
down the growth of bacteria.
They include a range of powerful drugs and are used to treat diseases caused by
bacteria.
Antibiotics cannot treat viral infections, such as cold, flu, and most coughs.
Fast facts on antibiotics

 Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin, the first natural antibiotic, in 1928.

 Antibiotics cannot fight viral infections.
 Fleming predicted the rise of antibiotic resistance.
 Antibiotics either kill or slow the growth of bacteria.
 Side effects can include diarrhea, an upset stomach, and nausea.

Antibiotics are powerful medicines that fight certain infections and can save lives
when used properly. They either stop bacteria from reproducing or destroy them.
Before bacteria can multiply and cause symptoms, the immune system can
typically kill them. White blood cells (WBCs) attack harmful bacteria and, even if
symptoms do occur, the immune system can usually cope and fight off the
infection.
Sometimes, however, the number of harmful bacteria is excessive, and the
immune system cannot fight them all. Antibiotics are useful in this scenario.
The first antibiotic was penicillin. Penicillin-based antibiotics, such as ampicillin,
amoxicillin, and penicillin G, are still available to treat a variety of infections and
have been around for a long time.
Several types of modern antibiotics are available, and they are usually only
available with a prescription in most countries. Topical antibiotics are available in
over-the-counter (OTC) creams and ointments.

Resistance
Some medical professionals have concerns that people are overusing antibiotics.
They also believe that this overuse contributes toward the growing number of
bacterial infections that are becoming resistant to antibacterial medications.
According to the Centers for Disease Control (CDC), outpatient antibiotic overuse is
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a particular problem. Antibiotic use appears to be higher in some regions, such as

the Southeast. Use of carbapenems, a major class of last-line antibiotics, increased
significantly from 2007 to 2010.

Alexander Fleming, speaking in his Nobel Prize acceptance speech in 1945, said:

“Then there is the danger that the ignorant man may easily underdose himself and
by exposing his microbes to non-lethal quantities of the drug, make them
resistant.”
As the man who discovered the first antibiotic almost 70 years ago predicted, drug
resistance is starting to become commonplace.

How do antibiotics work?

There are different types of antibiotic, which work in one of two ways:
 A bactericidal antibiotic, such as penicillin, kills the bacteria. These drugs
usually interfere with either the formation of the bacterial cell wall or its cell
contents.
 A bacteriostatic stops bacteria from multiplying.

Vaccine:

Vaccine, suspension of weakened, killed, or fragmented micro-organisms

or toxins or of antibodies or lymphocytes that is administered primarily to
prevent disease.

A vaccine can confer active immunity against a specific harmful agent by

stimulating the immune system to attack the agent. Once stimulated by a vaccine,
the antibody-producing cells, called B cells (or B lymphocytes), remain sensitized
and ready to respond to the agent should it ever gain entry to the body. A vaccine
may also confer passive immunity by providing antibodies or lymphocytes already
made by an animal or human donor. Vaccines are usually administered by injection
(parenteral administration), but some are given orally or even nasally (in the case
of flu vaccine). Vaccines applied to mucosal surfaces, such as those lining
the gut or nasal passages, seem to stimulate a greater antibody response and may
be the most effective route of administration.
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Benefits Of Vaccination

In addition to the development of memory B cells, which are capable of triggering

a secondary immune response upon exposure to the pathogen targeted by a
vaccine, vaccination is also beneficial at the population level. When a sufficient
number of individuals in a population are immune to a disease, as would occur if a
large proportion of a population were vaccinated, herd immunity is achieved. That
means that if there is random mixing of individuals within the population, then the
pathogen cannot be spread throughout the population. Herd immunity acts by
breaking the transmission of infection or by lessening the chances of susceptible
individuals coming in contact with a person who is infectious. Herd immunity
provides a measure of protection to individuals who are not personally immune to
the disease—for instance, individuals who, because of their age or underlying
medical conditions, cannot receive vaccines or individuals who received vaccines
but remain susceptible. Herd immunity played an important role in the successful
eradication of smallpox, and it is vital in preventing the spread of diseases such
as polio and measles.

Adverse Reactions

Vaccination carries some risk of reaction, though adverse effects typically are very
rare and very mild. The most common reactions to vaccines include redness and
soreness around the vaccination site. More severe adverse reactions, such
as vomiting, high fever, seizure, brain damage, or death, are possible for some
vaccines. Such reactions are exceptionally rare, however—occurring in less than
one in a million people for most vaccines. Severe reactions also tend to affect only
certain populations, such as persons whose immune systems are compromised by
preexisting disease (e.g., HIV/AIDS) or who are undergoing chemotherapy.

PESTICIDES:

Types of Pesticides

A pesticide is any chemical which is used by man to control pests. The pests may
be insects, plant diseases, fungi, weeds, nematodes, snails, slugs, etc. Therefore,
insecticides, fungicides, herbicides, etc., are all types of pesticides. Some pesticides
must only contact (touch) the pest to be deadly. Others must be swallowed to be
effective. The way that each pesticide attacks a pest suggests the best way to apply
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it; to reach and expose all the pests. For example, a pesticide may be more
effective and less costly as a bait, rather than as a surface spray.

Insecticides
Insecticides are chemicals used to control insects. Often the word "insecticide" is
confused with the word "pesticide." It is, however, just one of many types of
pesticides. An insecticide may kill the insect by touching it or it may have to be
swallowed to be effective. Some insecticides kill both by touch and by swallowing.
Insecticides called Systemics may be absorbed, injected, or fed into the plant or
animal to be protected. When the insect feeds on this plant or animal, it ingests
the systemic chemical and is killed.

Miticides and Acaricides

Miticides (or Acaricides) are chemicals used to control mites (tiny Insecticides
spider-like animals) and ticks. The chemicals usually must contact the mites or ticks
to be effective. These animals are so numerous and small, that great care must be
used to completely cover the area on which the mites live. Miticides are very
similar in action to insecticides and often the same pesticide kills both insects and
mites. The terms "broad spectrum," "short term," and "residual" are also used.

Fungicides
Fungicides are chemicals used to control the fungi which cause molds, rots, and
plant diseases. All fungicides work by coming in contact with the fungus, because
fungi do not "swallow" in the normal sense. Therefore, most fungicides are applied
over a large surface area to try to directly hit every fungus. Some fungicides may
be systemic in that the plant to be protected may be fed or injected with the
chemical. The chemical then moves throughout the plant, killing the fungi. to
describe miticides.

Herbicides
Herbicides are chemicals used to control unwanted plants. These chemicals are a
bit different from other pesticides because they are used to kill or slow the growth
of some plants, rather than to protect them. Some herbicides kill every plant they
contact, while others kill only certain plants.

Rodenticides
Rodenticides are chemicals used to control rats, mice, bats and other rodents.
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Chemicals which control other mammals, birds, and fish are also grouped in this
category by regulatory agencies. Most rodenticides are stomach poisons and are
often applied as baits. Even rodenticides which act by contacting the pest are
usually not applied over large surfaces because of the hazard to domestic animals
or desirable wildlife. They are usually applied in limited areas such as runways,
known feeding places, or as baits.

Nematicides

Nematicides are chemicals used to control nematodes. Nematodes are tiny hir-like
worms, many of which live in the soil and feed on plant roots. Very few of these
worms live above ground. Usually, soil fumigants are used to control nematodes in
the soil
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Cell : its structure & functions

Cell Definition
“A cell is defined as the smallest, basic unit of life that is responsible for all of life’s
processes.”
Cells are the structural, functional, and biological units of all living beings. A cell can
replicate itself independently. Hence, they are known as the building blocks of life.

Each cell contains a fluid called the cytoplasm, which is enclosed by a membrane.
Also present in the cytoplasm are several biomolecules like proteins, nucleic acids
and lipids. Moreover, cellular structures called cell organelles are suspended in the
cytoplasm.

What is a Cell?
A cell is the structural and fundamental unit of life. The study of cells from its basic
structure to the functions of every cell organelle is called Cell Biology. Robert
Hooke was the first Biologist who discovered cells.
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All organisms are made up of cells. They may be made up of a single cell
(unicellular), or many cells (multicellular). Mycoplasmas are the smallest known
cells. Cells are the building blocks of all living beings. They provide structure to the
body and convert the nutrients taken from the food into energy.

Cells are complex and their components perform various functions in an organism.
They are of different shapes and sizes, pretty much like bricks of the buildings. Our
body is made up of cells of different shapes and sizes.

Cells are the lowest level of organisation in every life form. From organism to
organism, the count of cells may vary. Humans have more number of cells
compared to that of bacteria.

Cells comprise several cell organelles that perform specialised functions to carry
out life processes. Every organelle has a specific structure. The hereditary material
of the organisms is also present in the cells.

Characteristics of Cells
Following are the various essential characteristics of cells:

 Cells provide structure and support to the body of an organism.

 The cell interior is organised into different individual organelles surrounded
by a separate membrane.
 The nucleus (major organelle) holds genetic information necessary for
reproduction and cell growth.
 Every cell has one nucleus and membrane-bound organelles in the
cytoplasm.
 Mitochondria, a double membrane-bound organelle is mainly responsible
for the energy transactions vital for the survival of the cell.
 Lysosomes digest unwanted materials in the cell.
 Endoplasmic reticulum plays a significant role in the internal organisation of
the cell by synthesising selective molecules and processing, directing and
sorting them to their appropriate locations.

Types of Cells
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Cells are similar to factories with different labourers and departments that work
towards a common objective. Various types of cells perform different functions.
Based on cellular structure, there are two types of cells:

 Prokaryotes
 Eukaryotes

Prokaryotic Cells

1. Prokaryotic cells have no nucleus. Instead, some prokaryotes such as

bacteria have a region within the cell where the genetic material is freely
suspended. This region is called the nucleoid.
2. They all are single-celled microorganisms. Examples include archaea,
bacteria, and cyanobacteria.
3. The cell size ranges from 0.1 to 0.5 µm in diameter.
4. The hereditary material can either be DNA or RNA.
5. Prokaryotes generally reproduce by binary fission, a form of asexual
reproduction. They are also known to use conjugation – which is often seen
as the prokaryotic equivalent to sexual reproduction (however, it is NOT
sexual reproduction).

Eukaryotic Cells

1. Eukaryotic cells are characterised by a true nucleus.

2. The size of the cells ranges between 10–100 µm in diameter.
3. This broad category involves plants, fungi, protozoans, and animals.
4. The plasma membrane is responsible for monitoring the transport of
nutrients and electrolytes in and out of the cells. It is also responsible for cell
to cell communication.
5. They reproduce sexually as well as asexually.
6. There are some contrasting features between plant and animal cells. For eg.,
the plant cell contains chloroplast, central vacuoles, and other plastids,
whereas the animal cells do not.

Cell Structure
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The cell structure comprises individual components with specific functions

essential to carry out life’s processes. These components include- cell wall, cell
membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, and cell organelles. Read on to explore more
insights on cell structure and function.

Cell Membrane

 The cell membrane supports and protects the cell. It controls the movement
of substances in and out of the cells. It separates the cell from the external
environment. The cell membrane is present in all the cells.
 The cell membrane is the outer covering of a cell within which all other
organelles, such as the cytoplasm and nucleus, are enclosed. It is also
referred to as the plasma membrane.
 By structure, it is a porous membrane (with pores) which permits the
movement of selective substances in and out of the cell. Besides this, the
cell membrane also protects the cellular component from damage and
leakage.
 It forms the wall-like structure between two cells as well as between the cell
and its surroundings.
 Plants are immobile, so their cell structures are well-adapted to protect
them from external factors. The cell wall helps to reinforce this function.

Cell Wall

 The cell wall is the most prominent part of the plant’s cell structure. It is
made up of cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin.
 The cell wall is present exclusively in plant cells. It protects the plasma
membrane and other cellular components. The cell wall is also the
outermost layer of plant cells.
 It is a rigid and stiff structure surrounding the cell membrane.
 It provides shape and support to the cells and protects them from
mechanical shocks and injuries.
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Cytoplasm

 The cytoplasm is a thick, clear, jelly-like substance present inside the cell
membrane.
 Most of the chemical reactions within a cell take place in this cytoplasm.
 The cell organelles such as endoplasmic reticulum, vacuoles, mitochondria,
ribosomes, are suspended in this cytoplasm.

Nucleus

 The nucleus contains the hereditary material of the cell, the DNA.
 It sends signals to the cells to grow, mature, divide and die.
 The nucleus is surrounded by the nuclear envelope that separates the DNA
from the rest of the cell.
 The nucleus protects the DNA and is an integral component of a plant’s cell
structure.

Cell Organelles
Cells are composed of various cell organelles that perform certain specific
functions to carry out life’s processes. The different cell organelles, along with its
principal functions, are as follows:

Cell Organelles and their Functions

Nucleolus
The nucleolus is the site of ribosome synthesis. Also, it is involved in controlling cellular
activities and cellular reproduction.
Nuclear membrane
The nuclear membrane protects the nucleus by forming a boundary between the nucleus
and other cell organelles.
Chromosomes
Chromosomes play a crucial role in determining the sex of an individual. Each human
cells contain 23 pairs of chromosomes.
Endoplasmic reticulum
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The endoplasmic reticulum is involved in the transportation of substances throughout

the cell. It plays a primary role in the metabolism of carbohydrates, synthesis of lipids,
steroids and proteins.
Golgi Bodies
Golgi bodies are called the cell’s post office as it is involved in the transportation of
materials within the cell.
Ribosome
Ribosomes are the protein synthesisers of the cell.
Mitochondria
The mitochondrion is called “the powerhouse of the cell.” It is called so because it
produces ATP – the cell’s energy currency.
Lysosomes
Lysosomes protect the cell by engulfing the foreign bodies entering the cell and help in
cell renewal. Therefore, they are known as the cell’s suicide bags.
Chloroplast
Chloroplasts are the primary organelles for photosynthesis. It contains the pigment
called chlorophyll.
Vacuoles
Vacuoles store food, water, and other waste materials in the cell.

Cell Theory
Cell Theory was proposed by the German scientists, Theodor Schwann, Matthias
Schleiden, and Rudolf Virchow. The cell theory states that:

 All living species on Earth are composed of cells.

 A cell is the basic unit of life.
 All cells arise from pre-existing cells.
A modern version of the cell theory was eventually formulated, and it contains the
following postulates:

 Energy flows within the cells.

 Genetic information is passed on from one cell to the other.
 The chemical composition of all the cells is the same.
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Functions of Cell
A cell performs major functions essential for the growth and development of an
organism. Important functions of cell are as follows:
Provides Support and Structure
All the organisms are made up of cells. They form the structural basis of all the
organisms. The cell wall and the cell membrane are the main components that
function to provide support and structure to the organism. For eg., the skin is
made up of a large number of cells. Xylem present in the vascular plants is made of
cells that provide structural support to the plants.

Facilitate Growth Mitosis

In the process of mitosis, the parent cell divides into the daughter cells. Thus, the
cells multiply and facilitate the growth in an organism.
Allows Transport of Substances
Various nutrients are imported by the cells to carry out various chemical processes
going on inside the cells. The waste produced by the chemical processes is
eliminated from the cells by active and passive transport. Small molecules such as
oxygen, carbon dioxide, and ethanol diffuse across the cell membrane along the
concentration gradient. This is known as passive transport. The larger molecules
diffuse across the cell membrane through active transport where the cells require
a lot of energy to transport the substances.

Energy Production
Cells require energy to carry out various chemical processes. This energy is
produced by the cells through a process called photosynthesis in plants and
respiration in animals.

Aids in Reproduction
A cell aids in reproduction through the processes called mitosis and meiosis.
Mitosis is termed as the asexual reproduction where the parent cell divides to form
daughter cells. Meiosis causes the daughter cells to be genetically different from
the parent cells.
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What are Bio-molecules ?

Biomolecules are the most essential organic molecules, which are involved in the
maintenance and metabolic processes of living organisms. These non-living
molecules are the actual foot-soldiers of the battle of sustenance of life. They
range from small molecules such as primary and secondary metabolites and
hormones to large macromolecules like proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates,
lipids etc.

Types of Bio-molecules

There are four major classes of Biomolecules – Carbohydrates, Proteins, Nucleic

acids and Lipids. Each of them is discussed below.

Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are chemically defined as polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones or
compounds which produce them on hydrolysis. In layman’s terms, we
acknowledge carbohydrates as sugars or substances that taste sweet. They are
collectively called as saccharides (Greek: sakcharon = sugar). Depending on the
number of constituting sugar units obtained upon hydrolysis, they are classified as
monosaccharides (1 unit), oligosaccharides (2-10 units) and polysaccharides (more
than 10 units). They have multiple functions’ viz. they’re the most abundant
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dietary source of energy; they are structurally very important for many living
organisms as they form a major structural component, e.g. cellulose is an
important structural fibre for plants.
Proteins
Proteins are another class of indispensable biomolecules, which make up around
50per cent of the cellular dry weight. Proteins are polymers of amino
acids arranged in the form of polypeptide chains. The structure of proteins is
classified as primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary in some cases. These
structures are based on the level of complexity of the folding of a polypeptide
chain. Proteins play both structural and dynamic roles. Myosin is the protein that
allows movement by contraction of muscles. Most enzymes are proteinaceous in
nature.

Nucleic Acids
Nucleic acids refer to the genetic material found in the cell that carries all the
hereditary information from parents to progeny. There are two types of nucleic
acids namely, deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). The main
function of nucleic acid is the transfer of genetic information and synthesis of
proteins by processes known as translation and transcription. The monomeric unit
of nucleic acids is known as nucleotide and is composed of a nitrogenous base,
pentose sugar, and phosphate. The nucleotides are linked by a 3’ and 5’
phosphodiester bond. The nitrogen base attached to the pentose sugar makes the
nucleotide distinct. There are 4 major nitrogenous bases found in DNA: adenine,
guanine, cytosine, and thymine. In RNA, thymine is replaced by uracil. The DNA
structure is described as a double-helix or double-helical structure which is formed
by hydrogen bonding between the bases of two antiparallel polynucleotide chains.
Overall, the DNA structure looks similar to a twisted ladder.

Lipids
Lipids are organic substances that are insoluble in water, soluble in organic
solvents, are related to fatty acids and are utilized by the living cell. They include
fats, waxes, sterols, fat-soluble vitamins, mono-, di- or triglycerides, phospholipids,
etc. Unlike carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids, lipids are not polymeric
molecules. Lipids play a great role in the cellular structure and are the chief source
of energy.
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Vitamins: Their Functions and Sources

Vitamins are divided into two categories.

Water-soluble vitamins
These travel freely through the body. The part that the body doesn't use
passes through the kidneys and leaves the body as urine or stool. The body
needs water-soluble vitamins in frequent, small doses. They aren't likely to
reach toxic levels.
Fat-soluble vitamins
These are stored in the body's cells. They are not passed out of the body as
easily as water-soluble vitamins. Fat-soluble vitamins can reach toxic levels if
you get more than you need.
A balanced diet usually provides enough water-soluble and fat-soluble vitamins.
People older than 50 and some vegetarians may need to use supplements to get
enough B12.

Vitamins
Water-soluble vitamins

Vitamin What it does Where it's found

Thiamine Part of Found in all nutritious foods in moderate

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(vitamin B1) an enzyme needed amounts: pork, whole grain or enriched

for energy breads and cereals, legumes, nuts and
metabolism; seeds.
important for nerve
function.
Riboflavin Part of an enzyme Milk and milk products; leafy green
(vitamin B2) needed for energy vegetables; whole grain or enriched breads
metabolism; and cereals.
important for normal
vision and skin
health.

Niacin Part of an enzyme Meat, poultry, fish, whole grain or enriched

(vitamin B3) needed for energy breads and cereals, vegetables (especially
metabolism; mushrooms, asparagus, and leafy green
important for vegetables), peanut butter.
nervous system,
digestive system, and
skin health.

Pantothenic Part of an enzyme Widespread in foods.

acid needed for energy
metabolism.

Biotin Part of an enzyme Widespread in foods; also produced in

needed for energy intestinal tract by bacteria.
metabolism.

Pyridoxine Part of an enzyme Meat, fish, poultry, vegetables, fruits.

(vitamin B6) needed for protein
metabolism; helps
make red blood cells.

Folate (folic Part of an enzyme Leafy green vegetables and legumes, seeds,
acid) needed for orange juice, and liver; now added to most
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making DNA and new refined grains.

cells, especially red
blood cells.
Cobalamin Part of an enzyme Meat, poultry, fish, seafood, eggs, milk and
(vitamin needed for making milk products; not found in plant foods.
B12) new cells; important
for nerve function.

Ascorbic Antioxidant; part of Found only in fruits and vegetables,

acid an enzyme needed especially citrus fruits, vegetables in the
(vitamin C) for protein cabbage family, cantaloupe, strawberries,
metabolism; peppers, tomatoes, potatoes, lettuce,
important for papayas, mangoes, kiwifruit.
immune system
health; aids in iron
absorption.
Fat-soluble vitamins

Vitamin What it does Where it's found

Vitamin A Needed for Vitamin A from animal sources: Fortified milk,

(and its vision, healthy cheese, cream, butter, fortified margarine, eggs,
precursor*, skin and liver.
beta- mucous
carotene) membranes, Beta-carotene (from plant sources): Leafy, dark
bone and tooth green vegetables; dark orange fruits (apricots,
[*A growth, cantaloupe) and vegetables (carrots, winter
precursor is immune system squash, sweet potatoes, pumpkin).
converted to health.
the vitamin
by the body.]

Vitamin D Needed for Egg yolks, liver, fatty fish, fortified milk, fortified
proper margarine. When exposed to sunlight, the skin
absorption can make vitamin D.
of calcium;
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stored in bones.
Vitamin E Antioxidant; Polyunsaturated plant oils (soybean, corn,
protects cell cottonseed, safflower); leafy green vegetables;
walls. wheat germ; whole grain products; liver; egg
yolks; nuts and seeds.

Vitamin K Needed for Leafy green vegetables (kale, collard greens, and
proper blood spinach); green vegetables (broccoli, Brussels
clotting. sprouts, and asparagus); also produced in the
intestinal tract by bacteria.

THE END