Highway and Railroad Engineering

CE 108
Chapter 3: Design Criteria for Highways and Railways

Chapter Objectives :
1. Explain the concepts associated with the design criteria for highways and railways.
2. To explain the basic service requirements in the design of highways and railways.
Design Criteria for Highways and Railways
• Consist of a detailed list of considerations to be used in negotiating a set of road standards.
Reference: Fajardo, Max Jr. B. Elements of Roads and Highways, Second Edition
• Consistency is the most important single rule in highway design. That is, by making every element
of the roadway conforms to the expectation of every driver. Drivers expect the highway agency to
provide them with:
1. Clear information and guidance through a variety of road signs.

2. Avoiding abrupt changes in the traffic as well as the road standards.

 If these guides and directions could be planned properly to convey one single message at a time,
and if these directions will be followed smoothly and easily without undue haste, or changes in
speed, Then, the roadway facilities are considered satisfactory.
• Design Speed
The American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) defined Design
Speed as:
"The speed determined for design and correlation of the physical feature of a highway that influence
vehicles operation. It is the maximum speed that can be maintained over a specified section of the
highway when weather and traffic conditions are so favorable that the design features of the highway
govern.”
Design Criteria for Highways and Railways
• Design Speed (Continued…)
Basic Design Features refers to the tightness and super elevation of curves, the sight distance, and
grade. The design speed is basically higher than the anticipated average speed. AASHTO recommends
that:
"The design speed be set to the greatest degree possible, to satisfy the needs of nearly all drivers
both today and throughout the road anticipated life."”
For economic reasons, the Geometric Features of certain road sections are designed for speed from 30
to 50 kilometers per hour. And yet, some motorists drive faster on straight road alignment or less
sharply curved sections. Under these situations, highway design adopted control by reducing the super
elevation combined with easement curves, delineators, stripping signs and rumble strips, to alert
motorists and inform them that they are approaching sharp curves or blind curves.
Design Criteria for Highways and Railways
• Design Speed (Continued…)
The AASHTO practice is to classify first the highway as Rural or Urban, then as Freeways, Arterials, Collectors and
Local. Rural collectors and local facilities are classified as flat, rolling, or mountainous. Although the design speed
presently used is 80km per hour, highway designers projected design speed up to 120 kilometers per hour to
guarantee against future obsolescence as well as the increased margin of operating safety. The high speed road
design must anticipate future generation high speed vehicles and advanced transportation systems that may
operate on many of these road alignments. Although the design speed of most highways is governed by
construction costs, the concept of the relatively high speed design for freeways is Regardless of Cost. They are
planned for a nationwide high volume traffic and high speed network.

AADT or ADT refers to traffic volume or flow on a highway as measured by the number of vehicles passing a partial
station during a given interval of time. It is called "Average Annual Daily Traffic". If the period is less than one year.
Volume may be stated on hourly "Observed Traffic Volume“ or estimated 30th hour volume commonly used for
design purposes. Some highway agencies use traffic volume for 5 minutes interval to distinguish short peak
movements of vehicles.
Design Criteria for Highways and Railways
 Road Design Parameters
Design Criteria for Highways and Railways
 Road Design Parameters
Design Criteria for Highways and Railways
• Design Speed (Continued…)
Reference: DPWH, 2012 Highway Safety Design Standards Part 1: Road Safety Design Manual
Design Criteria for Highways and Railways
• Design Speed (Continued…)
Reference: DPWH, 2012 Highway Safety Design Standards Part 1: Road Safety Design Manual
Design Criteria for Highways and Railways
• Design Speed (Continued…)
Reference: DPWH, 2012 Highway Safety Design Standards Part 1: Road Safety Design Manual
Design Criteria for Highways and Railways
• Design Speed (Continued…)
Reference: DPWH, 2012 Highway Safety Design Standards Part 1: Road Safety Design Manual
Design Criteria for Highways and Railways
• Design Speed (Continued…)
Reference: DPWH, 2012 Highway Safety Design Standards Part 1: Road Safety Design Manual
Design Criteria for Highways and Railways
• Design Speed (Continued…)
Reference: DPWH, 2012 Highway Safety Design Standards Part 1: Road Safety Design Manual
Design Criteria for Highways and Railways
• Road Capacity
Reference: DPWH, 2012 Highway Safety Design Standards Part 1: Road Safety Design Manual
Design Criteria for Highways and Railways
• Traffic Forecasts
Reference: DPWH, 2012 Highway Safety Design Standards Part 1: Road Safety Design Manual
Design Criteria for Highways and Railways
• Road Types
The basic functional types of roads are locals, collectors, arterials and freeways. Two major
considerations in the classification of highway functional types are access to land use and mobility. On
the two extremes, the design of local streets emphasizes access with little consideration for mobility,
while the design of freeways emphasizes mobility with limited access. The design of collectors and
arterials falls in between, with collectors emphasizes more for access and arterials favors mobility

• Design Vehicles
There are generally four classes of design vehicles: (1) passenger cars, (2) buses, (3) trucks, and (4)
recreational vehicles. The passenger car category includes sport utility vehicles, minivans, vans, and
pickup trucks. The bus and truck categories include buses and trucks of all sizes, respectively. The
highway designer should exercise his judgment in selecting the appropriate design vehicle for design
control, based on the intended use of the facility. For example, the design vehicle from the passenger
car category is adequate for the design of parking lots and their access roads. On the other hand, a city
transit bus should be used for the design of a street in the city along bus route, with little or no truck
traffic. Turning radius limits the design of horizontal curves. Important vehicle characteristics that
affect the minimum turning radius are: minimum center line turning radius, wheelbase, track width,
and out-of-track width. AASHTO has provided the templates for turning paths of 17 design vehicles
traveling at 15 km/h. The minimum design turning, center line turning and minimum inside radius are
listed below.
Design Criteria for Highways and Railways
• Design Vehicles (Continued)
Design Criteria for Highways and Railways
• Driver Characteristics
Geometric design of a highway should consider users, especially drivers’ performance limits. There are
limits to a driver’s vision, perception, reaction, concentration, and comfort that could impact the
highway safety and operating efficiency. When driving, most drivers receive information visually from
their views of the roadway alignment, markings and signs. They do receive other information through
vehicle feedback from the suspension system and steering control, and roadway noise. The information
received by a driver needs time to be processed before a response action takes place. A well-known
study on the brake-reaction time has been made by Johannson and Rumar (1971). They reported that
when an event is expected, the driver’s reaction time has an average value of 0.6 sec. For an
unexpected event, the average reaction time is 0.8 sec. The average brake-reaction time of a driver
(including decision time), is 2.5 sec. This is dependent on the driver’s alertness. Brake-reaction time is
important in determining sight distance in highway geometric design. Koppa (2000) has summarized
the results obtained from recent studies on brake-reaction time. These findings are consistent with
those obtained by Johansson and Rumar. Readers may refer to Koppa (2000) for more details. Driver
expectancies are built up over time, with consistent road design. Unusual or unexpected geometric
design or event always leads to longer reaction and response time. The geometric design of highway
should be in accordance with the driver’s expectation. In recent years, there has been increased
concern for older drivers. The percentage of older drivers among the driving population has increased
over the years. Older drivers tend to have longer reaction time, and this should be reflected in the
design.
Design Criteria for Highways and Railways
• Number of Lanes
The number of lanes in a segment of the highway is determined from the estimated traffic volume for
the design year (AADT) and highway lane capacity at expected level of service. AASHTO policies accept
a dually divided 16 lanes roadway with four lanes in each direction for an inner freeway and four more
lanes in each direction on the outside. There are some instances where a reversible lane is located at
the center of freeways with unbalanced heavy traffic flow.

• Level of Service Consideration

Given a fixed volume of traffic flow and vehicle composition, the geometric design of highways, such as
the horizontal and vertical curves, grades, lane width, number of lanes, etc., affects the travel speed of
vehicles and the interaction between vehicles. The outcome of such effect is the observable
operational performance of the highway, qualitatively represented by the highway level of service.
Design Criteria for Highways and Railways
• Railroad-Highway Separation
The main question asked on a railroad and highway separation is: 'Where one is to go over-the railroad
or the highway? If the highway is to go over the railroad, the structure itself is lighter and the highway
load is much smaller than the railroad loads. With regards to the vertical clearance height, the railroad
requires a minimum of 7.00 meters as against 4.80 meters clear distance above the highway. If the
highway goes under the railroad, special provision is required for the removal of rainwater that falls
within the opposing area. If the ground water is high in the vicinity of the crossing, the roadway must
be sealed against leakage and be made heavy enough to prevent from floating.
Design Criteria for Railways
• Equilibrium speed
When the speed of a vehicle negotiating a curved track is such that the resultant force of the weight of
the vehicle and of radial acceleration is perpendicular to the plane of the rails, the vehicle is not
subjected to any unbalanced radial acceleration and is said to be in equilibrium. This particular speed is
called the equilibrium speed. The equilibrium speed, as such, is the speed at which the effect of the
centrifugal force is completely balanced by the cant provided.
Cant or super-elevation: It is the amount by which one rail is raised above the other rail. It is positive
when the outer rail on a curved track is raised above inner rail and is negative when the inner rail on a
curved track is raised above the outer rail

• Maximum permissible speed

This is the highest speed permitted to a train on a curve taking into consideration the radius of
curvature, actual cant, cant deficiency, cant excess, and the length of transition.
On curves where the maximum permissible speed is less than the maximum sectional speed of the
section of the line, permanent speed restriction becomes necessary.
Design Criteria for Railways (Continued)
• Cant deficiency
Cant deficiency (Cd) occurs when a train travels around a curve at a speed higher than the equilibrium
speed. It is the difference between the theoretical cant required for such high speeds and the actual
cant provided

• Cant Excess
Cant excess (Ce) occurs when a train travels around a curve at a speed lower than the equilibrium
speed. It is the difference between the actual cant provided and the theoretical cant required for such
a low speed.
The limiting values of cant excess have also been prescribed. Cant excess should not be more than 75
mm on broad gauge and 65 mm on metre gauge for all types of rolling stock.
• Cant gradient and cant deficiency gradient
These indicate the increase or decrease in the cant or the deficiency of cant in a given length of
transition.
A gradient of 1 in 1000 means that a cant or a deficiency of cant of 1 mm is attained or lost in every
1000 mm of transition length
Design Criteria for Railways (Continued)
• Rate of change of cant or cant deficiency
This is the rate at which cant deficiency increases while passing over the transition curve, e.g., a rate of 35 mm per
second means that a vehicle will experience a change in cant or a cant deficiency of 35 mm in each second of
travel over the transition when travelling at the maximum permissible speed
• Centrifugal Force on a Curved Track
A vehicle has a tendency to travel in a straight direction, which is tangential to the curve, even when it moves on a
circular curve. As a result, the vehicle is subjected to a constant radial acceleration:
Radial acceleration, g = V2/R, where V is the velocity (metres per second) and R is the radius of curve (metres)
This radial acceleration produces a centrifugal force which acts in a radial direction away from the centre. The value
of the centrifugal force is given by the formula:
Force = mass × acceleration
F = m × (V2/R) = (W/g) × (V2/R), where F is the centrifugal force (tonnes), W is the weight of the vehicle (tonnes), V is
the speed (metre/sec), g is the acceleration due to gravity (metre/sec2), and R is the radius of the curve (metres).
To counteract the effect of the centrifugal force, the outer rail of the curve is elevated with respect to the inner rail
by an amount equal to the super-elevation.
A state of equilibrium is reached when both the wheels exert equal pressure on the rails and the super-elevation is
enough to bring the resultant of the centrifugal force and the force exerted by the weight of the vehicle at right
angles to the plane of the top surface of the rails. In this state of equilibrium, the difference in the heights of the
outer and inner rails of the curve known as equilibrium super=elevation.
REFERENCES:
1. DPWH, 2012 Highway Safety Design Standards Part 1: Road Safety Design Manual
2. Fajardo, Max Jr. B. Elements of Roads and Highways, Second Edition,5138 Merchandising
Publisher, Manila, 1998.
3. The Handbook of Highway Engineering, Taylor & Francis Group, LLC, 2006
 Highway and Railroad Engineering
CE 108
Chapter 4: Geometric Design for Highways and Railways (G&Hoel
p.737)
4.1 Cross Sections – G&H p. 745
4.2 Horizontal and Vertical Alignments – G&H p. 754
4.3 Super-elevations
4.4 Earthworks  MIDTERM EXAM
Chapter Objectives :
1. To apply the concepts associated with the geometric design for highways and
railways.
2. To explain the basic service requirements in the geometric design of highways and
railways.
 Highway and Railroad Engineering
CE 108
Chapter 4: Geometric Design for Highways and Railways (G&Hoel
p.737)
4.1 Cross Sections – G&H p. 745
4.2 Horizontal and Vertical Alignments – G&H p. 754
4.3 Super-elevations
4.4 Earthworks  MIDTERM EXAM
Chapter Objectives :
1. To apply the concepts associated with the geometric design for highways and
railways.
2. To explain the basic service requirements in the geometric design of highways and
railways.
Geometric Design for Highways and Railways
• Geometric design deals with the dimensioning of the elements of highways, such as vertical and horizontal
curves, cross sections, truck climbing lanes, bicycle paths, and parking facilities.
• The characteristics of driver, pedestrian, vehicle, and road, serve as the basis for determining the physical
dimensions of these elements. For example, lengths of vertical curves or radii of circular curves are determined to
assure that the minimum stopping sight distance is provided to highway users for the design speed of the
highway.
• The fundamental objective of geometric design is to produce a smooth-flowing and safe highway facility, an
objective that only can be achieved by providing a consistent design standard that satisfies the characteristics of
the driver and the vehicles that use the road.
• The development of guidelines and standards used in highway geometric design is a critical function of the
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO).
• The AASHTO publication “A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets” provides the standards for
geometric design of highways. The principles and theories used in the design of horizontal and vertical
alignments are presented together with the current standards used for geometric design, as recommended by
AASHTO.
Cross Section of Typical Highway
Cross sections are a fundamental aspect of highway design, providing a detailed view of the roadway's structure
and layout. They illustrate the arrangement of lanes, shoulders, medians, and other elements across the width of
the road. Understanding cross sec ons is crucial for ensuring safety, efficiency, and comfort in highway design.
Components of a Cross Section
1. Lanes
• Travel Lanes: The primary lanes used by vehicles. Standard lane widths are typically 10 to 12 feet, but can
vary based on the type of road and traffic conditions.
• Auxiliary Lanes: Include acceleration, deceleration, and turning lanes. These lanes help manage traffic
flow and improve safety at intersections and interchanges.
2. Shoulders
• The shoulder of a pavement cross section is always contiguous with the traveled lane so as to provide an
area along the highway for vehicles to stop when necessary.
• All shoulders should be flush with the edge of the traveled lane and sloped to facilitate drainage of surface
water on the traveled lanes. Recommended slopes are 2 to 6 percent for bituminous and concrete-
surfaced shoulders, and 4 to 6 percent for gravel or crushed-rock shoulders.
3. Medians
• Divided Highways: Medians separate opposing traffic flows and can include barriers, grass strips, or paved
areas. Median widths vary based on safety and design standards.
• Undivided Highways: May have a painted median or no median at all, depending on the road type and
traffic volume.
Cross Section of Typical Highway
Cross Section of Typical Highway
Components of a Cross Section_(Continued…)
4. Drainage:
• Includes ditches, culverts, and other structures to manage water runoff and prevent erosion. Proper
drainage design is essen al for maintaining the integrity of the roadway and ensuring safety.
5. Barriers
• Guardrails: Guard rails are longitudinal barriers placed on the outside of sharp curves and at sections with
high fills. Their main function is to prevent vehicles from leaving the roadway. They are installed at
embankments higher than 8 ft and when shoulder slopes are greater than 4:1. Shapes commonly used
include the W beam and the box beam. The weak post system provides for the post to collapse on impact,
with the rail deflecting and absorbing the energy due to impact..
• Concrete Barriers: Used in medians or along the edge of elevated roadways.
6. Sidewalks and Bike Lanes
• Essential for pedestrian and cyclist safety, these are often included in urban cross sections.
Cross Section of Typical Highway
Components of a Cross Section_(Continued…)
7. Curbs and Gutters:
• Used in urban areas to manage drainage
and provide a finished edge to the
pavement.
• Curbs are raised structures made of either
Portland cement concrete or bituminous
concrete (rolled asphalt curbs) that are
used mainly on urban highways to delineate
pavement edges and pedestrian walkways.
• Gutters or drainage ditches are usually
located on the pavement side of a curb to
provide the principal drainage facility for
the highway. They are sloped to prevent any
hazard to traffic, and they usually have
cross slopes of 5 to 8 percent and are 1 to 6
ft wide. Gutters can be designed as V-type
sections or as broad, flat, rounded sections.
Cross Section of Typical Highway
Components of a Cross Section_(Continued…)
8. Cross Slopes
• Pavements on straight sections of two-lane and multilane highways without medians are sloped from the
middle downward to both sides of the highway, resulting in a transverse or cross slope, with a cross
section shape that can be curved, plane or a combination of the two. A parabola is generally used for
curved cross sections, and the highest point of the pavement (called the crown) is slightly rounded, with
the cross slope increasing toward the pavement edge.
Cross Section of Typical Highway
Components of a Cross Section_(Continued…)
9. Side Slopes
• Side slopes are provided on embankments and fills to provide stability for earthworks. They also serve as
a safety feature by providing a recovery area for out-of-control vehicles. When being considered as a
safety feature, the important sections of the cross slope are the hinge point, the foreslope, and the toe of
the slope, as shown in Figure 15.10. The hinge point should be rounded since it is potentially hazardous
and may cause vehicles to become airborne while crossing it, resulting in
Cross Section of Typical Highway
Components of a Cross Section_(Continued…)
10. Right of Way
• The right of way is the total land area acquired for the construction of a highway. The width should be
sufficient to accommodate all the elements of the highway cross section, any planned widening of the
highway, and public-utility facilities that will be installed along the highway.
Geometric Design for Highways and Railways
Stopping Sight Distance (SSD) for Horizontal Road Surface
• Design Speed = the maximum safe speed that can be maintained over a specified section of a highway when
conditions are so favorable that the design features of the highway governs
• Stopping sight distance = the distance required to see an object 150 mm high on the roadway. It is intended to allow
drivers to stop safely after sighting an object on the roadway large enough to cause damage or lost of control

SSD = Reaction Distance + Breaking Distance

SSD = V t + V2
2g(f+G)

Where: V = velocity in (meters/second)

t = driver perception-reaction time, (seconds)
g = gravitational acceleration = 9.806 m/s2
f = friction coefficient between tires and pavement
G = average roadway grade +/- ( %)
Stopping Sight Distance (SSD) for Horizontal Road Surface

Illustrative Problem No. 1

Determine the minimum stopping sight distance on a -3.5% grade for a design speed of 110 kph. Coefficient of friction
between tires and pavement is 0.28 Driver;s reaction time (including perception time) is 2.5 sec.

Convert V (kph) to V (m/s)

V = 110 km 1 hr 1000 m
hr 3600 s 1 km
V = 30.56 m/s

SSD = Reaction Distance + Breaking Distance

SSD = V t + V2 ; SSD = 30.56 * 2.5 + (30.56)2

2g(f+G) 2 * 9.81 [0.28 + (-.035)]
SSD = 76.4 + 194.29

SSD = 270.69 m
 Stopping Sight Distance (SSD) for Horizontal Road Surface

Illustrative Problem No. 2

In an intersection collision, one of the vehicles leave 48.78 m of skid marks. A skid mark analysis indicates that the
vehicle was travelling 80 kph at the onset of braking. Assuming the median-brake reaction time of 0.66 sec., estimate
the distance from the point of impact to the vehicle position when the driver initially reacted. Deceleration rate of the
vehicle is 1.5 m/s2.
Convert V (kph) to V (m/s)
V = 80 km 1 hr 1000 m
hr 3600 s 1 km
V = 22.22 m/s
V22 = V12 + 2as2 ; 2as2 = V22 – V12
2*(-1.5)(48.78) = 22.222 - V12
V1 = 25.3 m/s
s1 = V1*t s1 = 25.3*0.66 s1 = 16.7 m
SSD = 16.7 + 48.78

SSD = 65.48 m
Stopping Sight Distance (SSD) for Horizontal Road Surface

Illustrative Problem No. 3

A vehicle travelling at a speed of 80 kph accelerates 3.41 m/s2. The perception-reaction time for the driver is 2.5 sec. If
the maximum grade of the road is – 4%, compute the minimum sight distance.
Convert V (kph) to V (m/s)
V = 80 km 1 hr 1000 m
hr 3600 s 1 km
V = 22.22 m/s

SSD = Reaction Distance + Breaking Distance

SSD = V t + V2 ; SSD = 22.22 * 2.5 + (22.22)2

2g(f+G) 2 * 9.81 [0.35 + (-.04)]
SSD = 55.55 + 81.18

SSD = 136.73 m