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Lecture 1: Introduction to Statistics and Data Interpretation

Let’s WARM UP with key words in the Textbook

Fill in the table before you work through the lesson. You may also use the Textbook’s Glossary
(Chapter 1, 2, 3).
Coming to know something using a scientific method, which is a systematic way of
acquiring new knowledge.
A prediction of the outcome of research

A method of gaining knowledge through: 1. Identifying a problem, 2. Formulating

hypotheses, 3. Determining what information needs to be collected, 4.
Organizing the gathered information, then 5. Interpreting the results (Intro.)
Uses direct observation to obtain knowledge

Collecting information

Individuals being studied who have freely consented to participate in the research

Consists of all members of the groups of interest to one’s research study.

A subset of a population

Those being studied have not consented to participating such as animals or individuals
observed unobtrusively without their consent
The independent variable is the possible cause and the dependent variable
demonstrates the possible effect
A study in which observations are made to determine the status of what exists at a
given point in time without the administering of treatments
Treatment in an experiment, a predictor(s) represented by the symbol, X to predict the
dependent variable
Nominal and Ordinal levels of measurements are known as categorical data

Interval and Ratio levels of measurements. These scales are expressed in numbers
unlike categorical variables
Types of variables: nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio

Any measurable factor that has an effect on a phenomenon or phenomena

A variable that has two categories that are mutually exclusive between the two
categories, but inclusive of all participants in the two categories is known as a
dichotomous variable

Add additional key words that you want to make note of in the blank spaces above.
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Research

• Research: Formal systematic application of the

to the study of a problem.

• The goal of research is to describe, explain, predict, and control situations involving
human beings.

Five Ways of Knowing

1. Sensory System
2. Agreement with others
3. Consulting an expert
4. Logic
5.

5 ways of Knowing Expanded…

1. Sensory System – Experience: Fundamental means of understanding
• Five senses – Sight, Hear, Touch, Smell, and Taste
For example, what feels cold may actually be hot
• Limitation: Experience is subjective, therefore biased.

2. Agreement with Others

• Limitations: It is hard to agree with others
• There are at least two sides to a story and perhaps the truth
• The majority doesn’t always speak the truth
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Why is it so hard for people to agree? Explain from your experience.

3. Consulting an expert Authority: Trusted source

• Example 1: A parent, teacher, newspaper, or a source informs your decision
• Example 2: An expert consultant helps a school district make curriculum decisions
• Limitation: Even an expert has their own biases

4. Logic
If A =B, and B = C, Then, A = C
• Limitation: Unless the first two premises are true, the conclusion is misleading

Now to the point…

5. Scientific Method
Personal experience, majority agreement, consulting an authority, and logic are all limited and
subject to error. Instead, as researchers, we rely on the Scientific Method of Research.

Steps of the Scientific Method

Recognize and identify a or a question.

Clarify a problem.

Determine the information needed and how to obtain it (Data Collection).

Organize the information obtained (Data ).

Interpret the results.

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Five Steps of Scientific Method of research expanded…

Step 1
Recognize and identify a PRACTICAL problem or question

A practical problem is a question of interest that can be answered with data.

• A practical problem or question can be tested or answered through data collection

and data analysis.

• Researchers review existing literature to generate hypothesis (hypotheses) related to their

question. Then pose a research study question.

A theoretical question is an idea or question that are too vague to collect specific data.

What’s in a question?
Question

Theoretical Question Question

• How effective is an intervention

• What is intelligence? or creativity?
program in an elementary school
• How does the child learn? classroom?

• How do teaching children cognitive

• How does personality develop? strategies affect their reading
comprehension?
• What motivates students to learn? • What are the benefits of collaborative
small-group work in a company?

Add your theoretical question here. Add your practical question here (developed
from the theorical question you posed on left).
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Step 2
a problem (operational definition)
• Research procedures are dictated by the research problem and the identified variables.
• Procedures include activities related to collecting data about the problem.
• Formulate a :a proposed explanation for a phenomenon or a
prediction of the outcome of research

Step 3
Determine the information needed and how to obtain it - Data Collection

• Describe the population

• Define variables of the study
• Develop hypotheses
• Describe any interventions or innovations
• Describe negotiations regarding data collection that need to be undertaken
• Develop a statement of purpose, timeline and data collection ideas
• Data are analyzed such that the researcher can test their hypothesis or answer the
research question
• Data analysis
• Often includes statistical techniques
• May include synthesis of narrative data
• May generate new questions and new hypothesis forfurther study

Step 4
Organize the information obtained - Data Analysis
This is where STATISTICS comes into play – analyzing data!
We identify the variables and perform descriptive and inferential statistics to answer the research
question(s).

Step 5
Interpret the results
• Conclusions include a report of the research findings.
• Conclusions are based on analyses of your data and are stated to answer the hypotheses
or the research question.
• Conclusions should indicate whether the hypothesis is rejected or support (Confirm or
disconfirm hypothesis).
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In a nutshell, the research asks: What? Who? Where? How? & Why?
For Example:
What do you want to know?
High/Low Academic Achievement

Who do you want to study?

Elementary Students

Where do you get the data?

Schools and district

How does a phenomenon occur?

Explanation of how high and low academic achievement occur.

Why does a phenomenon occur?

Explanation of why high and low academic achievement occur.

Research Study Outline

1. Introduction
2. Literature Review
3. Methodology
4. Results
5. Discussion/Conclusion

TIPS when conducting a research study: learn all there is to know…

• One must be knowledgeable about the topic at hand in order to know what would make an
important contribution to the field
• Read the research literature on the topic in order to gain the theoretical bases on which to
build the rationale for the study.
• Complete the necessary background work
• Try to see the problem from all sides
• Use all available tools and resources
• Think through the feasibility of the project that the problem implies (e.g., it is impossible to
study the entire student population at Los Angeles Unified School District)
• Address suggestions offered by another research
• Consider replicating a research project in a different setting or with a different population
• Explore unexpected or contradictory findings in previous studies
• Challenge research findings that you know or believe is true
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Limitations of the Scientific Method

• A scientific method of research CAN NOT answer all questions, especially those
of philosophical, spiritual or ethical nature.

• Application of the scientific method can never capture the full richness of the entire
research context.

• There is a chance for error.

Principles of Scientific Inquiry

• Fundamental Premise of Science: Results/Conclusions are not conclusive but tentative and
warrants change.

• Data are pieces of you collect and use to examine your topic.

• You must determine what type of data to collect.

• Research is cyclical.
STEP 6. Conclusion

STEP 1: A new question based on the

previous conclusion
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Data
Definition
• Data are pieces of you use to examine your research topic
• Data is used for qualitative (narrative data) studies and quantitative (words and numerical data)
studies
• Data for a quantitative study can be Categorical (words) or Continuous (numerical)

Variables
• They are placeholder that can assume any one of a range of values
• Any measurable factor that affects a phenomenon or phenomena
• May be measured by measuring instruments
• Must have at least categories

Categorical Data: uses words

❖ There are two types of Categorical Date: Nominal and Ordinal types of
Variables.

Nominal
Their values identify what category they fall under, but do not have a
meaningful

Examples: Types of property: House, condo, apartment, or duplex.

Do they own a phone? Yes or No

List examples of Nominal data:

Ordinal
Variables that have two or more categories with clear and meaningful order to the categories. If
expressed in number, between scores are not equal.
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Examples: Do you like rock music? “Not very much,” “It’s just ok,” or “Yes, a lot”;
Socioeconomic status (Rich, middle class, poor); Time of day (Morning, afternoon,
night); Military ranking; or Finishing Placement at a running race.

List examples of Ordinal data:

Graphing Categorical data (Nominal or Ordinal) with a bar graph

Continuous (numerical) Data: uses numbers

Quantitative: information that can be measured with numbers

❖ There are two types Continuous data: Interval and Ratio types of Variables

Interval
Variables have a numerical value and can be measured along a continuum with
equal intervals, and the scale has zero.

Examples:
• Temperature (Celsius and Fahrenheit)
• IQ Test
• Likert scale in numbers
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List Examples of Interval Data:

Ratio

Variables that have a numerical value and can be measured along a continuum with equal
intervals, and the scale has a zero. Zero indicates the absence
of whatever that is being measured and means none in real life.
• Mostly Measurable things with a numerical value: Weight, height, number of children
• You can use a ruler, weight, or tool to measure it in a tangible way

Graphing Continuous data with a Histogram or Frequency Polygon

List Examples of Ratio Data:

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Four Types of Variables

Categorical (Qualitative) Numerical (Quantitative)
Specification
Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio

Categories
+ + + +
Order ── + + +
Distance
(equal distance
between scores)
── ── + +
Non- arbitrary
Zero ── ── ── +
Example Gender Military IQ Score Weight

Types of Questions
Typically, there are structured, semi-structured and unstructured types of questions in
research.

Type Definition Example Note

How important is it to obtain Good for
Structured Participants choose high grades in school? Choose QUANTITATIV
Question one answer. E STUDIES
from responses already
(a) Very Important Data: words and
provided (b) Somewhat Important numbers
(c) Not Important

Semi- Do not have Pre- What are some things teachers

structured give you that you like to do best Good for
determined choices
(e.g., reading, writing)? QUALITATIVE
Question
STUDIES
Data: narratives

Unstructured , Tell me about your life?

Question General question, broad
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Let’s put it all together – how do we determine the type of data?
Follow the FLOW CHART below to determine the Scales of Measurement
(Nominal, Ordinal, Interval or Ratio)

Step 1: Is the variable Categorical (Words) or Continuous (Numbers)?

Step 2: If Categorical data, is it Nominal or Ordinal (order)?
Step 3: If Continuous data, is it Interval or Ratio?

Variable

Word Meaningful Number

Categorical Continuous

Order

Non-Arbitrary “0”

Nominal
Ordinal

Ratio
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Example:

Variable: Color

They are
Words

Categorical
No Order between colors

Nominal So, Color is Categorical Data, more specifically

Nominal Data.

Let’s try.
In a 100 Meter Race, there are eight runners competing from eight different states. Each runner is
assigned a different color to differentiate from each other. Indicate the type of variable using the
flow chart in the previous page.
1) Color of the uniform to identify runners Categorical Nominal

2) Rank order of runners (1st, 2nd, and 3rd)

3) The temperature of each runner.

4) Time spent by each runner in completing the race

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What are Your Questions?

Now go over your Guided Lecture Notes and mark the muddiest point!
✓ Muddiest Point: write down in the box below your question(s) about what was unclear to you during the
lecture. Then post your question(s) on the Muddiest Point Discussion Board in Canvas. Once you have
posted, reply to at least two of your peers’ questions to offer your help.

✓ What is the answer to your Muddiest Point? Write down the answer(s) to your question(s) that your
peer(s) may have assisted you with on the Discussion Board. If still unclear, look for the answer to your
question(s) from your own study and/or bring it up in the next class.

❖ After you have completed both boxes above, SUBMIT the completed Lecture Guided Notes #1 by
uploading to Canvas as one PDF file.