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EC6702 PPG INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
OPTICAL COMMUNICATION & NETWORKS DEPARTMENT OF ECE
EC6702 OPTICAL COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING
UNIT I INTRODUCTION TO OPTICAL FIBERS 9

Evolution of fiber optic system- Element of an Optical Fiber Transmission link-- Total internal reflection-
Acceptance angle –Numerical aperture – Skew rays Ray Optics-Optical Fiber Modes and Configurations -
Mode theory of Circular Wave guides- Overview of Modes-Key Modal concepts- Linearly Polarized Modes
-Single Mode Fibers-Graded Index fiber structure.
UNIT II SIGNAL DEGRADATION OPTICAL FIBERS 9

Attenuation - Absorption losses, Scattering losses, Bending Losses, Core and Cladding losses, Signal
Distortion in Optical Wave guides-Information Capacity determination -Group Delay-Material Dispersion,
Wave guide Dispersion, Signal distortion in SM fibers-Polarization Mode dispersion, Intermodal
dispersion, Pulse Broadening in GI fibers-Mode Coupling -Design Optimization of SM fibers-RI profile and
cut-off wavelength.
UNIT III FIBER OPTICAL SOURCES AND COUPLING 9

Direct and indirect Band gap materials-LED structures -Light source materials -Quantum efficiency and
LED power, Modulation of a LED, lasers Diodes-Modes and Threshold condition -Rate equations -
External Quantum efficiency -Resonant frequencies -Laser Diodes, Temperature effects, Introduction to
Quantum laser, Fiber amplifiers- Power Launching and coupling, Lencing schemes, Fiber -to- Fiber joints,
Fiber splicing-Signal to Noise ratio , Detector response time.
UNIT IV FIBER OPTIC RECEIVER AND MEASUREMENTS 9

Fundamental receiver operation, Pre amplifiers, Error sources – Receiver Configuration– Probability of
Error – Quantum limit.Fiber Attenuation measurements- Dispersion measurements – Fiber Refractive
index profile measurements – Fiber cutoff Wave length Measurements – Fiber Numerical Aperture
Measurements – Fiber diameter measurements.
UNIT V OPTICAL NETWORKS AND SYSTEM TRANSMISSION 9

Basic Networks – SONET / SDH – Broadcast – and –select WDM Networks –Wavelength Routed
Networks – Non linear effects on Network performance –-Link Power budget -Rise time budget- Noise
Effects on System Performance-Operational Principles of WDM Performance of WDM + EDFA system –
Solutions – Optical CDMA – Ultra High Capacity Networks.
. TEXT BOOKS:
1. Gerd Keiser, "Optical Fiber Communication" Mc Graw -Hill International, 4th Edition., 2010.
2. John M. Senior , “Optical Fiber Communication”, Second Edition, Pearson Education, 2007.
REFERENCES:
1. Ramaswami, Sivarajan and Sasaki “Optical Networks”, Morgan Kaufmann, 2009.
2. J.Senior, "Optical Communication, Principles and Practice", Prentice Hall of India, 3rd Edition, 2008.
3. J.Gower, "Optical Communication System", Prentice Hall of India, 2001.
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UNIT 1
INTRODUCTION TO OPTICAL FIBERS
PART - A
1. What is the necessity of cladding for an optical fiber?[APR/MAY 2013,15]
The necessity of cladding for an optical fiber is

 To avoid leakage of light from the fiber
 To avoid mechanical strength for the fiber
 To protect core from scratches and other mechanical damages.
2. Define Numerical aperture of a step index fiber. [NOV/DEC 13,15]
Numerical aperture (N.A) of the fiber is the light collecting efficiency of the fiber and is the measure
of the amount of light rays that can be accepted by the fiber. It is equal to the sine of acceptance.
N.A=sin Φmax =
where n1 and n2 are the refractive indices of core and cladding respectively.
3. Define - Acceptance Angle[NOV/DEC2012,14,15]

The maximum angle Фmax with which a ray of light can enter rough the entrance end of the fibre and
still be totally internally reflected is called acceptance angle of the fiber.
4.What is the principle used in the working of fibers as light guides?[DEC2013]

The phenomenon of total internal reflection is used to guide the light in the optical fiber. To get total
reflection, the ray should travel from denser region rarer region i.e. from core to clad region. Of the fiber
and the angle of incidence in the denser medium should be greater than the critical angle of that medium.
5.A silica optical fiber with a core diameter large enough to be considered by ray theory analysis
has a core refractive index of 1.50 and a cladding refractive index of 1.47. Determine critical angle
at core-cladding interface.
6.The multimode step index fiber with a core diameter of 80µm and a relative index difference of
1.5% is operating at a wavelength of 0.85µm. If the core refractive index is 1.48. Determine the
normalized frequency of the fiber. {Dec 2012}
V=2πan1(2Δ)0.5/λ
=2πx40x10-6x1.48x(2x0.015)0.5/0.85x10-6
= 75.8
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7. What is critical angle?[APR 2014]
When we increase the incident angle with respect to normal, at some incident
angle, the dielectric of surface and φ2 becomes 90 and such incident angle is called critical angle.
8. What is Snell’s law?[APR 2014]

When a light ray travelling from one medium with refractive index n1 strikes another medium with
refractive index n2 which is lesser than n1 (i.e. n1 > n2) then a part of the light is refracted and a part of
the light is reflected.
The relationship at the interface is known as Snell’s law and is given by
n1sinΦ1=n2 sinΦ2
9.What are the conditions for total internal reflection?[NOV 2014,15]
The conditions for total internal reflections are:

The ray should travel from denser to rarer medium. i.e. from core to clad region of the optical
fiber.
The angle of incidence in the denser should greater than the critical angle of that medium.
10.What are guided modes?[APR2013, NOV 15]
Guided modes are a pattern of electric and magnetic field distributions that is repeated along the
fiber at equal intervals.
11.Differentiate between meridional rays and skew rays.[APR 2013,NOV 2014]
A meridional ray is a ray that passes through the axis of an optical fiber.
A skew ray is a ray that travels in a non-planar zig-zag path and never crosses the axis of an optical fiber.
12. What are the advantages of optical communication?[APR2013,15 NOV 14]

The advantages of optical communication are
 Low transmission losses
 Electrical isolation
 Small size and weight
 No electromagnetic interference
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PART - B
1.Briefly explain about the Element of an Optical Fiber Transmission link .[APR 2013,14,NOV 14,15]
A fiber optic data link sends input data through fiber optic components and provides this data as output
information.
It has the following three basic functions:

 To convert an electrical input signal to an optical signal
 To send the optical signal over an optical fiber
 To convert the optical signal back to an electrical signal
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Mechanisms :
 scattering
 absorption
 dispersion
Receiver parts :
 the optical detector

 the signal-conditioning circuits
 . An optical detector detects the optical signal. The signal-conditioning circuit conditions the
detector output so that the receiver output matches the original input to the transmitter.
 The receiver should amplify and process the optical signal without introducing noise or
signal distortion. Noise is any disturbance that obscures or reduces the quality of the
signal.
 Noise effects and limitations of the signal-conditioning circuits cause the distortion of the
receiver's electrical output signal.
 An optical detector can be either a semiconductor positive-intrinsic-negative (PIN) diode or
an avalanche photodiode (APD).
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 A PIN diode changes its electrical conductivity according to the intensity and wavelength of
light.
 The PIN diode consists of an intrinsic region between p-type and n-type semiconductor
material.
 A fiber optic data link also includes passive components other than an optical fiber
 Passive components used to make fiber connections affect the performance of the data
link. These components can also prevent the link from operating.
 Fiber optic components used to make the optical connections include optical splices,
connectors, and couplers.
2.Explain the methods of ray theory transmission.[APR 2013,14,NOV 15]
 The transmission of light along optical fibers depends not only on the nature of light, but also on
the structure of the optical fiber.
 Two methods are used to describe how light is transmitted along the optical fiber. The first method,
ray theory, uses the concepts of light reflection and refraction. The second method, mode
theory, treats light as electromagnetic waves.
Ray Optics:
 Two types of rays can propagate along an optical fiber. The first type is called meridional rays.
 Meridional rays are rays that pass through the axis of the optical fiber. Meridional rays are used
to illustrate the basic transmission properties of optical fibers. The second type is called skew rays.
 Skew rays are rays that travel through an optical fiber without passing through its axis.
MERIDIONAL RAYS. –
 Meridional rays can be classified as bound or unbound rays. Bound rays remain in the core and
propagate along the axis of the fiber.
 Bound rays propagate through the fiber by total internal reflection. Unbound rays are refracted
out of the fiber core. It shows a possible path taken by bound and unbound rays in a step-index
fiber.
 The core of the step-index fiber has an index of refraction n1. The cladding of a step-index has an
index of refraction n2, that is lower than n1.
 However, imperfections at the core-cladding interface will cause part of the bound rays to be
refracted out of the core into the cladding.
 The light rays refracted into the cladding will eventually escape from the fiber. In general,
meridional rays follow the laws of reflection and refraction.
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Bound and unbound rays in a step-index fiber.
 It illustrates the relationship between the acceptance angle and the refractive indices. The index of
refraction of the fiber core is n1.
 The index of refraction of the fiber cladding is n2. The index of refraction of the surrounding
medium is n0.
 By using Snell's law and basic trigonometric relationships, the NA of the fiber is given by: Since
the medium next to the fiber at the launching point is normally air, n0 is equal to 1.00.
Fiber acceptance angle.
3. What is optical fiber? Explain the Optical Fiber Modes and Configurations.[APR 2014,NOV 2015]
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Basic structure of an optical fiber:
 The basic structure of an optical fiber consists of three parts; the core, the cladding, and the
coating or buffer. The basic structure of an optical fiber is shown in figure 2-9. The core is a
cylindrical rod of dielectric material.
 Dielectric material conducts no electricity. Light propagates mainly along the core of the fiber. The
core is generally made of glass.
 The core is described as having a radius of (a) and an index of refraction n1. The core is
surrounded by a layer of material called the cladding.
 Even though light will propagate along the fiber core without the layer of cladding material, the
cladding does perform some necessary functions.
The cladding layer is made of a dielectric material with an index of refraction n2. The index of refraction
of the cladding material is less than that of the core material. The cladding is generally made of glass or
plastic. The cladding performs the following functions:
 Reduces loss of light from the core into the surrounding air
 Reduces scattering loss at the surface of the core
 Protects the fiber from absorbing surface contaminants
 Adds mechanical strength
 For extra protection, the cladding is enclosed in an additional layer called the coating or buffer.
The coating or buffer is a layer of material used to protect an optical fiber from physical damage.
The material used for a buffer is a type of plastic.
4. What are the types of optical fiber? Explain it.[APR 15,NOV 14,15]
 Optical fibers are characterized by their structure and by their properties of transmission. Basically,
optical fibers are classified into two types.
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 The first type is single mode fibers. The second type is multimode fibers. As each name implies,
optical fibers are classified by the number of modes that propagate along the fiber. As previously
explained, the structure of the fiber can permit or restrict modes from propagating in a fiber.
 The basic structural difference is the core size. Single mode fibers are manufactured with the
same materials as multimode fibers. Single mode fibers are also manufactured by following the
same fabrication process as multimode fibers.
Single Mode Fibers
 Single mode fibers have a lower signal loss and a higher information capacity (bandwidth) than
multimode fibers. Single mode fibers are capable of transferring higher amounts of data due to low
fiber dispersion.
 Basically, dispersion is the spreading of light as light propagates along a fiber. Dispersion
mechanisms in single mode fibers are discussed in more detail later in this chapter. Signal loss
depends on the operational wavelength (λ).
 In single mode fibers, the wavelength can increase or decrease the losses caused by fiber
bending. Single mode fibers operating at wavelengths larger than the cutoff wavelength lose more
power at fiber bends.
 They lose power because light radiates into the cladding, which is lost at fiber bends. In general,
single mode fibers are considered to be low-loss fibers, which increase system bandwidth and
length.
Multimode Fibers
 As their name implies, multimode fibers propagate more than one mode. Multimode fibers can
propagate over 100 modes. The number of modes propagated depends on the core size and
numerical aperture (NA). As the core size and NA increase, the number of modes increases.
 Typical values of fiber core size and NA are 50 to 100 μm and 0.20 to 0.29, respectively. A
large core size and a higher NA have several advantages. Light is launched into a multimode fiber
with more ease.
 The higher NA and the larger core size make it easier to make fiber connections. During fiber
splicing, core-to-core alignment becomes less critical.
 Another advantage is that multimode fibers permit the use of light-emitting diodes (LEDs).
 Single mode fibers typically must use laser diodes. LEDs are cheaper, less complex, and last
longer. LEDs are preferred for most applications.
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 Multimode fibers also have some disadvantages. As the number of modes increases, the effect of
modal dispersion increases. Modal dispersion (intermodal dispersion) means that modes arrive at
the fiber end at slightly different times.
 This time difference causes the light pulse to spread. Modal dispersion affects system bandwidth.
 Fiber manufacturers adjust the core diameter, NA, and index profile properties of multimode fibers
to maximize system bandwidth.
5. With neat diagram explain the single mode step index fibers.[APR2014 NOV 15]
 There are two basic types of single mode step-index fibers: matched clad and depressed clad.
Matched cladding means that the fiber cladding consists of a single homogeneous layer of
dielectric material. Depressed cladding means that the fiber cladding consists of two regions: the
inner and outer cladding regions.
 Matched-clad and depressed-clad single mode step-index fibers have unique refractive index
profiles.
 A matched-clad single mode step-index fiber has a core of radius (a) and a constant refractive
index n1.
 A cladding of slightly lower refractive index surrounds the core. The cladding has a refractive index
n2.
 Single mode step-index fibers propagate only one mode, called the fundamental mode. Single
mode operation occurs when the value of the fiber's normalized frequency is between 0 and 2.405
(0 ≤ V < 2.405).
 The value of V should remain near the 2.405 level. When the value of V is less than 1, single
mode fibers carry a majority of the light power in the cladding material. The portion of light
transmitted by the cladding material easily radiates out of the fiber.
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 For example, light radiates out of the cladding material at fiber bends and splices. Single mode
fiber cutoff wavelength is the smallest operating wavelength when single mode fibers propagate
only the fundamental mode.
 At this wavelength, the 2nd-order mode becomes lossy and radiates out of the fiber core. As the
operating wavelength becomes longer than the cutoff wavelength, the fundamental mode
becomes increasingly lossy.
6. SINGLE MODE GRADED-INDEX FIBERS
 Mode Theory : The mode theory, along with the ray theory, is used to describe the propagation of
light along an optical fiber. The mode theory is used to describe the properties of light that ray
theory is unable to explain.
 The mode theory uses electromagnetic wave behavior to describe the propagation of light along a
fiber. A set of guided electromagnetic waves is called the modes of the fiber.
PLANE WAVES. –
 The mode theory suggests that a light wave can be represented as a plane wave. A plane wave is
described by its direction, amplitude, and wavelength of propagation. A plane wave is a wave
whose surfaces of constant phase are infinite parallel planes normal to the direction of
propagation.
 The planes having the same phase are called the wavefronts. The wavelength (λ) of the
plane wave is given by: where c is the speed of light in a vacuum, f is the frequency of the light,
and n is the index of refraction of the plane-wave medium.Plane-wave propagation.
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 In a fiber, the propagation constant of a plane wave is a function of the wave's wavelength and
mode.
 The change in the propagation constant for different waves is called dispersion. The change in
the propagation constant for different wavelengths is called chromatic dispersion.
The change in propagation constant for different modes is called modal dispersion.
UNIT 2
SIGNAL DEGRADATION OPTICAL FIBERS
PART - A
1. Differentiate linear scattering from non-linear scattering. (NOV/ DEC 2014)
Linear scattering mechanisms cause the transfer of some or all of the optical power contained
within one propagating mode to be transferred linearly into a different mode. Non-linear scattering causes
the optical power from one mode to be transferred in either the forward or backward direction to the same
or other modes at different frequencies.
2. What is meant by Fresnel reflection? (NOV/ DEC 2011)
When the two joined fiber ends are smooth and perpendicular to the axes, and the two fiber axes
are perfectly aligned, the small proportion of the light may be reflected back into the transmitting fiber
causing attenuation at joint. This is known as Fresnel reflection.
3.What is meant by attenuation coefficient of a fiber? ( NOV / DEC 2011)
If P(0) is the optical power in a fiber at the origin ( at Z = 0), then the power P(Z)
at a distance z further down the fiber is P (z) = P (0) e -αpz .The above equation can be rewritten as αp = (1 /
z) { P(0) / P(z)}. Where αp is the fiber attenuation coefficient given in units of km-1
4.What are the factors that cause Rayleigh scattering in optical fibers? ( MAY / JUNE 2012)
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The inhomogeneity of a random nature occurring on a small scale compared with the wavelength of
the light in optical fiber causes Rayleigh scattering.
5.What is meant by dispersion in optical fiber? ( APRIL / MAY 2008)

Dispersion of the transmitted optical signal causes distortion in both analog and digital signals along
optical fibers. Dispersion mechanisms within the fiber cause broadening of the transmitted light pulses as
they travel along the channel.
6. What are the ways to reduce macrobending losses? ( NOV / DEC 09), ( NOV/ DEC 10)
Ways to reduce macrobending losses are

 Designing fibers with large relative refractive index differences.
 Operating at the shortest wavelength possible.
7. Define – Group Velocity Dispersion (GVD) (APRIL / MAY2011), (NOV / DEC 2010)
Intra-modal dispersion is pulse spreading that occurs within a single mode. The spreading arises
from the finite spectral emission width of an optical source. This phenomenon is known as Group Velocity
Dispersion.
8.What is polarization mode dispersion ( PMD)? ( APRIL / MAY2007)
The difference in propagation times between the two orthogonal polarization modes will result pulse
spreading. This is called as polarization mode dispersion. (PMD)
9. What is fiber birefringence? ( APRIL / MAY 2014)

Imperfections in the fiber are common such as symmetrical lateral stress, non circular imperfect
variations of refractive index profile. These imperfections break the circular symmetry of ideal fiber and
mode propagate with different phase velocity and the difference between their refractive index is called
fiber birefringence.
10. What is mode coupling? ( APRIL / MAY2015)
Mode coupling is another type of pulse distortion which is common in optical links. The pulse
distortion will increase less rapidly after a certain initial length of fiber due to this mode coupling and
differential mode losses. In initial length coupling of energy from one mode to another arises because of
structural irregularities, fiber diameter etc.
11. Define- Beat Length( NOV/DEC 2014)
Beat Length is defined as the period of interference effects in a bi-refringent medium. When
two waves with different linear polarization states propagate in a bi-refringent medium, their phases will
evolve differently.
12.What is intra Modal dispersion? ( APRIL / MAY2012)
Intra Modal Dispersion is pulse spreading that occurs within a single mode. The spreading arises
from finite spectral emission width of an optical source. This phenomenon is also called as group velocity
dispersion.
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PART - B
1.With neat diagram briefly explain the Material absorption losses in silica glass fibers. ( APRIL /
MAY2014, NOV 15)
ABSORPTION. –
 Absorption is a major cause of signal loss in an optical fiber. Absorption is defined as the portion
of attenuation resulting from the conversion of optical power into another energy form, such as
heat.
 Absorption in optical fibers is explained by three factors
 Imperfections in the atomic structure of the fiber material

 The intrinsic or basic fiber-material properties
 The extrinsic (presence of impurities) fiber-material properties
Intrinsic Absorption
 In silica glass, the wavelengths of operation range from 700 nanometers (nm) to 1600 nm.
 This wavelength of operation is between two intrinsic absorption regions. The first region is the
ultraviolet region (below 400-nm wavelength).
 The second region is the infrared region (above 2000-nm wavelength).
Extrinsic Absorption
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 Extrinsic absorption is caused by impurities introduced into the fiber material. Trace metal
impurities, such as iron, nickel, and chromium, are introduced into the fiber during fabrication.
 Extrinsic absorption is caused by the electronic transition of these metal ions from one energy
level to another.
2.Write notes on scattering losses and bending losses.(NOV/DEC 14,15)
SCATTERING. –
 Basically, scattering losses are caused by the interaction of light with density fluctuations within a
fiber. Density changes are produced when optical fibers are manufactured.
 During manufacturing, regions of higher and lower molecular density areas, relative to the
average density of the fiber, are created.
 Light is then partially scattered in all directions.
 In commercial fibers operating between 700-nm and 1600-nm wavelength, the main source of loss
is called Rayleigh scattering.
 Rayleigh scattering is the main loss mechanism between the ultraviolet and infrared regions .
 Rayleigh scattering occurs when the size of the density fluctuation (fiber defect) is less than one-
tenth of the operating wavelength of light.
 Loss caused by Rayleigh scattering is proportional to the fourth power of the wavelength
(1/λ4). As the wavelength increases, the loss caused by Rayleigh scattering decreases.
BENDING LOSS. –
 Bending the fiber also causes attenuation. Bending loss is classified according to the bend radius
of curvature: microbend loss or macrobend loss.
 Microbends are small microscopic bends of the fiber axis that occur mainly when a fiber is cabled.
Macrobends are bends having a large radius of curvature relative to the fiber diameter. Microbend
and macrobend losses are very important loss mechanisms.
 Fiber loss caused by microbending can still occur even if the fiber is cabled correctly. During
installation, if fibers are bent too sharply, macrobend losses will occur.
 Microbend losses are caused by small discontinuities or imperfections in the fiber. Uneven
coating applications and improper cabling procedures increase microbend loss.
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 External forces are also a source of microbends. An external force deforms the cabled jacket
surrounding the fiber but causes only a small bend in the fiber.
 Microbend loss increases attenuation because low-order modes become coupled with high-order
modes that are naturally lossy.
 Macrobend losses are observed when a fiber bend's radius of curvature is large compared to the
fiber diameter.
 Fiber sensitivity to bending losses can be reduced. If the refractive index of the core is increased,
then fiber sensitivity decreases.
 Sensitivity also decreases as the diameter of the overall fiber increases.
 However, increases in the fiber core diameter increase fiber sensitivity.
 Fibers with larger core size propagate more modes. These additional modes tend to be more
lossy.
3.What is dispersion? Explain the different types of dispersion in optical fibers.(APR/MAY 13,15
NOV 14)
 There are two different types of dispersion in optical fibers. The types are intramodal and
intermodal dispersion.
 Intramodal, or chromatic, dispersion occurs in all types of fibers. Intermodal, or modal, dispersion
occurs only in multimode fibers.
 Each type of dispersion mechanism leads to pulse spreading. As a pulse spreads, energy is
overlapped.
 The spreading of the optical pulse as it travels along the fiber limits the information capacity of the
fiber.
Intramodal Dispersion
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Intramodal, or chromatic, dispersion depends primarily on fiber materials. There are two types of
intramodal dispersion. The first type is material dispersion. The second type is waveguide dispersion.
Intramodal dispersion occurs because different colors of light travel through different materials and
different waveguide structures at different speeds.
Material dispersion
 It occurs because the spreading of a light pulse is dependent on the wavelengths' interaction with
the refractive index of the fiber core.
 Waveguide dispersion occurs because the mode propagation constant (β) is a function of
the size of the fiber's core relative to the wavelength of operation.
 Intermodal Dispersion
Intermodal or modal dispersion causes the input light pulse to spread. The input light pulse is
made up of a group of modes.
As the modes propagate along the fiber, light energy distributed among the modes is delayed by
different amounts. The pulse spreads because each mode propagates along the fiber at different
speeds
Distance traveled by each mode over the same time span.
Information Capacity Determination:
 A light pulse will broaden as it travels along the fiber. The pulse broadening will eventually cause
neighboring pulses to overlap.
 After a certain amount of overlap, neighboring pulses will not be distinguishable. Thus, this
dispersive mechanism limits the information capacity of a fiber.
 One measure of the information capacity of an optical waveguide is called the bandwidth-distance
product.
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 Group Delay
 Let us presume a linear system where an optical source launches light power into a fiber where all
the modes carry equal power.
 The spectral components will be assumed to travel independently. Each component will undergo
a time delay called the group delay per unit length in the direction of travel.
Material Dispersion: Material dispersion occurs because the index of refraction varies as a function of
the optical wavelength. Or alternately, we can say that β varies with n(λ).
Waveguide Dispersion:
 Waveguide dispersion occurs because a single-mode fiber confines only about 80% of the optical
power to the core of the fiber. Waveguide dispersion is another intramodal effect.
 It occurs within one mode and each mode in a many mode system will have its own waveguide
dispersion. In terms of the modal propagation constant, β varies a/λ.
Polarization-Mode Dispersion:
 The effects of fiber birefringence on the polarization sates of an optical signal are another
source of pulse broadening.
 Birefringence can result from intrinsic factors such as geometric irregularities of the fiber core
or internal stress on it.
 Bending, twisting, or pinching of the fiber can also lead to birefringence. A fundamental
property of an optical signal is its polarization state.
 If the polarization state varies as the light travels down the fiber, and the fiber is birefringent,
then there will be pulse broadening.
Intermodal Distortion:
 The final factor giving rise to signal degradation is intermodal distortion. Each mode has a
different value for the group delay as can be seen from ray tracing.
 Different path length = different arrival time. δTintermodal =Tmax−Tmin Each mode has a
different value for the group delay as can be seen from ray tracing. Different path length =
different arrival time.
4.Explain about optical fiber connectors.(APR/MAY 15)
 An optical fiber connector terminates the end of an optical fiber, and enables quicker connection
and disconnection than splicing. The connectors mechanically couple and align the cores of fibers
so light can pass.
 Optical fiber connectors are used to join optical fibers where a connect/disconnect capability is
required. The basic connector unit is a connector assembly.
 A connector assembly consists of an adapter and two connector plugs.
 Due to the polishing and tuning procedures that may be incorporated into optical connector
manufacturing, connectors are generally assembled onto optical fiber in a supplier’s manufacturing
facility.
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 However, the assembly and polishing operations involved can be performed in the field, for
example, to make cross-connect jumpers to size.
 Optical fiber connectors are used in telephone company central offices, at installations on
customer premises, and in outside plant applications to connect equipment and cables, or to
cross-connect cables.
 Most optical fiber connectors are spring-loaded, so the fiber faces are pressed together when the
connectors are mated.
 The resulting glass-to-glass or plastic-to-plastic contact eliminates signal losses that would be
caused by an air gap between the joined fibers.
Every fiber connection has two values:
 Attenuation or insertion loss

 Reflection or return loss.
Features of good connector design:
 Low insertion loss

 High return loss (low amounts of reflection at the interface)
 Ease of installation
 Low cost
 Reliability
 Low environmental sensitivity
 Ease of use
5.Explain about fiber optic couplers(NOV/DEC 15)
 A fiber optic coupler is a device used in optical fiber systems with one or more input fibers
and one or several output fibers.
 Light entering an input fiber can appear at one or more outputs and its power distribution
potentially depending on the wavelength and polarization.
 Such couplers can be fabricated in different ways, for example by thermally fusing fibers so
that their cores get into intimate contact.
 If all involved fibers are single-mode (supporting only a single mode per polarization direction
for a given wavelength), there are certain physical restrictions on the performance of the
coupler.
 In particular, it is not possible to combine two or more inputs of the same optical frequency
into one single-polarization output without significant excess losses.
 However, such a restriction does not occur for different input wavelengths:
 there are couplers that can combine two inputs at different wavelengths into one output
without exhibiting significant losses.
 Wavelength-sensitive couplers are used as multiplexers in wavelength-division multiplexing
(WDM) telecom systems to combine several input channels with different wavelengths, or to
separate channels.
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6.Explain about fiber alignment and joint losses.(APR/MAY 14,15]
Fiber Joints
Types of Fiber Joints
Optical fibers can be joined together, such that light is efficiently transferred from one fiber to another.
There are various possibilities:
 Mechanical splicing means that two fiber ends are tightly hold together with some mechanical
means. That is usually done for permanent connections, but it may be possible to dismantle a
splice without spoiling the fiber ends.
 Another technique is fusion splicing, where the fibers are fused together, e.g. using an electrical
arc. This leads to particularly low insertion loss and high return loss, if the two fiber cores are
similar.
 For non-permanent connections, one can also use fiber connectors
Coupling Losses of Imperfect Fiber Joints
A frequently asked question is how large will be coupling losses e.g. at a mechanical splice, when there is
some kind of imperfection, for example
 a parallel offset of the fiber cores,

 a deviation between the fiber axis directions,
 a mismatch of core sizes, or
 an air gap between the fiber ends.
It turns out that some of the answers are quite different for single-mode and multimode fibers.
Single-mode Fibers
 It is relatively easy to calculate coupling losses for single-mode fibers. Essentially, the guided
mode from the first fiber (the input) creates some amplitude profile in the second fiber, which may
be somewhat displaced, for example, due to an imperfect splice.
 One can now calculate the coupling efficiency as an overlap integral between that amplitude
profile and that of the guided mode of the second fiber. (Numerical beam propagation is not
required.)
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For the case of different mode radii and some parallel offset, one can use the equation which we already
discussed in part 3:
A similar equation can be used for an angular mismatch:
This shows that the angular alignment is more critical for single-mode fibers with large mode area. For
standard mode areas, the angular alignment is usually easier to achieve than the position alignment.
 Concerning
angle-cleaved fiber ends, it is often of interest how large the cleave angle needs to be to
avoid significant reflection into the core mode. The equation can well be used for that; one
simply has to keep in mind that the angular deviation of the reflected beam is twice the cleave
angle.
 As an example, a fiber with a standard mode area of 100 μm2, having w = 5.64 μm, needs a
cleave angle of at least 7.4° in order to have a backreflection below 10−4, i.e., at least 40 dB
return loss, at 1.5 μm wavelength.
 For a large mode area fiber with 1000 μm2, 2.3° would be sufficient. Note that longer
wavelengths require larger cleave angles, as they lead to large beam divergence.
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UNIT 3
FIBER OPTICAL SOURCES AND COUPLING
PART - A
1. What are the advantages of LED? NOV 14,APR15)
The advantages of LEDs are

 They have long life
 LEDs are less complex circuits than Laser diodes
 Fabrication is easier
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 Less expensive
 Used for short distance communication
2. Define – Internal Quantum Efficiency(APR 2012)

The internal quantum efficiency is the fraction of the electron-hole pairs that recombine
radiatively. If the radiative recombination rate is R and the nonradiative recombination ratio is R nr, then the
internal quantum efficiency is the ratio of the radiative recombination rate to the total recombination rate.
3.Define – Quantum Efficiency of a photo detector (NOV 14,15)
Quantum efficiency is defined as the number of the electron-hole carrier pairs generated per
incident photon of energy hυ, is given by
η = (number of electron- hole pairs generated) / (number of incident photons)
i.e. η =
where Ip is the photon current q is the charge of the electron po is the optical output power
υ is the frequency of the optical signal.
4. In a 100ns pulse, 6 *106 photons at wavelength of 1300nm fall on an InGaAs photo-detector on
the average, 5.4 *106 electron-hole pairs are generated. Find the quantum efficiency.(NOV 14)
Given = 5.4 * 106
= 6 * 106
Quantum efficiency = 5.4 * 106 / 6 * 106 = 0.9%
Quantum efficiency = 90%
5. What is meant by hetero-junction? List the advantages of heterojunction. ( APRIL / MAY2015)
A hetero-junction is an interface between two adjoining single crystal semiconductors with different
band-gap energies. Devices are fabricated with hetero-junctions are said to have hetero-structure.
Advantages of Hetero-junction are
 Carrier and optical confinement

 High output power
 High coherence and stability.
6.What is the principle of operation of LASER? (NOV 13,15)
The principle of operation of LASER is population inversion. The population of the upper energy
level is greater than lower energy level i.e. N2 is > N1. This condition is known as population inversion.
7. What are the three modes of the cavity of LASER Diode? ( APRIL / MAY2014,15)
The three modes of the cavity of LASER are

 Longitudinal modes, related to the length L of the cavity
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 Lateral modes lie in the plane of the P-N junction. These modes depend upon the side wall
preparation and width of the cavity.
 Transverse modes are associated with the Electro Magnetic field and beam profile in the
direction perpendicular to the plane of the P-Njunction.
These modes determine the radiation pattern of the LASER.
8. What is population inversion? (APR 13, 15)

Under thermal equilibrium, the lower energy level E 1 of the two level atomic systems contains
more atoms than upper energy level E2. To achieve optical amplification, it is must to create non-
equilibrium distributions of atoms such that population of the upper energy level is greater than lower
energy level i.e. N2 is > N1.this condition is known as population inversion.
9.What is a DFB LASER? Differentiate DFB LASER from other types of LASERs? (NOV 13,14)
In Distributed FeedBack LASER, the lasing action is obtained by periodic variations of refractive index,
which are incorporated into multilayer structure along the length of the diode. DFB LASER does not
require optical feedback unlike the other LASERs.
10. When an LED has 2V applied to its terminals, it draws 100mA and produce 2mW of optical
power. Determine conversion efficiency of the LED from electrical to optical power. ( APRIL /
MAY2014)
Given data Vin = 2V, Iin = 100*10-3 A, Pout = 2 *10-3W,

Formula: LED conversion efficiency = (Pout / Pin)
Pin = Vin * Iin = 2 * 100*10-3
conversion efficiency = (Pout / Pin) = (2 *10-3 / 2 * 100*10-3)
=0.01
11. Why is silicon not used to fabricate LED or LASER diode? (NOV 13,14)
Silicon is not used to fabricate LED or LASER diode because
 It is an indirect band-gap semiconductor

 Its energy level is 1.1eV, radiated emission corresponds to infrared but not the visible light.
12.Define – Responsivity of a photo detector (NOV 13,14)
Responsivity is defined as the ratio of output photo current to the incident Optical power.
PART - B
1.With neat diagram briefly explain about light emitting diode. (NOV 13,14,15)
LIGHT-EMITTING DIODES
 A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor device that emits incoherent light, through
spontaneous emission, when a current is passed through it.
 Typically LEDs for the 850-nm region are fabricated using GaAs and AlGaAs. LEDs for the 1300-
nm and 1550-nm regions are fabricated using InGaAsP and InP.
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Surface-Emitting LEDs
 The surface-emitting LED (shown in figure 6-1) is also known as the Burrus LED in honor of C. A.
Burrus, its developer. In SLEDs, the size of the primary active region is limited to a small circular
area of 20 μm to 50 μm in diameter.
 The active region is the portion of the LED where photons are emitted. The primary active region is
below the surface of the semiconductor substrate perpendicular to the axis of the fiber.
Edge-Emitting LEDs
 The demand for optical sources for longer distance, higher bandwidth systems operating at longer
wavelengths led to the development of edge-emitting LEDs.
 It shows the different layers of semiconductor material used in the ELED. The primary active
region of the ELED is a narrow stripe, which lies below the surface of the semiconductor substrate.
 The semiconductor substrate is cut or polished so that the stripe runs between the front and back
of the device.
 In an ELED the rear facet is highly reflective and the front facet is antireflection-coated. The rear
facet reflects the light propagating toward the rear end-face back toward the front facet.
2.With neat diagram explain about laser diodes. (NOV 13,15)
 A laser is a device that produces optical radiation by the process of stimulated emission. It is
necessary to contain photons produced by stimulated emission within the laser active region.
 One mirror is made partially reflecting so that some radiation can escape from the cavity for
coupling to an optical fiber.
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 The lasing threshold is the lowest drive current level at which the output of the laser results
primarily from stimulated emission rather than spontaneous emission
 The lowest current at which stimulated emission exceeds spontaneous emission is the threshold
current.
 A semiconductor LD's geometry is similar to an ELED with light-guiding regions surrounding the
active region. Optical feedback is established by making the front facet partially reflective.
 The rear facet is typically coated with a reflective layer so that all of the light striking the facet is
reflected back into the active region.
 The front facet is typically left uncoated so that most of the light is emitted. By increasing the drive
current, the diode becomes a laser.
 There are several important differences between LDs and LEDs. One is that LEDs usually lack
reflective facets and in some cases are designed to suppress reflections back into the active
region.
 Another is that lasers tend to operate at higher drive currents to produce light.
 A higher driver current results in more complicated drive circuits and more heat dissipation in the
device.
 LDs are also much more temperature sensitive than either SLEDs or ELEDs. Increases in the
laser temperature significantly reduce laser output power.
 Increases in laser temperature beyond certain limits result in the loss of lasing.
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 When lasers are used in many applications, the temperature of the laser must be controlled.
Typically, electronic coolers, called thermo-electric (TE) coolers, are used to cool LDs in system
application.
3.Explain briefly about pin photo detector.(APR 12,15,NOV 14)
 A PIN photodiode is a semiconductor positive-negative (p-n) structure with an intrinsic

region sandwiched between the other two regions
 It is normally operated by applying a reverse-bias voltage. The magnitude of the reverse-
bias voltage depends on the photodiode application, but typically is less than a few volts.
 When no light is incident on the photodiode, a current is still produced. This current is
called the dark current.
 The dark current is the leakage current that flows when a reverse bias is applied and no
light is incident on the photodiode.
 Dark current is dependent on temperature. While dark current may initially be low, it will
increase as the device temperature increases.
The basic structure of a PIN photodiode.
Response Time
 The most important of these are the thickness of the detector active area and the detector RC time
constant.
 The detector thickness is related to the amount of time required for the electrons generated to flow
out of the detector active area. This time is referred to as the electron transit time.
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 The capacitance (C) of the photodiode and the resistance (R) of the load form the RC time
constant. The capacitance of the photodetector must be kept small to prevent the RC time
constant from limiting the response time.
 The photodiode capacitance consists mainly of the junction capacitance and any capacitance
relating to packaging. The RC time constant is given by tRC = RC.
Linearity
 Reverse-biased photodetectors are highly linear devices. Detector linearity means that the output
electrical current (photocurrent) of the photodiode is linearly proportional to the input optical power.
 Reverse-biased photodetectors remain linear over an extended range (6 decades or more) of
photocurrent before saturation occurs. Output saturation occurs at input optical power levels
typically greater than 1 milliwatt (mW).
 Because fiber optic communications systems operate at low optical power levels, detector
saturation is generally not a problem.
4. Briefly explain about avalanche photodiodes. .(APR 12,13)
An avalanche photodiode (APD) is a photodiode that internally amplifies the photocurrent by an

avalanche process.
 As these electrons collide with other electrons in the semiconductor material, they cause a fraction
of them to become part of the photocurrent. This process is known as avalanche multiplication.
 Avalanche multiplication continues to occur until the electrons move out of the active area of the
APD.
 The gain of the APD can be changed by changing the reverse-bias voltage.
 A larger reverse-bias voltage results in a larger gain. However, a larger reverse-bias voltage also
results in increased noise levels.
 Excess noise resulting from the avalanche multiplication process places a limit on the useful gain
of the APD.
 The avalanche process introduces excess noise because every photogenerated carrier does not
undergo the same multiplication.
 The noise properties of an APD are affected by the materials that the APD is made of.
 Typical semiconductor materials used in the construction of low-noise APDs include silicon (Si),
indium gallium arsenide (InGaAs), and germanium (Ge).
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 Trade-offs are made in APD design to optimize responsivity and gain, dark current, response time,
and linearity.
 The response time of an APD and its output circuitry depends on the same factors as PIN
photodiodes.
 The only additional factor affecting the response time of an APD is the additional time required to
complete the process of avalanche multiplication.
5.Write notes on photo detector noise and signal to noise ratio. (NOV 14)
Detection of weak optical signal requires that the photodetector and its following amplification circuitry be
optimized for a desired signal-to-noise ratio.
It is the noise current which determines the minimum optical power level that can be detected. This
minimum detectable optical power defines the sensitivity of photodetector. That is the optical power that
generates a photocurrent with the amplitude equal to that of the total noise current (S/N=1)
Noise Sources in Photodetecors :
 The principal noises associated with photodetectors are :
 Quantum (Shot) noise: arises from statistical nature of the production and collection of photo-
generated electrons upon optical illumination.
 It has been shown that the statistics follow a Poisson process.
 2- Dark current noise: is the current that continues to flow through the bias circuit in the absence of
the light.
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 This is the combination of bulk dark current, which is due to thermally generated e and h in the pn
junction, and the surface dark current, due to surface defects, bias voltage an surface area.
 In order to calculate the total noise presented in photodetector, we should sum up the root mean
square of each noise current by assuming that those are uncorrelated.
 Total photodetector noise current=quantum noise current +bulk dark current noise + surface
current noise
6.Compare LED and laser diode.(APR 13,14 & NOV 14)
LED Diode
Full form of LED- light emitting diode.
LED's are small in size, longer life, reliable and require little power. Here generation photon by
spontaneous emittion.
LED's produce a divergent and incohrent light beam.
Types of LED
surface emitter and
2> Edge emitter.
Their response is fast. A wide range of wavelengths is available.
The cost of LED would be less.
An intensity of generating light is less.
Coupling efficiency of LED with fiber is less.
LED's use with the multimode fibers.
Bandwidth of led is moderate.
In led have require no extra circuit because of its simple circuit.
Here require drive current is 50 to 100mA.
LASER Diode
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Full form of LASER - light amplification by stimulated emmition of radiation.
Laser's are bigger in size, longer life, less reliable and require more power then LED.
Here generating photon by stimulated emission
Laser produce q monochromatic and coherent light beam.
Types of Laser (a) semiconductor laser and (b) Gas laser.
Their response is faster than LED.
A small range of wavelength is available.
The cost of Laser would be higher.
Coupling efficiency of Laser with fiber is higher.
Laser use with both single mode and multi mode fibers.
-Bandwidth of laser is higher. In laser have require extra circuit for isolation of temperature reaction.
Here require drive current is Therashold current 5 to 40mA.
UNIT 4
FIBER OPTIC RECEIVER AND MEASUREMENTS
79
PART - A
1. Define Quantum Limit (MAY / JUNE 2013)

To find the minimum received optical power required for a specific bit error rate performance in a
digital system. This minimum received power level is known as the Quantum Limit.
2. What are the error sources of receiver? (MAY 14)

The error sources of receiver are
 Thermal noise
 Dark current noise
 Quantum noise
3.A digital fiber optic link operating at 1310 nm, requires a maximum Bit Error Rate of 10 -8.
Calculate the required average photons per pulse. (APR 2014)
The probability error Pr(o) = e-N = 10-8 Solving for N = 8 loge 10 = 18.42
An average of 18 photons per pulse is required for this Bit Error Rate.
4. Why silicon is preferred to make fiber optical receivers? (NOV 2014)

Silicon phonic devices can be made using existing semiconductor fabrication technique. Also
silicon has been already used as substrate for most integrated circuit; it is possible to create hybrid
devices in which the optical and electronic components are integrated onto a single micro-chip.
5.Define – Modal Noise and Mode Partition Noise. (APR 14,NOV 15)
Disturbances along the fiber such as vibrations, discontinuities, connectors, splices and source /
detector coupling may cause fluctuations in the speckle patterns. It is known as modal noise.
Phenomenon which occurs in multimode semiconductor LASER when the modes are not well
stabilized is known as mode partition noise.
6.What is meant by ( 1/f) noise corner frequency? (MAY / JUNE 2013)

The (1 / f ) noise corner frequency is defined as the frequency at which ( 1/f) noise,
dominates the FET noise at low frequencies and has ( 1/f) power spectrum.
7.What are the methods used to measure fiber refractive index profile? (MAY 14)
The methods used to measure fiber refractive index profile are
 Interferometric method
 Near infra scanning method
 Refracted near field method.
8. What is Inter Symbol Interference (ISI)?

Each pulse broadens and overlaps with its neighbors, eventually indistinguishable at the receiver
output. This effect is known as Inter Symbol Interference.
9.How does dark current arise?

When there is no optical power incident on the photo detector a small reverse leakage current
flows from the device terminals known as dark current.
Dark current contributes to the total system noise and gives random fluctuations about the average
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particle flow of the photocurrent.
10. What is P+ π Pn+ reach through structure?

In the P+ ( heavily doped p- type) substrate, high resistivity p- type material is deposited followed
by the construction of an n+ ( heavily doped n-type) layer. The π layer is an intrinsic layer.
11.List the advantages of preamplifiers.

The advantages of preamplifiers are
 Low noise level
 High bandwidth
 High dynamic range
 High gain
 High sensitivity.
12.Define – Bend Attenuation

A peak wavelength region, where the radiation losses resulting from the small loop are much
higher that the fundamental mode is known as bend attenuation.
PART - B
1.Explain about fiber optic receiver.(APR/MAY 13,14)
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 A fiber optic receiver is an electro-optic device that accepts optical signals from an optical fiber
and converts them into electrical signals. A typical fiber optic receiver consists of an optical
detector, a low-noise amplifier, and other circuitry used to produce the output electrical signal
 The optical detector converts the incoming optical signal into an electrical signal. The amplifier
then amplifies the electrical signal to a level suitable for further signal processing.
 The type of other circuitry contained within the receiver depends on what type of modulation is
used and the receiver electrical output requirements
Block diagram of a typical fiber optic receiver.
 Receiver spectral response, sensitivity, Frequency response, and dynamic range are key receiver
performance parameters that can affect overall system operation.
 The choice of optical detector materials and structures determines the spectral response. Silicon
(Si), gallium arsenide (GaAs), and gallium aluminum arsenide (GaAlAs) are typical detector
materials used for receiver operation in the 850-nm wavelength region. germanium (Ge), indium
phosphide (InP), and indium gallium arsenide (InGaAs) are examples of detector materials used
for receiver operation in the 1300-nm and 1550-nm wavelength regions.
 The receiver sensitivity is the minimum amount of optical power required to achieve a specific
receiver performance.
 For digital transmission at a given data rate and coding, this performance is described by a
maximum bit-error rate (BER). In analog systems, for a given modulation and bandwidth, it is
described by a minimum signal-to-noise ratio (SNR).
 Dynamic range refers to the range of optical power levels over which the receiver operates within
the specified values. It usually is described by the ratio of the maximum input power to the
sensitivity.
 Before discussing receiver sensitivity, bandwidth, dynamic range, and Frequency response in
more detail, we discuss the main types of optical detectors used in fiber optics.
2.Describe with suitable diagram, for measurement of fiber attenuation using cutback
technique?(APR 14,15)
82
Experimental setup for Cutback Technique
 Cutback technique is the common technique used for the measurement of fiber attenuation. In this
technique, the white focused light is mechanically chopped [cut into pieces] at a low frequency
[say 200Hz] which enables lock-in amplifier to perform a phase-sensitive detection.
 Then the light is passed through a monochromator which uses a prism to select the required
wavelength for the measurement of attenuation.
 After filtering the light, it is focused onto the fiber by means of a
microscopic objective lens.
 A beam splitter is used before the fiber to provide light for vision and
a reference signal is used compensate for output power fluctuations changes).
 A mode scrambler is also attached to fiber within the first meter.
 Fiber is passed through S-shaped groove cut in the Teflon in a cladding mode stripper device
through which radiation removes light launched into
the fiber and then sends to index matched-glycerin.
 A p-i-n (or) avalanche photodiode is used to detect the optical power at the receiving end. At last
the output from photo detector is fed to a lock-in amplifier and this output is recorded.
 The relationship optical attenuation per unit length
L1 = Original fiber length

L2 = Cutback fiber length
Po1 = Output optical power from original fiber
Po2 = Output optical power from cutback fiber.
3. Discuss the major requirements of an optical source for use in optical communication systems?
(MAY 14,APR 15)
 The development of efficient semiconductor optical sources along with low-loss optical fibers, led
to substantial improvements in fiber optic communications.
 Semiconductor optical sources have the physical characteristics and performance properties
necessary for successful implementations of fiber optic systems. It is desirable that optical
sources must be,
1. Compatible in size to low-loss optical fibers by having a small light emitting which are capable of
launching light into fiber.
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2. Launch sufficient optical power into the optical fiber to overcome fiber attenuation and connection
losses allowing for signal detection at the receiver.
3. Emit light at wavelengths that minimize optical fiber loss and dispersion.
4. Optical sources should have a narrow spectral width to minimize dispersion.
5. Allow for direct modulation of optical output power.
Maintain stable operation in changing environmental conditions (such as temperature).
 Cost less and be more reliable than electrical devices, permitting fiber optic communication
systems to compete with conventional systems.
 Semiconductor optical sources suitable for fiber optic systems range from inexpensive Light
Emitting Diodes (LEDs) to more expensive semiconductor lasers.
 Semiconductor LEDs and laser diodes are the principle light sources used in fiber optics.
 Semiconductor sources are designed to operate at wavelengths (i.e., 850 nm, 1300 nm and 1500
nm) that minimize optical fiber absorption and maximum system bandwidth.
 By designing an optical source to operate at specific wavelengths, absorption from impurities in
the optical fiber such as hydroxyl ions (OH-) can be minimized.
4.Explain the numerical aperture measurement(APR 14,15)
In optics, the numerical aperture (NA) of an optical system is a dimensionless number that characterizes
the range of angles over which the system can accept or emit light. By incorporating index of refraction in
its definition, NA has the property that it is constant for a beam as it goes from one material to another
provided there is no optical power at the interface.
The exact definition of the term varies slightly between different areas of optics. Numerical aperture is
commonly used in microscopy to describe the acceptance cone of an objective(and hence its light-
gathering ability and resolution), and in fiber optics, in which it describes the range of angles within which
light that is incident on the fiber will be transmitted along it.
Numerical aperture versus f-number
Numerical aperture of a thin lens.
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Numerical aperture is not typically used in photography. Instead, the angular aperture of a lens (or an
imaging mirror) is expressed by the f-number, written f/# or , which is defined as the ratio of the focal
length to the diameter of the entrance pupil:
This ratio is related to the image-space numerical aperture when the lens is focused at infinity.
[3]
Based on the diagram at the right, the image-space numerical aperture of the lens is:
thus , assuming normal use in air ( ).
The approximation holds when the numerical aperture is small, but it turns out that for well-
corrected optical systems such as camera lenses, a more detailed analysis shows that is
almost exactly equal to even at large numerical apertures. As Rudolf Kingslake
explains, "It is a common error to suppose that the ratio [ ] is actually equal to ,
and not ... The tangent would, of course, be correct if the principal planes were really
plane.
The f-number describes the light-gathering ability of the lens in the case where the marginal
rays on the object side are parallel to the axis of the lens. This case is commonly encountered
in photography, where objects being photographed are often far from the camera. The
working f-number is defined by modifying the relation above, taking into account the
magnification from object to image:
where is the working f-number, is the lens's magnification for an object a particular
distance away, and the NA is defined in terms of the angle of the marginal ray as before. [3]
[5]
The magnification here is typically negative; in photography, the factor is sometimes
written as 1 + m, where m represents the absolute value of the magnification; in either
case, the correction factor is 1 or greater.
The two equalities in the equation above are each taken by various authors as the
definition of working f-number, as the cited sources illustrate. They are not necessarily
both exact, but are often treated as if they are. The actual situation is more complicated —
as Allen R. Greenleaf explains, "Illuminance varies inversely as the square of the distance
between the exit pupil of the lens and the position of the plate or film. Because the
position of the exit pupil usually is unknown to the user of a lens, the rear conjugate focal
85
distance is used instead; the resultant theoretical error so introduced is insignificant with
most types of photographic lenses.
Conversely, the object-side numerical aperture is related to the f-number by way of the
magnification (tending to zero for a distant object)
5.Explain the measurement of dispersion.(NOV 14,15)
Measures of Dispersion
The averages are representatives of a frequency distribution. But they fail to give a
complete picture of the distribution. They do not tell anything about the scatterness of observations
within the distribution.
Suppose that we have the distribution of the yields (kg per plot) of two paddy varieties
from 5 plots each. The distribution may be as follows
Variety I 45 42 42 41 40
Variety II 54 48 42 33 30
It can be seen that the mean yield for both varieties is 42 kg but cannot say that the
performances of the two varieties are same. There is greater uniformity of yields in the first variety
whereas there is more variability in the yields of the second variety. The first variety may be
preferred since it is more consistent in yield performance.
Characteristics of a good measure of dispersion
An ideal measure of dispersion is expected to possess the following properties
1. It should be rigidly defined
2. It should be based on all the items.
3. It should not be unduly affected by extreme items.
4. It should lend itself for algebraic manipulation.
5. It should be simple to understand and easy to calculate

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Range
This is the simplest possible measure of dispersion and is defined as the difference between
the largest and smallest values of the variable.
• In symbols, Range = L – S.
• Where L = Largest value.
• S = Smallest value.
In individual observations and discrete series, L and S are easily identified. In

continuous series, the following two methods are followed.
Method 1
L = Upper boundary of the highest class S = Lower

boundary of the lowest class.
Method 2
L = Mid value of the highest class. S = Mid

value of the lowest class.
Example1
The yields (kg per plot) of a cotton variety from five plots are 8, 9, 8, 10 and 11. Find the range
Solution
L=11, S = 8.
Range = L – S = 11- 8 = 3
6. Explain the cut off wavelength measurement.(APR 14,15)
 To determine the cutoff wavelength of a single-mode fiber by the transmitted

power method, the transmitted spectral power versus wavelength for the sample
fiber is compared to the transmitted spectral power versus wavelength for two
meters of a multimode fiber by applying the equation:
Ps
Am = 10 log10
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B.
d Pm
where: Am = attenuation difference

Ps = power from the single-mode fiber
Pm = power from the multimode fiber
 A multimode fiber is used as the reference fiber to permit mapping out

the spectral response of the measurement system. To determine the
cutoff wavelength, Am is plotted against wavelength.
 A straight line is fitted to the long-wavelength backslope of the plot and
Attenuation Difference, Am (dB)
dropped 0.1 dB. its subsequent intersection with the curve denotes the
cutoff wavelength. An optimal fit can be used to control errors in the
transition zone.
Cutoff
Wavelength Plot
88
OPTICAL COMMUNICATION & NETWORKING DEPARTMENT OF ECE
UNIT 5
OPTICAL NETWORKS AND SYSTEM TRANSMISSION
PART - A
1.What are the three topologies used for fiber optical network? (MAY 15)
The three topologies used for fiber optical network are
Bus topology
Ring topology
Star topology
2. Calculate the number of independent signals that can be sent on a single fiber in
the 1525 – 1565 nm bands. Assume the spectral spacing as per ITUT recommendation
G.692. (NOV 14)
Given: Mean frequency spacing as per ITU- T is 0.8nm. Wavelength = 1565nm –
1525nm = 40 nm. Number of independent channel = ( 40nm / 0.8nm) = 50 channels.
3.Define – WDM (APR 15)

In fiber-optic communications, wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) is a
technology which multiplexes a number of optical carrier signals onto a single optical fiber by
using different wavelengths (i.e. colors) of LASER light. This technique enables bidirectional
communications over one strand of fiber, as well as multiplications of capacity.
4.What are the advantages of WDM?

The advantages of WDM are
Various optical channels can support different transmission formats.
Increase in the capacity if optical fiber compared to point – to –point link.
5.The specifications of the light sources are converted to equivalent rise time in rise
time budget. Why?
A rise time budget is a convenient method to determine the dispersion
limitation of an optical link. This is particularly useful for digital systems. For this purpose, the
specifications of the light sources (both the fiber and the photo detector) are converted to
equivalent rise time. The overall system rise time is given in terms of the light source rise
time, fiber dispersion time and the photo detector rise time.
6.What is EDFA? (APR 13,14)

An erbium-doped fiber amplifier (EDFA) is a device that amplifier an optical fiber signal.
A trace in the form of a trivalent erbium ion is inserted into the optical fiber’s silica core to
alter its optical properties and permit signal amplification.
7.What is chirping?
The d.c. modulation of a single longitudinal mode semiconductor LASER can cause
a dynamic shift of the peak wavelength emitter from the device. This phenomenon, which
results in dynamic line width broadening under the direct modulation of the injection current,
is referred to us frequency chirping.
8.What are the advantages of using soliton signals through fiber?

The advantages of using soliton signals through fiber are, solitons are very narrow, high-
intensity optical pulses that retain their shape through the interaction of balancing pulse
dispersion with nonlinear properties of an optical fiber.
9.Distinguish between fundamental and higher order soliton.

The family of pulses that do not change in shape are called fundamental solitons. The
family of pulses that undergo periodic shape changes are called higher order solitons.
10.What are solitons?

Solitons are nonlinear optical pulses which have the potential support very high
optical transmission rates of many terabits per second over long distances.
11.What are the drawbacks of broadcast and select networks for wide area network
applications?
The drawbacks of broadcast and select networks for wide area network applications
are
 Without the use of optical booster amplifiers splitting losses occurs.
 More wavelengths are needed as the number of nodes in the network grows.
12.What are the techniques to reduce optical feedback?
o Fiber end faces with a curved surface to the laser emitting facet. Index
matching oil or gel at air glass interfaces.
o PC connectors
o Optical isolators within the transmitter module.
PART - B
1.Briefly explain about SONET.(MAY 13,14)
Synchronous Optical NETwork

Designed for optical transport (high bitrate)
Direct mapping of lower levels into higher ones
Carry all PDH types in one universal hierarchy

– ITU version = Synchronous Digital Hierarchy
– different terminology but interoperable

Overhead doesn’t increase with rate
OAM designed-in from beginning

Standardization
The original Bellcore proposal:
hierarchy of signals, all multiple of basic rate (50.688)
 basic rate about 50 Mbps to carry DS3 payload
bit-oriented mux
 mechanisms to carry DS1, DS2, DS3

Many other proposals were merged into 1987 draft document (rate 49.920) In summer of
1986 CCITT express interest in cooperation
 needed a rate of about 150 Mbps to carry E4
 wanted byte oriented mux

Initial compromise attempt
 byte mux
US wanted 13 rows * 180 columns
 CEPT wanted 9 rows * 270 columns
SONET/SDH architecture: Layers:

SONET was designed with definite layering concepts Physical layer – optical fiber (linear
or ring)
– when exceed fiber reach – regenerators – regenerators are not mere amplifiers,
– regenerators use their own overhead – fiber between regenerators called section
(regenerator section)
Line layer – link between SONET muxes (Add/Drop Multiplexers)
– input and output at this level are Virtual Tributaries (VCs)
– actually 2 layers
 lower order VC (for low bitrate payloads)
 higher order VC (for high bitrate payloads)

Path layer – end-to-end path of client data (tributaries)
– client data (payload) may be
 PDH
 ATM
 packet data
2.Explain about SONET /SDH architecture: (APR 13,14)
SONET (SDH) has at 3 layers:
path – end-to-end data connection, muxes tributary signals path section

– there are STS paths + Virtual Tributary (VT) paths
line – protected multiplexed SONET payload multiplex section
section – physical link between adjacent elements regenerator section
Each layer has its own overhead to support needed functionality SDH terminology A
SONET signal is called a Synchronous Transport Signal .
SON ET OPT ICAL R ATE

STS-1 OC-1 51.84M
STS-3 OC-3 155.52M
STS-12 OC-12 622.080M
SONET / SDH frames: Synchronous Transfer Signals are bit-signals (OC are optical) Like
all TDM signals, there are framing bits at the beginning of the frame However, it is
convenient to draw SONET/SDH signals as rectangles
SONET STS-1 frame:
Synchronous Transport Modules are the bit-signals for SDH Each STM-1 frame is 270
columns * 9 rows = 2430 bytes There are 8000 STM-1 frames per second Thus the basic
STM-1 rate is 155.520 Mbps 3 times the STS-1 rate!
STS/STM signals can carry PDH tributaries, for example:

STS-1 can carry 1 T3 or 28 T1s or 1 E3 or 21 E1s
STM-1 can carry 3 E3s or 63 E1s or 3 T3s or 84 T1s

framing, performance monitoring, management Line overhead is 6 rows * 3 columns = 18
bytes = 1152 kbps protection switching, line maintenance, mux/concat, SPE pointer SPE is
9 rows * 87 columns = 783 bytes = 50.112 Mbps Similarly, STM-1 has 9 (different)
columns of section+line overhead
STM-1 frame :
STM-1 has 9 (different) columns of transport overhead ! RS overhead is 3 rows * 9

columns Pointer overhead is 1 row * 9 columns MS overhead is 5 rows * 9 columns SPE is
9 rows * 261 columns.
3.Explain about wavelength division multiplexing.(APR/MAY 14,15)
• Passive/active devices are needed to combine, distribute, isolate and amplify optical
power at different wavelengths
• Capacity upgrade of existing fiber networks (without adding fibers)
• Transparency: Each optical channel can carry any transmission format (different
asynchronous bit rates, analog or digital)
• Scalability– Buy and install equipment for additional demand as needed
• Wavelength routing and switching: Wavelength is used as another dimension to time and
space
Key components for WDM
Passive Optical Components :
• Wavelength Selective Splitters
• Wavelength Selective Couplers
Active Optical Components :
• Tunable Optical Filter
• Tunable Source
• Optical amplifier
• Add-drop Multiplexer and De-multiplexer
4.Explain about soliton systems.(NOV/DEC14,15)
 The use of SRS amplifiers only helps in reducing one of the problems of long haul
transmission, namely the loss of the signal. The second problem, pulse broadening
brought on by dispersion, still remains even with the use of SRS or SBS based
amplifiers.
 Indeed, the fundamental limitation of the fiberoptic communication systems arises
from dispersion. Dispersion can be compensated if it is possible to keep the pulse
from expanding or broadening.
 But, the dispersion in the fiber can only be reduced, not eliminated. However, along
with pulse broadening if we can introduce pulse compression, the two
counteracting effects, broadening and compression, will ensure that the pulses do
not spread in time.
 It can be easily seen from Figure 23 that by having pulse a compressed pulse and a
dispersed pulse, the pulse can traverse un-dispersed.
 Pulses that are not dispersed are referred to as solitons or solitary pulses. These
pulses must have a certain definite shape and will require a minimum strength.
 The energy in the pulse introduces intensity induced refractive index change in the
material of the fiber. Index changes from intensity variations are a manifestation of
the non-linearity of the material.
 Intensity induced changes leads to pulse compression because such changes are
equivalent to self-phase modulation. Phase modulation and frequency modulation
increase the frequency content in the pulse.
 Using the Fourier property of duality (expansion in the frequency domain causes a
compression in the frequency domain and vice versa), the pulse must now be
narrower.
 This narrowing of the pulse will be sufficient to compensate for the dispersion in the
fiber, keeping the pulse from spreading.
 Fiberoptic communication systems based on solitons use SRS or other amplifiers to
keep the signal energy back to the minimum value required to produce the
nonlinearities needed.
 Thus, the system shown in Figure 22 where the input pulse is of a specific shape, will
provide a fiberoptic communication system that mitigates the twin problems of
attenuation and dispersion.
5.Briefly explain about Erbium doped amplifier.(NOV 14,15)
• Erbium ions are optically pumped, typically by a 980 nm laser diode. is raised to . • The
erbium ions decay rapidly to . They experience an atomically long lifetime here (10 ms).
This accumulation of erbium ions lead to a population inversion between . • Photons at

1550 nm have an energy of 0.80eV ( ).
• This triggers stimulated emission of erbium ions from
• Erbium ions left at E1 will absorb the incoming 1550 nm photons and rise to E2.
• Stimulated emission must exceed light absorption to achieve light amplification.
• Therefore there must be more erbium ions at E2 then at E1.
• Assume N2 and N1 are the number if erbium ions at E2 and E1.
• The difference between stimulated emission (E2 toE1) and absorption (E1 to E2) rate
controls the optical gain.
where K is a constant that depends on pumping intensity Considerations:
• Spontaneous decay of erbium ions from E2 to E1 will generate noise in the amplified light
signal.
• If the EDFA is not pumped then it presents itself as an attenuator. 1550 nm photons will
be absorbed by ions which will rise from E1 to E2.
• The range of stimulated transistions from E2 to E1 correspond to a wavelength range of
1525 to 1565 nm that can be amplified.
• This delivers an optical bandwidth of 40 nm.
• This permits usage with a WDM.
• Problem => Gain is not uniform across bandwidth.
• Techniques must be implemented to flatten the response.
Factors controlling the degree of gain uniformity:

1. Concentrations of the active ion (erbium).
2. Optical gain flattening filter.
3. Additional (second ) pump laser at each end of the fibre.
One pump beam propagates with signal beam while the other propagates against it.
Ensures that population inversion and gain remains constant along the fiber. Physical
Components of EDFA:
1. Biconical fused fibre couplers.
2. One or two (if high output required) laser pumps.
3. Polarization-insensitive optical isolators front and back. Allows only 1550 nm signals to
pass. Pump radiation should not enter main fibre as well as optical feedback from
reflections.
4. Optical filter for gain flattening.
5. Phgotodetector system to monitor pump power or EDFA output power .
6.Explain about optical CDMA.(APR 13,14)
 Code division multiple access (CDMA) techniques were investigated for optical
network applications during the last 20 to 25 years.
 These techniques allow many users to access the common channel asynchronously
and securely, and, since dedicated time or wavelength slots do not have to be
allocated, high statistical multiplexing gain can be offered even in bursty traffic.
 To enlarge the network capacity further, new coding schemes using codewords with
small λ and having the two-code keying ability can be developed. In [11], one
coding scheme was proposed and code sequences with λ=0 or 1 can be used for
two-code keying of information bits.
 By the use of the cyclic property for shifted prime (SP) codes, compact encoder
structure based on cascaded AWGs and simplified decoder based on fiber Bragg
grating (FBG) were also proposed for the application of passive optical networks
(PONs).
 The optical line termi-nal (OLT) encoder based on cascaded AWGs had the
advantage that only p×p and 1×p AWGs were needed in the encoder for SP codes
with codelength p2.
Implementation of Coder/Decoder
 The RBSs of the proposed fiber radio network use the encoder shown in Figure 2,
which is designed for the first SP codewords 1,ef = [1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0] and the
second SP2,ef = [0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0] of this RBS.
 Light from the broadband light source is incident to one FBG-based encoder
cascading with another FBG-based encoder.

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EC6702 PPG INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

OPTICAL COMMUNICATION & NETWORKS DEPARTMENT OF ECE

EC6702 OPTICAL COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING

UNIT I INTRODUCTION TO OPTICAL FIBERS 9

UNIT II SIGNAL DEGRADATION OPTICAL FIBERS 9

UNIT III FIBER OPTICAL SOURCES AND COUPLING 9

UNIT IV FIBER OPTIC RECEIVER AND MEASUREMENTS 9

UNIT V OPTICAL NETWORKS AND SYSTEM TRANSMISSION 9

INTRODUCTION TO OPTICAL FIBERS

1. What is the necessity of cladding for an optical fiber?[APR/MAY 2013,15]

The necessity of cladding for an optical fiber is

2. Define Numerical aperture of a step index fiber. [NOV/DEC 13,15]

3. Define - Acceptance Angle[NOV/DEC2012,14,15]

4.What is the principle used in the working of fibers as light guides?[DEC2013]

7. What is critical angle?[APR 2014]

8. What is Snell’s law?[APR 2014]

9.What are the conditions for total internal reflection?[NOV 2014,15]

The conditions for total internal reflections are:

10.What are guided modes?[APR2013, NOV 15]

11.Differentiate between meridional rays and skew rays.[APR 2013,NOV 2014]

12. What are the advantages of optical communication?[APR2013,15 NOV 14]

It has the following three basic functions:

 the optical detector

2.Explain the methods of ray theory transmission.[APR 2013,14,NOV 15]

Fiber acceptance angle.

Single Mode Fibers

6. SINGLE MODE GRADED-INDEX FIBERS

2. What is meant by Fresnel reflection? (NOV/ DEC 2011)

3.What is meant by attenuation coefficient of a fiber? ( NOV / DEC 2011)

5.What is meant by dispersion in optical fiber? ( APRIL / MAY 2008)

Ways to reduce macrobending losses are

8.What is polarization mode dispersion ( PMD)? ( APRIL / MAY2007)

9. What is fiber birefringence? ( APRIL / MAY 2014)

10. What is mode coupling? ( APRIL / MAY2015)

11. Define- Beat Length( NOV/DEC 2014)

12.What is intra Modal dispersion? ( APRIL / MAY2012)

 Imperfections in the atomic structure of the fiber material

2.Write notes on scattering losses and bending losses.(NOV/DEC 14,15)

Distance traveled by each mode over the same time span.

Information Capacity Determination:

4.Explain about optical fiber connectors.(APR/MAY 15)

 A connector assembly consists of an adapter and two connector plugs.

Every fiber connection has two values:

 Attenuation or insertion loss

Features of good connector design:

 Low insertion loss

 Low environmental sensitivity

5.Explain about fiber optic couplers(NOV/DEC 15)

6.Explain about fiber alignment and joint losses.(APR/MAY 14,15]

Types of Fiber Joints

 For non-permanent connections, one can also use fiber connectors

Coupling Losses of Imperfect Fiber Joints

 a parallel offset of the fiber cores,

 a mismatch of core sizes, or

 an air gap between the fiber ends.

A similar equation can be used for an angular mismatch:

FIBER OPTICAL SOURCES AND COUPLING

Given data Vin = 2V, Iin = 10010-3 A, Pout = 2 10-3W,