International Journal of Thermo uids 24 (2024) 100919

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International Journal of Thermofluids

journal homepage: www.sciencedirect.com/journal/international-journal-of-thermofluids

Phase change material performance in chamfered dual enclosures:

Exploring the roles of geometry, inclination angles and heat flux
Mohammad Junaid a, Goutam Saha b,c,*, Pabel Shahrear d, Suvash C. Saha e,*
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Shahjalal University of Science and Technology, Sylhet 3114, Bangladesh
b
Department of Mathematics, University of Dhaka, Dhaka 1000, Bangladesh
c
Miyan Research Institute, International University of Business Agriculture and Technology, Uttara, Dhaka 1230, Bangladesh
d
Department of Mathematics, Shahjalal University of Science and Technology, Sylhet, 3114, Bangladesh
e
School of Mechanical and Mechatronic Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology, University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This study presents a comprehensive thermal performance analysis of phase change materials (PCMs) within a
Phase change materials chamfered dual enclosures subjected to constant heat flux. Utilizing numerical simulations, we investigate the
Thermal energy storage impact of various PCM types, inclination angles (α = 0◦ , 15◦ , 30◦ , 45◦ , 60◦ , 75◦ , 90◦ ), and heat flux levels (Q =
Chamfered enclosure
500, 1000, 1500, 2000 W/m2) on melting rates, temperature distribution, and energy storage efficiency. The
Inclination angle
study examines commercially available PCMs, including RT-25, RT-27, RT-31, RT-35, RT-38, RT-42, RT-47, and
Natural convection
Energy storage efficiency RT-50. Our findings reveal that the inclination angle significantly influences thermal performance, with optimal
performance observed at angles between 45◦ and 90◦ The PCM at 45◦ exhibited the fastest melting rate and
demonstrating the highest energy storage efficiency. Among the PCMs, RT-27 showed the slowest temperature
increase, while RT-50 exhibited the highest heat absorption efficiency and rapid temperature rise, making it
suitable for applications requiring quick thermal management. Additionally, higher heat flux levels accelerated
the phase transition process, with melting rates increases higher at 2000 W/m2 compared to 500 W/m2. The
energy storage capacity varied, with RT-47 and RT-50 demonstrating the highest storage rates, while RT-27 was
effective for sustained thermal energy release despite its slower phase change rate. This research bridges gaps in
the existing literature by integrating various parameters and providing a holistic understanding of PCM
behaviour in thermal energy storage systems. The insights gained from this study can inform the design and
optimization of PCM-based thermal management solutions across various applications, including solar heating
systems, electronic device cooling, and industrial waste heat recovery.

during the melting and solidification processes of PCMs. These tech­

Introduction niques involve integrating fins within the PCM container [1,2] or
embedding high-conductivity nanoparticles into the pure PCM [3,4].
Phase change materials (PCMs) in thermal energy storage (TES) Hosseinizadeh et al. [5] conducted both experimental and computa­
systems represent the most appealing method for storing thermal en­ tional investigations on the thermal efficiency of a finned PCM cavity.
ergy. Extended TES necessitates advanced processes, complex in­ They analyzed the effects of fin height, thickness, and number, finding
stallations, and specific materials. Applications demand materials with that increasing the number or height of fins enhanced heat transfer (HT)
high thermal capacity and appropriate melting points, making PCMs a and reduced melting time, while thicker fins had no significant impact.
widely used solution. The key concept of PCMs lies in their ability to Kamkari et al. [6] carried out an experimental investigation to evaluate
charge and discharge heat energy through the latent heat effect during the effect of inclination angle (α) on the thermal distribution of PCM
the phase transitions of melting and solidification. This technique allows within a rectangular cavity during the melting process. They observed
PCMs to absorb heat as they melt and release it as they solidify. Despite that the melting rate increased by 35 % at 45◦ and by 53 % at α = 0◦ ,
their high thermal capacity, PCMs suffer from low thermal conductivity, compared to α = 90◦ Kamkari and Hossein [7] also performed an
prompting researchers to seek ways to enhance this property. experimental study on the effect of adding fins inside a rectangular
Numerous studies suggest methods to improve heat distribution cavity containing PCM, finding that increasing the number of fins

* Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: gsahamath@du.ac.bd (G. Saha), shahrear-mat@sust.edu (P. Shahrear), Suvash.Saha@uts.edu.au (S.C. Saha).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijft.2024.100919

Available online 30 October 2024

2666-2027/© 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
M. Junaid et al. International Journal of Thermo uids 24 (2024) 100919

Nomenclature Greek letters

γ Liquid fraction
Symbols μ Dynamic viscosity (kg/m s)
Cp Specific heat (kJ/kg K) ρ Density solid/liquid (kg/m3)
→g Gravitational acceleration (m/s2) β Thermal expansion coefficient (1/K)
k Thermal conductivity (W/m K) ε A small number (0.001) used to avoid division by zero
P Pressure (Pa)
Subscript
T Temperature ( ◦ C)
l Liquid
Tref Reference temperature ( ◦ C)
s Solid
Tm Melting point ( ◦ C)
avg Average
Tl Liquidus temperature ( ◦ C)
Ts Solidus temperature ( ◦ C) Abbreviations
Lh Latent heat of fusion (kJ/kg) HT Heat transfer
h Sensible enthalpy (kJ/kg) LF Liquid fraction
H Total enthalpy (kJ/kg) PCM Phase change material
ΔH Latent heat (kJ/kg) NC Natural convection
Q Heat flux (W/m2) TES Thermal energy storage
Amush Mushy zone constant (kg/m3 s) TM Thermal management
→v Velocity vector (m/s)
t Time (s)

enhanced both the melting rate and HT. Kamkari and Dominic [8] temperature regulation for the system, while RT-50 had better TM at
conducted experimental research on the effect of α in a finned rectan­ 313 K. However, RT-27 was not included in their study. Oztop et al. [18]
gular PCM-filled cavity, testing angles of 0◦ , 45◦ , and 90◦ They found demonstrated that the shape and placement of coolers within PCM
that reducing α from 90◦ to 0◦ decreased melting time due to intensified cavities significantly influence solidification rates, as they enhance NC,
vertical flow structures. thereby improving HT and energy storage efficiency. Similarly, Iacha­
Petrone and Cammarata [9] conducted a computational investiga­ chene et al. [19] revealed that optimizing the orientation of trapezoidal
tion on a 2D rectangular cavity filled with PCM and compared their cavities, along with the inclusion of nanoparticles, enhances PCM
outcomes with experimental findings from Wang et al. [10]. Their melting by promoting NC and increasing thermal conductivity, leading
research highlighted that natural convection (NC), amplified by the to faster phase change and improved HT. Some related research is also
heated right wall, enhanced HT at the upper section of the cavity. presented in [20–24].
Sweidan et al. [11] employed the Finite Element Method in a compu­ Phase change materials with either longer or short phase change
tational analysis to model the impact of integrating highly conductive durations are valuable in various applications that require reliable
fins within a square PCM-filled cavity, revealing that the addition of fins thermal management or extended energy storage capabilities. These
improved the system’s HT properties. Ji et al. [12] performed a nu­ materials are used in scenarios where maintaining consistent tempera­
merical study to analyze the thermal dispersion dynamics during the tures or storing energy over extended periods is essential. Some of the
melting phase of PCM within a rectangular cavity, examining the impact applications are presented in Tables 1 and 2.
of high-conductivity fins at various α (0◦ , +15◦ , +30◦ , − 15◦ , and − 30◦ ). Bondareva and Sheremet [31] investigated the combination of metal
They found that the melting process was faster at − 15◦ and − 30◦ , with foams and nanoparticles to enhance HT in PCMs. They indicated that
the best results at − 15◦ due to HT moving to the lower area of the cavity, metal foams with low porosity significantly improved thermal conduc­
unlike scenarios where buoyancy forces direct heat upwards. Kant et al. tivity but nanoparticles have a negligible or negative effect in some
[13] numerically studied to model the melting and solidification of PCM cases. Kadhim et al. [32] focused on the use of copper fins to enhance the
within a square cavity subjected to alternating heat flux. Their findings charging rate of PCM-based thermal storage. They showed that fin
indicated that PCM solidification took longer than melting due to NC, length dramatically reduces melting time, but also suggests that fin
which accelerates melting but hinders solidification. Bouzennada et al. placement is critical for optimal performance. Belazreg et al. [33]
[14] studied the melting and solidification process of PCM in a square introduced stepped fins to improved PCM melting rates. They focused on
cavity, demonstrating that NC aids melting but slows solidification the traditional use of horizontal fins, showing that varying the fin ratio
influenced by the flow dynamics of re-melting parts near the liquid-solid improves energy storage efficiency. Safari et al. [34] examined
interface. PCM-based heat sinks for passive electronic cooling. They showed that
Bouzennada et al. [15] investigated the effect of α filled with RT-27 PCM-based heat sinks outperform conventional ones in maintaining
PCM in a capsule, with and without a fin. They found that changing α lower base temperatures. Abderrahmane et al. [35] explored the dy­
from 90◦ to 0◦ accelerated melting and increased energy storage. The namic effects of a rotating cold body and magnetic fields on HT within a
TES rate improved by 14.75 % at 90◦ , 19.67 % at 45◦ , and 36.88 % at cavity. Their findings presented, how the rotation speed and medium
0◦ Consequently, the optimal configuration was a horizontal fin at α = permeability affect thermal transmission. Guarda et al. [36] discussed
0◦ Valikzadeh et al. [16] investigated the impacts of various configu­ the limitations of common numerical models, especially in simulating
rations of heated walls on essential performance parameters such as phase-change processes in complex 3D structures. They observed that
liquid fraction (LF), melting duration, and TES in a RT-27 PCM-filled oversimplification can led to inaccurate results, urging future research
vertical cavity. They tested various wall shapes and found that a curved to adopt more accurate 3D simulations.
wall configuration increased melting time and energy storage by up to Above mentioned studies have confirmed the effectiveness of
57.6 % and 16.3 %, respectively, compared to the reference case. Wang incorporating fins, particularly variations in geometry and placement, to
et al. [17] studied the thermal management (TM) performance of improve PCM melting rates and overall thermal performance. Moreover,
different PCMs in lithium-ion batteries. They found that at ambient metal foams have been shown to significantly increase HT, especially
temperatures of 293 K or 303 K, RT-35 provided the optimal when used in low-porosity configurations. However, their interaction

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M. Junaid et al. International Journal of Thermo uids 24 (2024) 100919

Table 1 metal foams. In addition, many studies rely on numerical simulations,

PCMs with long phase change duration used in various applications. which provide valuable insights into PCM behavior, but a gap exists in
Ref. Application fields Descriptions experimental validation. Several research call for more experimental
work to confirm the effectiveness of these enhancement techniques.
[25] Building and PCMs with long phase change durations are utilized
Construction in building materials to maintain a stable indoor Based on the literature review, several significant research gaps
temperature over extended periods, which is emerge in the study of PCMs for TES applications. Firstly, it is essential
particularly beneficial in climates experiencing to close the gap between experimental and numerical methodologies by
significant temperature fluctuations between day incorporating validation studies to improve the precision and depend­
and night.
Industrial Waste Heat In industrial processes, PCMs capture and store
ability of predictive models. Furthermore, while studies have explored
Recovery waste heat over extended durations, which can be various parameters of finned structures, systematic optimization studies
reused later, thereby improving overall energy are lacking in determining the effect of the cavity shape, inclination
efficiency. angles, and different types of PCMs that can constitute effective con­
[26] Solar Energy Systems In solar energy systems, PCMs with long phase
figurations. Addressing these gaps could advance our understanding of
change durations are employed to store heat energy
accumulated during the day and release it at night enclosure design in PCM-based thermal storage systems, enhancing ef­
or periods of low solar irradiance, ensuring a ficiency, reliability, and applicability across various industries and
continuous energy supply. environmental settings.
Cold Chain Logistics In the transportation and storage of temperature- The novelty of this study lies in the combined analysis of multiple
sensitive goods, such as pharmaceuticals and
perishable foods, PCMs ensure that the required
parameters. We focus not only on the individual thermophysical char­
temperature is maintained over extended periods, acteristics of each PCM but also on how they interact with the chamfered
thereby preventing spoilage. dual enclosure geometry, varying inclination angles, and constant heat
[27] Electronics and Data PCMs with long phase change durations are utilized flux. This integrated approach helps uncover insights about PCM
Centers in electronics and data centers to manage heat over
behavior that are not solely dependent on the material but rather on the
extended periods, ensuring that devices operate
within optimal temperature ranges and preventing system’s overall configuration. This study examines melting rates to
overheating. determine the most effective PCM for energy storage. Additionally, we
[28] Space Heating and PCMs are employed in heating and cooling systems analyze the impact of different inclination angles (α = 0◦ to 90◦ ) filled
Cooling in space to store thermal energy over extended with RT-27 as a PCM, focusing on temperature distribution, the devel­
periods, ensuring consistent temperature control.
opment of the liquid-solid interface (mushy region), and energy storage
[29] Off-peak Energy PCMs are employed for storing thermal energy
Storage during periods of low energy demand, releasing it capability. Finally, we investigate the behavior of RT-27 under varying
during peak hours to lower energy costs and heat flux from the heat source.
balance grid loads.

Physical model

Table 2 A two-dimensional chamfered dual enclosures containing PCMs is

PCMs with short phase change duration used in various applications. described with the following dimensions: H is 20 mm, H1 is 5 mm, L is 20
Ref. Application fields Descriptions mm, and L1 is 5 mm. The bottom, right, and top walls of the cavity,
[26] Thermal Management In batteries, especially in electric vehicles (EVs), highlighted in yellow are insulated, ensuring no heat transfer occurs
in Batteries rapid phase change PCMs help maintain optimal through these surfaces. Details are given in Fig. 1. On the other hand, the
temperatures during charge and discharge cycles, left walls, highlighted in red, is exposed to a constant heat flux, denoted
enhancing performance and safety.
as Q. Various PCMs, specifically RT-25, RT-27, RT-31, RT-35, RT-42, RT-
[27] Medical Applications Medical devices, such as surgical instruments and
diagnostic equipment, require precise 47, and RT-50, are employed. The selection of these materials is based
temperature control. PCMs with short phase on their unique thermophysical properties, which are presented in
change durations ensure rapid temperature Table 3.
stabilization, thereby enhancing device
performance and patient safety.
Aerospace and Defense In aerospace and defense applications, PCMs are
used for thermal protection of equipment and Mathematical modelling
instruments. Their short phase change duration
ensures rapid TM during high-speed flight or In this study, the enthalpy-porosity method is utilized to simulate the
rapid temperature changes.
[29] Electronics Cooling In electronic devices such as CPUs, GPUs, and
melting process [37,38] of PCMs. A key parameter in this method is the
power electronics, PCMs with short phase change liquid fraction, denoted by γ, which ranges from 0 to 1 and indicates the
durations are used to manage transient thermal porosity of each computational cell. This parameter varies from 0, rep­
spikes by quickly absorbing heat, preventing resenting a completely solid state, to 1, indicating a fully liquid state.
overheating and ensuring stable operation.
The fundamental equations governing the simulation of PCMs are pre­
Data Centers In data centers, PCMs with short phase change
durations are used to manage heat loads sented below [12,39,40]:
efficiently by quickly absorbing heat generated
∂ρ
by servers and releasing it gradually, thereby v)=0
+ ∇.(ρ→ (1)
preventing overheating and reducing cooling ∂t
energy consumption.
[30] Clothing and Wearable In textiles and wearable technologies, PCMs with ∂ → → ( ) (1 − γ)2
Technology short phase change durations provide instant (ρ v ) + v .∇(ρ→
v ) = − ∇p + μ∇2 →
v + ρβ →
g T − Tref + 3 Amush →
v
∂t (γ + ε)
thermal regulation, enhancing comfort in diverse
environmental conditions. (2)

∂
(ρH) + ∇.(ρ→
v H) = ∇.(k∇T) (3)
with other enhancement techniques, such as nanoparticles, remains an ∂t
area that requires further exploration. While nanoparticles are In developing numerical models for simulating the melting process of
commonly used to enhance HT, their effectiveness is often minimal or PCMs, several assumptions are made. These assumptions are based on
even detrimental when used in conjunction with materials, such as standard practices and previous studies in the field [12,39].

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M. Junaid et al. International Journal of Thermo uids 24 (2024) 100919

Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of the present model.

Table 3
Physical properties of different types of PCM [6,16,17].
PCM RT-25 RT-27 RT-31 RT-35 RT-38 RT-42 RT-47 RT-50
3
Density solid/liquid, ρ (kg/m ) 770 870 760 770 780 760 770 880
Specific heat Cp (kJ/kgK) 2000 2400 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000
Thermal conductivity, k (W/mK) 0.2 0.24 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
Dynamic viscosity, μ (kg/ms) 0.02 0.00342 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02
Latent heat of fusion, Lh (kJ/kg) 160 179 165 160 170 165 160 160
Solidus temperature, Ts ( ◦ C) 21 24 29 32 34 38 41 45
Liquidus temperature, Tl ( ◦ C) 25 29 34 38 39 43 48 51

• The thermo-physical properties of the PCMs remain constant. (6)), are solved using Fluent software version 2024R1 (Student version).
• The liquid PCM flow is treated as 2D, unsteady, laminar, incom­ To account for buoyancy effects, the Boussinesq approximation was
pressible, Newtonian. selected for density in the material section. Transient effects and grav­
• Changes in volume associated with phase transitions is neglected. itational acceleration are also considered. For transient discretization, a
• The Boussinesq approximation is used, where density varies only 2nd order implicit method is used, and the SIMPLE algorithm is used for
with temperature. pressure-velocity coupling. Pressure correction is performed using the
PRESTO algorithm, while the spatial discretization of the momentum
The enthalpy balance can be presented as and energy equations are carried out using the 2nd order upwind
method. Additionally, a least-squares cell-based gradient approach is
∫T
utilized for the analysis. The residual tolerances for all variables were set
H=h+ Cp dT + γL (4)
to 10–6. The time step was set to 0.02 s, and 40 iterations per time step
Tref
are conducted to ensure convergence criteria (≤10–6) are met. The flow
chart of the numerical process is presented in Fig. 2.
where, t is the time, ρ is the density, p is the pressure, β is the thermal
expansion coefficient, Cp is the specific heat, → v is the velocity vector,
Validation
T & Tref are the temperature and reference temperature, μ is the dy­
namic viscosity, → g is the gravitational acceleration, kis the thermal A validation is conducted to assess the accuracy and compatibility of
conductivity, H is the total enthalpy, h is the sensible enthalpy of the the present model, with the results compared to those from previous
material, Amush is the mushy zone constant, Lh is latent heat of fusion, ε is studies by Kamkari et al. [6], who conducted an experimental study, and
a small quantity (= 0.001), and γ is the liquid fraction of a cell, which is Vakilzadeh et al. [16], who performed a numerical study, as illustrated
expressed as follows [12,39,40]: in Fig. 3. The comparison demonstrates that the results of the present
⎧
0, T < Ts study are in strong agreement with the findings of Kamkari et al. [6] and
⎪
⎪
⎪ Vakilzadeh et al. [16]. This close alignment indicates that the current
⎨ T − Ts
γ= , Ts < T < Tl (5) model is both accurate and reliable, further confirming its validity for
⎪ Tl − Ts
⎪
⎪
⎩ the conditions and parameters considered in this study.
1, T > Tl

Initial and boundary conditions Grid independent test

All walls : u = v = 0 m/s / A grid independent test identifies the most suitable mesh that opti­
All the left walls : Q = 1000 W m2 (6) mizes both computational efficiency and result accuracy. Five different
Remaining walls : Insulated grid elements were utilized to evaluate mesh sensitivity, including wall
refinement, to observe the effect of element size on computational
Numerical methods outcomes. The test focused on the variation of average temperature
(Tavg) and LF over time for different grids. Fig. 4 illustrates these vari­
In this study, Eqs. (1) to (3), along with the boundary conditions (Eq. ations for various numbers of elements. The analysis shows that Grids 4

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M. Junaid et al. International Journal of Thermo uids 24 (2024) 100919

Results and discussion

In this section, we present and discuss the findings from numerical

simulations conducted on various commercially available phase change
materials (PCMs) within a chamfered dual enclosures, subjected to

Fig. 2. Flow chart of the numerical approach.

and 5 produce consistent results. Grid 4 is selected for its optimal bal­
ance between computational speed and numerical precision for further
investigations.
Fig. 4. Variation of (a) Tavg and (b) LF with time for different grids.

Fig. 3. Comparison of the results of (a) liquid fraction profile with time (min), (b) stored energy profile with time (min).

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M. Junaid et al. International Journal of Thermo uids 24 (2024) 100919

different inclination angles and applied heat flux levels. The simulations undergo a phase change from solid to liquid. The following observations
focus on key performance metrics, including temperature distribution, are seen:
melting rates, liquid fraction evolution, and energy storage capacity. We RT-27 exhibits the slowest rate of phase change. By the end of the
explore the influence of PCM type, inclination angle, and heat flux on 4574-second period, RT-27 reaches a liquid fraction of 1, indicating that
the system’s thermal behavior, comparing the results with existing it transitions to the liquid phase more slowly compared to other PCMs.
literature to highlight the novelty and significance of the findings. RT-31 and RT-47 have the fastest melting rates among the RT series,
Additionally, the implications for practical applications, such as thermal each taking about 3399 s to melt fully. RT-35 also melts quickly, though
energy storage and management systems, are discussed. not as fast as RT-31 and RT-47, with a complete melting time of 3456 s.
Fig. 5 illustrates Tavg profiles over time for various types of PCMs at RT-38 and RT-42 have moderate phase change rates, with melting times
an inclination angle of α = 0◦ and Q = 1000 W/m2. The PCMs investi­ of 3641 and 3619 s, respectively, which are quite similar to each other.
gated include RT-25, RT-27, RT-31, RT-35, RT-38, RT-42, RT-47, and RT-25 has a medium melting rate as well, but it is slightly slower than
RT-50. All profiles begin from their respective initial temperatures, RT-38 and RT-42, taking 3696 s to fully melt. RT-50 shows the second
ensuring uniform starting conditions. This consistency across experi­ slowest melting rate among the PCMs, requiring 3926 s to melt fully.
ments ensures that the observed differences in temperature profiles are These results highlight key thermal performance characteristics, such as
due to each PCM’s essential properties rather than initial temperature phase transition duration and thermal response rate, which are crucial
variations. The following observations are seen: for applications like thermal management, energy storage, and tem­
RT-27 exhibits the slowest rate of temperature increase, reaching perature regulation. The differences in temperature profiles and melting
327.4 K by the end of the 4574-second period. This indicates that RT-27 rates among PCM types suggest varying thermophysical properties,
absorbs heat at a relatively lower rate compared to other PCMs. RT-25 influencing material selection based on the desired thermal response.
shows a moderate increase in temperature, reaching approximately Based on the results, PCMs are recommended for specific applica­
327.4 K by the end of the 3699-second period. This performance is tions. For passive cooling, solar heating systems, and thermal energy
slightly better than RT-27, indicating a more efficient heat absorption storage systems, PCMs with wide temperature range transitions, long
capability. RT-35 exhibits a more pronounced temperature increase, phase transition plateaus, and high latent heat capacity are ideal. Thus,
reaching about 335.94 K, indicating a significant improvement in heat RT-27 and RT-50 are suitable for these applications, with RT-27 being
absorption properties compared to RT-25, RT-27, and RT-31. RT-38 the best option. PCMs with a rapid thermal response and short phase
displays a similar trend to RT-35 but with a slightly higher temperature, transition duration are preferable for electronic device heat dissipation
indicating effective but not the highest heat absorption capability and dynamic thermal management systems. In this case, RT-47 and RT-
among the tested PCMs. RT-42 shows a substantial increase in temper­ 35 are more appropriate.
ature, reaching around 345 K, placing it among the better-performing Fig. 7 shows the variation of inclination angles with time for RT-27
PCMs in terms of heat absorption efficiency. RT-47 exhibits one of the and Q = 1000 W/m2. It shows that all temperature profiles start at a
highest rates of temperature increase, reaching approximately 348.2 K, baseline temperature of 297.15 K, indicating uniform initial conditions
indicating that RT-47 is highly efficient in absorbing and retaining heat. across all experiments. This consistency ensures that any observed dif­
RT-50 follows a similar trend to RT-47 but with the highest final tem­ ferences in the temperature profiles can be attributed to the effects of
perature, approaching 351.54 K, showing the most significant temper­ inclination angles rather than initial temperature variations. As time
ature rise. This suggests that RT-50 has the highest heat absorption progresses, a general upward trend in temperature is observed for all
efficiency among the tested PCMs. The results clearly demonstrate that inclination angles. This increase is expected due to the continuous heat
different PCMs exhibit distinct thermal behaviors under the same con­ absorption by RT-27. However, the rate and extent of this temperature
ditions. The variation in temperature profiles indicates differences in increase significantly depend on α.
heat absorption and retention capabilities, which can be attributed to
the inherent thermal properties of each PCM. • For α = 0◦ : The temperature rises at the slowest rate, reaching a final
Fig. 6 shows LF profiles over time for various types of PCMs at α = value of 327.4 K by the end of the melting phase. This suggests that at
0◦ and Q = 1000 W/m2. The PCMs investigated include RT-25, RT-27, α = 0◦ , RT-27 absorbs heat less efficiently.
RT-31, RT-35, RT-38, RT-42, RT-47, and RT-50. As we know, LF rep­ • For α = 15◦ and 30◦ : These angles show a moderate increase in
resents the proportion of the PCM that has transitioned from the solid to temperature. By the end of the period, the temperature for α = 15◦ is
the liquid phase. At the beginning, all PCMs start with a liquid fraction slightly higher than that for α = 0◦ , but noticeably lower than for
from 0, indicating that they are primarily in the solid phase. As time steeper angles. Also, α = 30◦ exhibits a steeper rise than both α =
progresses, the liquid fraction increases as the PCMs absorb heat and 0◦ and 15◦

Fig. 5. Variation of Tavg with time for different types of PCMs.

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M. Junaid et al. International Journal of Thermo uids 24 (2024) 100919

Fig. 6. Variation of LF with time for different types of PCMs.

Fig. 7. Variation of Temperature (T) with time for different α and RT-27.

• For α = 45◦ and 60◦ : Both these angles show a substantial increase in significant implications for the practical application of RT-27 in thermal
temperature. Also, α = 45◦ reaches temperatures close to 342.74 K, management systems. Devices utilizing RT-27 should consider inclina­
while α = 60◦ inclination surpasses this, indicating a more effective tion angles to optimize thermal performance. For instance, in solar
heat absorption mechanism at these angles. thermal applications, positioning RT-27 closer to vertical might maxi­
• For α = 75◦ and 90◦ : Both these angles exhibit the highest rates of mize heat absorption and efficiency.
temperature increase. By the end of the observation period, tem­ Figs. 8 and 9 display the changes in the liquid fraction of RT-27 over
peratures for these angles approach 345 K. time for different α = 0◦ , 15◦ , 30◦ , 45◦ , 60◦ , 75◦ , and 90◦ and Q = 1000
W/m2. Across all angles, LF of RT-27 increases with time, indicating a
These results indicate that RT-27 is most efficient in heat absorption phase transition from solid to liquid and LF approaches a maximum
when oriented close to vertical. The results clearly show a strong value, suggesting near-complete melting as time progresses.
dependence of temperature profiles on the inclination angle. The vari­ At α = 0◦ , the curve shows the slowest initial increase in the liquid
ation suggests that the efficiency of heat absorption in RT-27 is opti­ fraction, indicating a slower phase change process. This can be linked to
mized at steeper angles. Several factors could explain this: At higher less pronounced NC effects in this orientation. As α increases to 15◦ , 75◦ ,
inclinations, the surface area exposed to the heat source might be more and 90◦ , the rate of increase in LF becomes more pronounced, with the
effectively oriented, leading to better absorption and a higher temper­ curves showing a steeper slope compared to the α = 0◦ orientation. This
ature rise. The inclination angle could influence the convection currents suggests faster melting rates due to enhanced natural convection cur­
within the RT-27, enhancing the heat transfer rate at steeper angles. The rents aiding the heat transfer process. For α = 30◦ , 45◦ , and 60◦ , the
structural and compositional orientation of RT-27 might favor heat ab­ melting rate continues to increase more rapidly. The curves for these
sorption when positioned at higher angles. These findings have angles show a relatively steep initial increase, suggesting an optimal

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M. Junaid et al. International Journal of Thermo uids 24 (2024) 100919

Fig. 8. Variation of LF with time for different α and RT-27.

Fig. 9. Variation of LF with time for various α, RT-27 and Q = 1000 W/m2.

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M. Junaid et al. International Journal of Thermo uids 24 (2024) 100919

balance between gravitational forces and convective currents that amounts to 231,750.2 J/kg. At α= 45◦ , the energy storage rate shows a
enhance the phase change process. Notably, the curve for α = 45◦ shows much steeper increase, indicating superior performance compared to α=
the steepest initial increase in the liquid fraction, indicating the fastest 0◦ By the end of the test period, energy storage at this angle reaches
melting rate among all orientations. This is likely attributable to the approximately 253,781 J/kg. At α= 90◦ , the energy storage rate is the
maximum enhancement of NC currents in this orientation, facilitating highest among the three inclinations. The curve closely follows that of
efficient HT. However, towards the later stages, the rate of increase in α= 45◦ inclination but at a slightly higher rate, achieving nearly
the liquid fraction tends to converge with other angles. The observed 260,547.81 J/kg of energy storage by the end of the melting process. The
variations in the liquid fraction profiles underscore the critical role of α inclinations at α= 45◦ and 90◦ demonstrate significantly better energy
in the thermal performance of RT-27. The results suggest that the storage performance compared to smaller angles like α= 0◦ This suggests
orientation of the PCM container significantly influences the melting that increasing α enhances the thermal performance of RT-27. However,
rate due to the varying effects of NC and gravitational forces. the difference in energy storage between α= 45◦ and 90◦ inclinations is
Fig. 10 shows the energy storage rates of various PCMs until com­ minimal, indicating diminishing returns beyond a certain angle. These
plete melting, including RT-25, RT-27, RT-31, RT-35, RT-38, RT-42, RT- findings underscore the importance of α in designing PCM-based TES
47, and RT-50, each characterized by distinct transition temperatures. systems. For applications requiring higher energy storage efficiency,
The figure reveals a general upward trend in energy storage rate over such as solar thermal collectors or integrated building systems, opti­
time for all PCMs, though rates vary considerably across materials. mizing the inclination angle can lead to substantial performance im­
Notably, PCMs with higher transition temperatures, such as RT-47 and provements. The study suggests that an inclination angle between 45◦
RT-50, demonstrate markedly higher energy storage rates, attributable and 90◦ is optimal for maximizing RT-27′s energy storage rate, partic­
to their capacity to store more thermal energy per unit mass at higher ularly in systems exposed to varying environmental conditions where
temperatures. Specifically, RT-47 and RT-50 exhibit consistently steep the thermal energy incidence angle can be adjusted for optimal
slopes, indicating rapid energy storage throughout their melting pro­ performance.
cesses, culminating in 259,947.2 and 266,495.6 J/kg of stored energy, Fig. 12 shows how the average temperature changes over time for
respectively. PCMs with intermediate transition temperatures, such as various heat flux (Q) values using RT-27 at α= 0◦ The analysis focuses on
RT-38 and RT-42, also display substantial energy storage capabilities, four distinct heat flux levels: Q = 500 W/m2, 1000 W/m2, 1500 W/m2,
though at a slightly lower rate compared to their higher temperature and 2000 W/m2. Across all heat flux values, the average temperature
counterparts, accumulating 256,007.7 and 258,429.1 J/kg of energy by initially stabilizes around 297.15 K for the first 1500 s of the experiment.
the end of their phase change periods. In contrast, PCMs like RT-25, RT- This stability period reflects a phase where RT-27 absorbs heat with
27, RT-31, and RT-35 with lower transition temperatures exhibit rela­ minimal increase in average temperature, owing to its thermal inertia
tively lower energy storage rates, with RT-27 recording the least energy and phase change characteristics. Following this initial stability phase,
storage capacity throughout the observed period, totaling just 231,750.2 there is a noticeable and rapid rise in temperature across all heat flux
J/kg by the end of melting. These findings emphasize the pivotal role of levels. At Q = 500 W/m2, the temperature rises steadily, reaching
PCM selection in aligning with specific operational temperature ranges slightly above 316.2 K by the end of the phase change period. When Q
and required energy storage capacities. Higher transition temperature increases to 1000 W/m2, the temperature rise accelerates more sharply
PCMs offer advantages in scenarios requiring rapid and substantial en­ after the initial stable phase, reaching 327.4 K around 4574 s before
ergy storage, such as thermal energy storage systems for power gener­ levelling off. The temperature increase is even more pronounced for Q =
ation. Conversely, lower transition temperature PCMs, such as 1500 W/m2 and 2000 W/m2. At Q = 1500 W/m2, the temperature
residential heating, may be more suitable for applications where lower quickly climbs to about 336.9 K by 3520 s. At Q = 2000 W/m2, the
energy storage demands suffice. temperature surpasses 345.3 K after 3096 s, indicating a highly
Fig. 11 presents the variation of energy storage rate of RT-27 at three responsive reaction to intense heat flux inputs. These findings suggest
different angles: α= 0◦ , 45◦ , and 90◦ and Q = 1000 W/m2. At α= 0◦ , the higher heat flux values lead to quicker saturation of RT-27′s heat ab­
energy storage rate increases consistently over time but at a slower rate sorption capacity, followed by rapid temperature escalation. This
compared to higher inclinations. By the end of 4574 s, the stored energy comprehension is vital for applications in thermal energy storage, where

Fig. 10. Variation of stored energy with time for different types of PCMs for α= 0◦ and Q = 1000 W/m2.

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M. Junaid et al. International Journal of Thermo uids 24 (2024) 100919

Fig. 11. Variation of stored energy with time for different α with RT-27 and Q = 1000 W/m2.

Fig. 12. Variation of Tavg with time for different Q with RT-27 and α = 0◦ .

Fig. 13. Variation of LF with time for various Q with RT-27 and α = 0◦ .

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M. Junaid et al. International Journal of Thermo uids 24 (2024) 100919

controlled heat release and absorption are pivotal for enhancing effi­ the impact of different inclination angles and heat flux levels on melting
ciency and ensuring safety. rates, temperature distribution, and energy storage efficiency. The key
Figs. 13 and 14 describe the variation of LF over time using RT-27 at findings and conclusions are summarized below:
α = 0◦ , with varying Q values. The analysis covers four specific Q:
500 W/m2, 1000 W/m2, 1500 W/m2, and 2000 W/m2. Across all these • The inclination angle significantly impacts the thermal performance
values, the liquid fraction initially increases gradually from 0 to of the PCM-filled cavity. Steeper angles (closer to vertical) enhance
approximately 0.1 within the first 1000 s, marking the onset of melting heat absorption due to intensified natural convection currents. The
in the RT-27 material. Subsequently, there is a notable acceleration in optimal performance was observed at inclination angles between 45◦
the liquid fraction growth rate, directly influenced by the magnitude of and 90◦ , with 45◦ showing the fastest melting rate and highest en­
Q. For Q = 500 W/m2, the liquid fraction steadily climbs and reaches 1 ergy storage efficiency.
at approximately 7104 s, indicating a slower phase transition compared • Different PCMs exhibited distinct thermal behaviours under the same
to higher Q. At Q = 1000 W/m2, the liquid fraction rises more rapidly, conditions. RT-27 demonstrated the slowest temperature increase
achieving full melting at 4574 s. Higher Q = 1500 W/m2 and 2000 W/ and phase change rate, indicating a lower heat absorption rate. RT-
m2 result in even quicker melting times of 3520 s and 3096 s, respec­ 50 showed the highest heat absorption efficiency and fastest tem­
tively, highlighting accelerated phase change under higher thermal perature rise, making it suitable for applications requiring rapid
loads. These observations underscore a nonlinear relationship between thermal management.
heat flux and phase change rate, with higher flux values significantly • Higher heat flux levels significantly accelerate the phase transition
speeding up the melting process. Lower fluxes, like Q = 500 W/m2, process, resulting in faster melting rates. The study analyzed heat
support a slower and more prolonged phase transition, potentially flux values of 500 W/m2, 1000 W/m2, 1500 W/m2, and 2000 W/m2,
beneficial for applications requiring sustained thermal energy release. with higher values leading to quicker saturation of the PCM’s heat
Conversely, higher fluxes facilitate rapid phase transition, making RT-27 absorption capacity.
suitable for applications needing quick thermal energy absorption and • The energy storage capacity of the PCMs varied, with RT-47 and RT-
storage. 50 demonstrating the highest storage rates. RT-27, despite its slower
phase change rate, was found to be effective for applications
Conclusion requiring sustained thermal energy release.

This study provides a detailed thermal performance analysis of PCMs The findings have significant implications for the design and opti­
inside a chamfered dual enclosures subjected to constant Q. The inves­ mization of PCM-based thermal management systems. For solar thermal
tigation focused on various commercially available PCMs and analyzed applications, positioning PCMs closer to vertical can maximize heat

Fig. 14. Variation of LF contours with time for various Q with RT-27 and α = 0◦ .

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M. Junaid et al. International Journal of Thermo uids 24 (2024) 100919

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