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GENERAL SCIENCES
THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
● Main steps
1. Define the problem or question.
2. Gather data and make observations.
3. State the hypothesis (make an intelligent guess).
4. Test the hypothesis (experimentation).
5. Analyze the results of the experiment.
6. Draw conclusions (accept or reject hypothesis). Repeat steps if more questions
are drawn.
● Variables in an experiment
○ Independent - the factor being manipulated in the experiment
○ Controlled - the factor being kept constant throughout the experiment
○ Dependent - the factor responding to the changes in a variable; determines
results
Example:
a. Independent variable - number of teaspoons of powdered juice
b. Controlled - amount of water (1 liter)
c. Dependent - intensity of the color of the drink

COMMON PREFIXES
PREFIX SYMBOL FACTOR NAME
giga G 109 billion
mega M 106 million
3
kilo k 10 thousand
hecto h 102 hundred
deka da 101 ten
-1
deci d 10 tenth
centi c 10-2 hundredth
milli m 10-3 thousandth
-6
micro μ 10 millionth
-9
nano n 10 billionth

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COMMON SCIENCE OLOGIES

OLOGY STUDY OF

Geology Earth

Oceanography marine, ocean

Meteorology weather

Aerology atmosphere

Astronomy everything outer space

Microbiology microorganisms

Botany plant life

Zoology animal kingdom

Ecology interactions among organisms and

environment

Hydrogeology underground water

Lithology rocks

Astrobiology origin of life

Pathology illness

COMMON UNITS
MEASUREMENT UNIT

Mass g, kg, lb

Length, Distance cm, m, in, ft

Volume cm3, m3, mL, L

Time s, hr

Speed m/s, km/h, ft/s

Density g/cm3, kg/m3

Pressure atm, Pascals

Temperature Celsius (°C), Kelvin (K)

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EARTH AND SPACE

FAMOUS DISCOVERIES AND WORK
● Big Bang Theory - suggests that the Universe, before, was only a single particle that
expanded infinitely after a huge explosion; formulated by Georges Lemaître
● Pangaea Theory - suggests that one large "supercontinent" called Pangaea, surrounded
by water, existed before it slowly broke apart to form the current 7 continents,
proposed by Alfred Wegener
● Sputnik 1 - first artificial satellite in 1957
● Yuri Gagarin - first man in space in 1961
● Diwata-1 - first microsatellite from the Philippines
● Maya-1 - first nanosatellite from the Philippines
● Neil Armstrong - first man to land on the moon

SUN

PARTS OF THE SUN

Make a model of the Sun. Include all of the Sun's layers in | Quizlet
● Core – where nuclear fusion happens
● Photosphere – the layer visible to humans

ACTIVITIES ON THE SUN

● Sunspots – black storm areas in low temperature
● Solar wind – high energy particles in streams sent to space; causes the light displays
aurora borealis and aurora australis (from the Northern and Southern hemispheres,
respectively)
● Prominences – huge arch-like storms that last for days
● Solar flares – bigger prominences for shorter periods of time (about 15 minutes)

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THE SOLAR SYSTEM

Diameter compared to Earth Notes

Sun more than 100x Energy source is hydrogen to helium

nuclear fusion
Mercury 2/5 Rocky

Venus Slightly shorter “Morning Star” – brightest before

sunrise and after sunset; hottest
planet
Earth 1 Habitat for humans and other living
things known to man
Mars 1/2 “Red Planet”
Asteroids “minor planets”
Jupiter 11 Gaseous, largest planet in the solar
system, planet with the most number
of moons
Saturn 9 1/2 Gaseous, famous for its rings
Uranus 4 Icy; counter-clockwise rotation
Neptune 3 1/2 Icy

● Phases of the moon – since the Moon orbits the Earth and Earth orbits the Sun,
different portions of the moon face the Sun

www.saturdaygift.com/

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● New moon - moon is between the Sun and Earth

● Full moon - Earth is between the Sun and the moon
● Milky Way - the galaxy where the Solar System is
● supernova - explosion of a big star; remains are called the black hole where gravity is
very strong
● Comets – icy bodies of frozen gases, rocks, and dust that orbit the sun
● Asteroid - larger rocky/metallic object in space
● Meteoroid - smaller rocky/metallic object in space
● Meteor - meteoroids that enter the Earth’s atmosphere
● Meteorite - when a meteor survives and lands at the Earth’s surface

www.britannica.com/story/what-causes-lunar-and-solar-eclipses

● Eclipse - happens when three celestial objects align; has two types
○ Lunar eclipse - Earth's shadow covers the Moon; more frequent
○ Solar eclipse - the Moon blocks the Sun from view
○ Can be classified depending on the coverage of the shadow

spacetourismguide.com/types-eclipses/

COMMON STARS AND CONSTELLATIONS

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● Proxima Centauri - closest star to Earth but not visible at night

● Alpha Centauri - closest star to Earth that is visible at night
● Orion - The Hunter, contains the ‘Orions Belt’ which is composed of three stars that are
almost perfectly aligned
● Polaris - tip of the Little Dipper’s handle; known as “North Star”
● Pegasus - The Winged Horse
● Sirius - brightest star; known as “Dog Star”
● Ursa Major and Ursa Minor - “Big Bear” and “Little Bear”; contain Little and Big Dipper
● Canis Major and Canis Minor - “Big Dog” and “Little Dog”; the former contains Sirius

EARTH

● Different identifiers in locating regions on the Earth

○ Primary directions - North, South, East, West
○ Latitude - horizontal lines located North or South; Equator as the 0 degree
starting line
○ Longitude - vertical lines located East or West; Prime Meridian as the 0 degree
starting line

www.learnz.org.nz
● Rotation - Earth spinning on its own axis, producing the 24-hour day
● Revolution - Earth’s orbital motion around the Sun, producing the 365-day year
○ a year is actually 365 and ¼ days; hence, the occurrence of leap year every 4
years
● Seasons - caused by the Earth’s tilted axis together with rotation and revolution, which
varies portions of the Earth’s exposure to the Sun

LAYERS OF THE EARTH

● Crust - top layer; can be oceanic or continental
● Mantle - thickest layer; dense, hot and semi-solid

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● Core - center of the Earth; has two parts: the liquid outer core (made up of nickel, iron,
and molten rock) and solid inner core
● Lithosphere - outermost layer of Earth; composed of the crust and the brittle part of
the upper mantle
● Asthenosphere - thick layer of the upper mantle between the lower mantle and the
lithosphere

www.sciencefacts.net/soil-horizons.html
EARTHQUAKES

● magnitude - “size” of an earthquake or amount of energy released; measured using the

Richter scale (1 to 10)
○ magnitude 2 is ten times stronger than magnitude 1
● intensity - the amount of damage; measured using Mercalli scale (1 to 12)
● focus - point of origin of an earthquake
● epicenter - the point on the Earth’s surface directly above the focus

ROCKS

● Has three main types

○ Igneous rocks - formed from melted rock deep inside the Earth or hot spots
(e.g., granite, pumice)
○ Sedimentary - formed from layers of sand, silt, dead plants, and animal remains
(e.g. sandstone, chalk)

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○ Metamorphic - formed from other rocks that underwent heat and pressure
underground (e.g., slate, marble)

LAYERS OF SOIL

www.sciencefacts.net

www.sciencefacts.net/soil-horizons.html

LAYERS OF THE ATMOSPHERE

www.pinterest.ph/pin/earths-atmosphere-kidspressmagazinecom

● Troposphere - most dense layer; life forms and weather conditions are found in this
layer
● Tropopause - boundary between troposphere and stratosphere
● Stratosphere - where airplanes fly
● Ozone layer - thin part that absorbs harmful ultraviolet light from the Sun
● Mesosphere - coldest layer where meteors burn up
● Ionosphere (thermosphere) - hottest layer
● Exosphere - where man-made satellites orbit the Earth

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NATURE AND WEATHER

WATER CYCLE

www.sciencefacts.net/water-cycle.html
● Liquid water evaporates into water vapor, condenses to form clouds, and precipitates
back to Earth in the form of rain and snow.
● Aside from changes in phase, the movement of water can be either
○ Runoff - liquid water flows across land
○ Infiltration and percolation- flows into the ground
○ Groundwater - through the ground
○ Plant uptake - moves into plants
○ Transpiration - evaporates from plants into the atmosphere
● Clouds - formed when invisible water vapor in the air undergoes condensation

TYPES OF CLOUDS

scied.ucar.edu/learning-zone/clouds/cloud-types
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TYPE OF CLOUD NOTES WEATHER PREDICTION

Cirrus Delicate, feathery; mostly ice crystals Incoming changes in weather

Veil-like halo around the Sun or Moon;
Cirrostratus Rain or snow will arrive
usually in winter
Fair but cold; in tropical regions may
Cirrocumulus Sheet-like and patchy
signal an incoming hurricane
Altocumulus Ripples, made of liquid water Fair weather
Grey or blue-grey; ice crystals and water
Altostratus May signal continuous rain or snow
droplets
Dark and gray, thick and blocks out Gloomy with continuous rain or
Nimbostratus
sunlight snow
Cumulus Fluffy white cotton balls Fair
Stratus Fog-like, thin white sheets Fair but gloomy
Cumulonimbus Mountain-like, hot days May signal rain, hail, or tornadoes
Patchy grey with a dark honeycomb-like Fair, but it may signal a storm
Stratocumulus
appearance incoming

KINDS OF STORMS

Speed Notes
Electrically-charged clouds causing
Thunderstorms
lightning and thunder
Tropical
Up to 63 km/hr winds
depression
Tropical storm 63-117 km/hr winds
Typhoons Originates from the Pacific Ocean
Hurricane 120-350 km/hr winds Originates from the Atlantic Ocean
Cyclone Originates from the Indian Ocean
Tornadoes 500 km/hr Smaller in area

WEATHER DEVICES
● Thermometer - measures temperature

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○ Thermograph - measures temperature continuously on a graphing paper

● Anemometer - measures wind speed
● Wind vane - indicates the direction of wind blow
● Barometer - measures atmospheric pressure
● Hygrometer - measures the humidity of the air
● Rain gauge - measures the amount of rainfall over a period of time

BIOLOGY

LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION

● A cell is the most basic unit of life.

● Tissues are made up of cells that perform a similar function.
● An organ does a specialized function through one or a group of tissues.
● An organ system is a group of organs performing together for a function.
● Organ systems perform activities for a developed organism or individual.

Did you know that? - cardiac muscle cells make up cardiac tissues that build up the heart, which
is a part of the circulatory system that performs the cardiovascular activities of an organism

sciencefacts.net
● An individual is part of a specific species or population.
● A community is made up of different populations or different groups of species.
● An ecosystem is made up of different communities, habitats, and other biotic factors
● A biosphere is made up of different ecosystems.

Did you know that? - A clownfish is an individual member of a population (or school) of
clownfish. This population is part of a larger community that also includes different species,
such as sharks and eels. This community and the abiotic factors (like water temperature,
salinity, etc.) form an ecosystem. This ecosystem, along with others (like jungles, deserts, etc.),

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forms the biosphere, which represents all regions of the Earth and its atmosphere where life
exists

sciencefacts.net
● Ecosystem – has biotic (living) and abiotic components (non-living); terrestrial (forest,
grassland, tundra, or desert) or aquatic (freshwater or marine)
o Biotic – producers, consumers, decomposers
▪ Consumers can be primary (herbivores), secondary (carnivores or
omnivores), tertiary and quaternary (those who feed on secondary,
higher levels of the food chain, no predators)
o Abiotic - shapes the overall ecosystem, such as temperature, light, water, etc.

FAMOUS DISCOVERIES AND WORK

● Natural Selection – “Survival of the Fittest” by Charles Darwin

● Carl Linnaeus - modern taxonomy and classification of life, naming of species
● James Watson and Francis Crick - discovery of the DNA
● Ian Wilmut and Keith Campbell - cloning of mammals, “Dolly” the Sheep
● Gregor Mendel - foundations of genetics and heredity

BODY PARTS AND SYSTEMS

● Different cells in the body are organized into four main categories:
○ Epithelial tissue (epithelium) - covers the outer surfaces of the body, lines
internal cavities and passageways, and forms certain glands.
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○ Connective tissue - binds the cells and organs of the body together to protect,
support, and link all parts of the body.
○ Muscle tissue - reacts to stimulation and contraction and provides movement
○ Nervous tissue - Enables electrical signals to spread as nerve messages.

EYES

my.clevelandclinic.org/health/body/21823-eyes
● Cornea – outer layer of the eye
● Pupil – black center of the eye; gateway of light
● Iris – referred to for determining eye color
● Lens – behind the iris and pupil; guides light to the back of the eye
● Retina – contains light-sensitive cells that convert light into signals for the brain

EARS

hearinghealthcarect.com/how-the-ear-works/
● Pinna or auricle – outer part of the ear
● Eardrum – Separates the outer ear from the middle ear
● Tympanic cavity (middle ear) – Three tiny bones (known as the hammer, anvil, and
stirrup) that pass sound waves to the inner ear; smallest bones in the body

SKELETAL AND MUSCULAR SYSTEM

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● 206 bones in our body; they can be categorized into two groups - central (80: including
the head, ribs, chest bone, and spine) and peripheral (126: the limbs and their
attachments to the central group).
● Bone tissue – can be compact or spongy; it's kept balanced by cells that form bones
(osteoblasts) and cells that break down bones (osteoclasts)
● Osteocytes – mature bone cells
● Osteogenesis – creation of bone (also called ossification)
● Cartilage – soft bone between mature bones; found in ears and nose, young
vertebrates
● Ligaments – bind bone to bone; found in joints
● Tendons – bind muscle to bone

healthline.com
● Types of muscle
o skeletal (striated) – for skeletal movements; attached to bones
o smooth (non-striated) – for involuntary activities of nervous systems; found in
walls of hollow organs (e.g., gastrointestinal tract)
o cardiac – also for involuntary activities; found in walls of the heart

MedlinePlus Medical

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DIGESTIVE AND EXCRETORY SYSTEM

● Digestive tract is about 9 meters from mouth to anus
Function Digestive Fluid
Mouth Initial digestion of starch; mechanical digestion Saliva (containing ptyalin)
of teeth
Esophagus Path of food to stomach, peristalsis movement
Stomach Mechanical and chemical digestion Gastric juice
Small intestine Chemical digestion; absorption of digested Pancreatic and intestinal
minerals juice, bile
Large intestine Absorption of water
Anus Elimination of indigestible waste

MedlinePlus Medical
Function

Kidney Cleans the blood, removes waste through urine

Ureter Path from kidney to urinary bladder

Urinary Stores urine for excretion
bladder
Urethra Final passageway of urine to outside the body

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

● Respiratory cycle – one breath (one inhale, one exhale)

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● Spirometer - measure the amount of air that moves into and out of the lungs
● Consists of
o Mouth and nose – openings for breathing in and out
o Pharynx – pathway from mouth and nose to trachea (windpipe); also called
throat
o Trachea – connects throat to lungs
o Bronchial tubes – connects both lungs at the bottom of trachea
o Alveoli – where oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange happens
o Larynx – voice box

clevelandclinic.org

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

● Cardiovascular system
● Capillaries – singular cell vessels where gas exchange takes place
● Artery – carries oxygenated blood away from the heart
● Veins – carries deoxygenated blood back to the heart

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cancer.gov
NERVOUS SYSTEM

● Has two groups: central (brain and spinal cord) and peripheral (nerves and ganglia)
● Main parts of the brain: cerebrum (for conscious thinking), pineal gland (endocrine),
hypothalamus (emotions), cerebellum (body balance), pons and medulla oblongata
(respiratory)
● Neurons – carry out functions of the system through nerve signals; they do not
regenerate; has dendrites (receives signals) and axons (carries away signals)

cancer.gov
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

● Has two gland categories: those that do not have tubes to carry products (endocrines)
and those that possess tubes (exocrines)

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cancer.gov

Function
Ejection of milk, contractions of uterus
Pituitary Growth of mammary glands
Growth
Thyroid Metabolism
Pineal Reproductive development
Pancreas Absorption of Glucose
Glucose level increase
Adrenal Emergency reactions
Thymus Protection against infections
Ovary Female sexual development
Testes Male sexual development and function

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

vecteezy.com

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● Common parts of the female reproductive system are

○ Vagina – a muscular pathway as an opening to the reproductive part
○ Uterus (womb) – a muscular organ lined by the endometrium. The opening to
the womb is the cervix.
○ Fallopian tubes – extend from two sides of the womb, each connecting to a
near ovary; they are responsible for carrying the egg (ovum)
○ Ovary – small glands containing the ova; produces sex hormones

clevelandclinic.org
● Common parts of the male reproductive system are
○ Penis – pathway of urine and semen to outside the body
○ Testicles (testes) – sex glands producing sperm and sex hormones; located in a
sack called the scrotum
○ Epididymis – collects and stores sperm through tubes attached to the back of
each testicle
○ Vas deferens – a larger tube that transports sperm to the urethra; continuation
of the epididymis

CELL STRUCTURES AND DIVISION

● CELL THEORY - All living things are composed of cells. All cells arise from other cells;
formulated by Theodor Schwann, Matthias Schleiden, Rudolf Virchow
● Types of cells:
Prokaryotic – no nuclear membrane (no nucleus); lacks most organelles,
Eukaryotic – has membrane-bound nucleus; possesses most organelles

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garden.org
● Cellulose – long carbohydrate chains (polysaccharides) in plant cell walls
● Glycogen – polysaccharide storage in animals
● Two types of reproduction: sexual (two parents, offspring has different gene
combinations) and asexual (one parent, offspring has exact same gene as parent)
● All cells contain chromosomes which are thread-like structures containing DNA carrying
unique genetic information.
Types of Cells Division
MITOSIS MEIOSIS
Sex cells
Somatic cells (all cells except sex cells) ● Egg cells - sex cells of
females
● Sperm cells - sex cells of
males
Growth and repair Reproduction
Process has one cycle of prophase then Process has two cycles of prophase
metaphase then anaphase and then then metaphase then anaphase and
telophase then telophase

NOTABLE SCIENTIFIC NAMES

● Humans - Homo sapiens
● Sampaguita – Jasminum sambac
● Philippine Eagle – Pithercophaga jefferyi
● Rice – Oryza sativa
● Banana – Musa squamosa
● Maya – Passer montanus
● Carabao – Bubalus bubalis
● Beetle discovered by Rizal - Apogonia rizali
● Lizard discovered by Rizal - Draco rizali

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FIVE KINGDOM CLASSIFICATION

CELL TYPE CELL WALL PHOTOSYNTHESIS EXAMPLE

Monera P Y in most Some Euglena; Hay
bacillus
Protista E N Some algae; marine
diatoms
Fungi E Y N Yeast;
mushrooms
Plantae E Y Y Grass; flowers
Animalia E N N Vertebrate,
invertebrates

P-prokaryotic, E – eukaryotic; Y – yes, N – no

● Monera – consists of prokaryotes

● Protisa – consists of eukaryotes that is not a fungus, plant, or animal
● Fungi – eukaryotic microorganisms
● Plantae – eukaryotic organisms that undergo photosynthesis
● Animalia – multicellular eukaryotes that do not photosynthesize; biggest kingdom

SYMBIOTIC RELATIONSHIPS

● Competition – when two or more organisms rely on the same environment for
resources (e.g. tigers and lions compete for food)
● Predation – one animal eating another (e.g. gulls eating catched fish)
● Mutualism – both organisms benefit (e.g. bees get food from flowers and flowers
pollinate because of bees)
● Commensalism – one organism benefits and one does not benefit but is unharmed
(e.g. barnacles get food from whales while whales just let them sit on their surface)
● Parasitism – one organism benefits and one is harmed (e.g. ticks get nutrition from
dogs while dogs gets skin irritations)

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PLANTS

www.sciencefacts.net/parts-of-a-plant.html
● Tropism – slow and permanent reaction of plants
o phototropism – reaction to light
o geotropism – reaction to gravity
o thigmotropism – reaction to touch
● Photosynthesis – process of using light from the Sun to convert water and carbon
dioxide to oxygen and energy (sugars: glucose); chlorophyll – green pigment in plants
also helps in photosynthesis
● Phloem – transports food
● Xylem – transports water
● Non-vascular plants – no phloem, xylem; transports food through osmosis and diffusion
o Algae - Brown, red, and green algae (other algae in Protista); aquatic
o Bryophytes – mosses; no roots, leaves, or stems
● Vascular – transports food and water through phloem and xylem
o Pteridophytes – ferns; no flowers and seeds
o Seed plants (no spores)
▪ Gymnosperms – coniforms (cone-bearing) (e.g. sago palm)

▪ Angiosperms – flower-bearing (e.g., rose, sunflower)

PARTS OF A FLOWER
● Sepal - outer parts enclosing the developing bud; often leafy and green
● Petal - colored parts of the flower; attracts pollinators like bees and butterflies
● Stamen - thin filament that supports the anther where pollens are produced
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● Pistil - where ovules are produced.

○ The stigma where pollen germinates is at the top of the style, supported by the
ovary where ovules are produced.
○ Fruit: matured ovary
○ Seed: matured ovule

amnh.org
PLANT REPRODUCTION

● Plants can reproduce either

○ sexual which involves seeds, asexual which does not need seeds and offsprings
are clones of the parent
● In flowering plants, flowers can either be
○ unisexual - lacking male parts (stamens) or female parts (pistil)
○ bisexual - has both male and female parts
● Flowering plants reproduce in four steps
1. Pollination - the transfer of pollen from the male part (anther) to the female
part (stigma) of the flower
2. Germination - a pollen tube develops through the style of the pistil to help the
sperm reach the ovary.
3. Penetration of the ovule - the pollen tube creates an opening to allow sperm
access to the egg
4. Fertilization - a fertilized egg (zygote) is produced that will develop into the
mature plant

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ANIMALS
● Hierarchy:
kingdom → phylum → class → order → family → genus → species
● Invertebrates – no backbone
● Vertebrates – with backbone
o Poikilothermic/ectothermic – cold-blooded; rely on environment for body
heat; fish, amphibians, and reptiles
o Homeothermic/endothermic – warm-blooded; can maintain constant high
body temperature; birds and mammals
● Ocean life forms
o Benthos – organisms on the seabed
o Nekton – organisms that swim
o Plankton – organisms that float or drift on the water surface

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