PCI1D - IT Infrastructure and Cloud Computing

2 MARKS: QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

1. Types of Hard disk

There are two main types of hard disk drives (HDDs):
● Hard Disk Drive (HDD) - This is the traditional type of hard drive that uses spinning
disks to store and access data. It has been in use for several decades and is still
commonly used today.
● Solid State Drive (SSD) - This is a newer type of hard drive that uses flash memory to
store and access data. SSDs are faster and more reliable than HDDs, but they are
generally more expensive.

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2. CMOS
● CMOS stands for Complementary Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor.
● It is a type of semiconductor technology used to create low-power integrated circuits
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(ICs) for various electronic devices, including computers and mobile devices.
CMOS technology is widely used in digital logic circuits, microprocessors, and memory
chips because it consumes very little power and can be made very small.
● In computers, CMOS is also used to store the system's BIOS settings and real-time
clock data in a special chip called the CMOS battery.
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● The CMOS battery helps to retain this data even when the computer is powered off.

3. Command Line Operating

● A command-line interface (CLI) is a type of user interface that allows users to interact
with a computer or operating system by typing text-based commands.
● The CLI is often used by developers, system administrators, and power users who prefer
the flexibility and power of a text-based interface over a graphical user interface (GUI).
● With a CLI, users can perform a wide range of tasks, such as managing files and
directories, installing software, configuring network settings, and more.
● Command-line operating systems, such as Linux and Unix, rely heavily on the CLI, while
other operating systems, such as Windows and macOS, provide both a CLI and a GUI.
4. Boot Process
● The boot process is the sequence of events that occur when a computer system is
turned on or restarted.
● The purpose of the boot process is to load the operating system and any necessary
drivers and applications into memory so that the computer can be used.

5. Memory
● Memory refers to the processes and structures that enable us to encode, store, and
retrieve information over time.
● It is the ability to retain and recall past experiences, knowledge, skills, and perceptions.

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6. POST
● POST (Power-On Self-Test) is a diagnostic process performed by a computer or network
device when it is first powered on.
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It checks the system hardware and software components to ensure they are functioning
properly before the device boots up and becomes operational.
The POST process typically includes a series of beep codes or error messages that
indicate any hardware or software issues that need to be addressed.
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6. TGT
● TGT (Ticket-Granting Ticket) is a type of security credential used in Kerberos
authentication protocol.
● It is obtained by a user after they successfully authenticate with a Kerberos
authentication server, and it is used to request access to network resources without
having to repeatedly enter the user's login credentials.
● The TGT is encrypted and contains information about the user and the time period
during which it is valid.
● When the user requests access to a network resource, the TGT is presented to the
Kerberos ticket-granting service, which then issues a service ticket that allows the user
to access the resource.
7. Creation of GPO
To create a GPO in a Windows Active Directory domain, follow these steps:
1. Log in to a domain controller or a computer with the Group Policy Management
feature installed.
2. Open the Group Policy Management Console (GPMC) by typing "gpmc.msc" in the
Run dialog box or the Start menu search bar.
3. Expand the domain in the GPMC tree view, and right-click the Group Policy Objects
container.
4. Select the "New" option, and enter a name for the new GPO.
5. Right-click the new GPO in the list of GPOs, and select the "Edit" option.
6. In the Group Policy Management Editor, configure the desired policy settings by

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navigating through the policy sections and sub-sections.
7. After configuring the policy settings, close the Group Policy Management Editor, and
link the GPO to the desired domain, site, or organizational unit (OU) by right-clicking the
appropriate container and selecting the "Link an Existing GPO" option.
I1 8. Finally, test the GPO by applying it to a test user or computer object, and verify that
the desired policy settings are being applied correctly

8. Expand GPO and give its uses

● GPO (Group Policy Object) is a feature in Microsoft Windows Active Directory that allows
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administrators to define and manage system configurations and security policies for
groups of users and computers in an organization.
● GPOs can be used to automate and streamline administrative tasks, enforce security
policies, and customize system settings for different user groups.
Some common uses of GPOs include:
1. Enforcing password policies and security settings, such as screen locks, firewall
settings, and software updates.
2. Configuring and deploying applications, scripts, and network resources, such as
printers and file shares.
3. Restricting access to system resources, such as control panel settings, registry keys,
and system files.
4. Customizing user profiles and desktop settings, such as desktop backgrounds,
shortcuts, and menus.
 5. Configuring Internet Explorer settings, such as security zones, proxy settings, and
browser add-ons. 1

9. LDAP
● LDAP (Lightweight Directory Access Protocol) is a protocol used to access and manage
directory information services, such as user accounts, groups, and organizational units,
in a networked environment.
● It is a lightweight and efficient protocol that allows applications and services to query,
add, modify, and delete directory information in a centralized directory service, such as
Microsoft Active Directory or OpenLDAP.
● LDAP uses a client-server model, where clients send requests to a directory server,

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which then searches the directory database and returns the requested information.
● LDAP is widely used in enterprise environments for user authentication, authorization,
and directory management, and it is also used in email systems, cloud services, and
other networked applications.
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11.Types of cloud
There are three main types of cloud computing:
● Public cloud:
○ A public cloud is a cloud computing environment that is owned and operated by a
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third-party cloud service provider, and is available to multiple organizations and
users over the internet.
○ Examples of public cloud providers include Amazon Web Services (AWS),
Microsoft Azure, and Google Cloud Platform.
● Private cloud:
○ A private cloud is a cloud computing environment that is exclusively used by a
single organization, and is hosted either on-premises or by a third-party cloud
provider.
○ Private clouds offer greater control and security over data and applications, but
require more resources and maintenance than public clouds.
● Hybrid cloud:
○ A hybrid cloud is a cloud computing environment that combines both public and
private clouds, and allows organizations to seamlessly move workloads and data
between the two environments.
 ○ Hybrid clouds can help organizations balance the benefits of public and private
clouds, and provide greater flexibility and scalability in their IT infrastructure.

12.Cloud Security
● Cloud security refers to the set of technologies, policies, and practices that are used to
protect cloud computing environments from security threats and vulnerabilities.
● Cloud security includes measures to ensure the confidentiality, integrity, and availability
of data and applications in the cloud, and to prevent unauthorized access, data
breaches, and cyber attacks.
● Some key aspects of cloud security include access controls, data encryption, network
security, threat detection and response, and compliance with industry regulations and

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standards.
● Cloud security is a critical concern for organizations that rely on cloud services for their
IT infrastructure, and requires a comprehensive and proactive approach to identify and
mitigate security risks.
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13.Data Security
● Data security is the practice of protecting digital data from unauthorized access, use,
disclosure, modification, or destruction.
● It involves the use of various security technologies, policies, and procedures to ensure
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the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of data, and to prevent data breaches, cyber
attacks, and other security incidents.
● Some common data security measures include access controls, data encryption,
backups and disaster recovery, vulnerability assessments, and security audits.
● Data security is a critical concern for organizations of all sizes and industries, as data is
often one of their most valuable and sensitive assets.
● A data breach or cyber attack can result in significant financial losses, reputational
damage, and legal liabilities, highlighting the importance of effective data security
practices.
14.Encryption.
● Encryption is the process of converting plain, readable text or data into an encoded
format that can only be decoded and read by authorized parties with the appropriate
decryption key.
● Encryption is used to protect sensitive information from unauthorized access and to
ensure the confidentiality, integrity, and authenticity of data in transit and at rest.
● Encryption algorithms use complex mathematical functions to scramble the original data,
making it unreadable and unintelligible to anyone without the decryption key.
● Encryption is used in various applications, such as secure communication, online
transactions, data storage, and password protection.
● Common encryption standards include Advanced Encryption Standard (AES), Transport

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Layer Security (TLS), and Secure Sockets Layer (SSL)

15.Expand RAM and gives its importance (at least 2)

● RAM (Random Access Memory) is a type of computer memory that provides temporary
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storage for data and instructions that are currently being used by the CPU (Central
Processing Unit).
RAM is a volatile memory, which means that it loses its contents when the power is
turned off.
The importance of RAM can be described in several ways, including:
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System Performance:
● RAM plays a critical role in determining the performance of a computer system. A
system with more RAM can handle more data and applications at once, and can perform
faster and more efficiently than a system with less RAM.
● When the CPU needs to access data or instructions, it first checks if the data is in RAM.
● If the data is not in RAM, it must be retrieved from the slower hard drive, which can slow
down the system's performance.
Multi-Tasking:
● RAM is essential for multi-tasking, which is the ability to run multiple applications and
processes simultaneously.
● With more RAM, a computer can run more applications and processes without slowing
down or crashing.
● This is particularly important for power users who need to run multiple applications at the
same time, such as video editing, gaming, or data analysis.
16.Additional display Card
● An additional display card, also known as a graphics card or video card, is a component
that is added to a computer system to improve its graphical processing capabilities.
● An additional display card can be used to handle complex graphics and video
processing tasks, such as gaming, video editing, and 3D modeling, that are too
demanding for the computer's built-in graphics processing unit (GPU).
● An additional display card typically includes a dedicated GPU, its own memory, and a fan
or cooling system to prevent overheating.
● The card is inserted into a slot on the motherboard of the computer and connects to the
monitor or displays through one of its output ports, such as HDMI, DVI, or DisplayPort.
● An additional display card can significantly improve the visual quality and performance of

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a computer system, making it a popular upgrade for gamers, graphic designers, and
other users who require high-quality visuals and fast processing speeds.

17.Operating System
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An operating system (OS) is a software program that manages computer hardware and
software resources and provides common services for computer programs.
The operating system acts as an intermediary between the computer's hardware and
software, enabling them to communicate and work together.
● The primary functions of an operating system include managing memory and storage,
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scheduling tasks and processes, providing a user interface, controlling input and output
devices, and facilitating communication between hardware devices and software
applications.
● Common examples of operating systems include Microsoft Windows, MacOS, Linux,
iOS, and Android. Operating systems are a critical component of any computer system,
and they play a vital role in ensuring the stability, security, and performance of a
computer

18.Directories in operating system

● A directory, also known as a folder, is a container or organization unit used to group files
and other directories in an operating system.
● Directories are used to organize files and make them easier to find, manage, and
access.
 ● Each directory has a unique name and can contain multiple files and subdirectories.
Directories are arranged in a hierarchical structure, with the root directory at the top and
subsequent subdirectories branching out from there.
● Directories can be navigated using a file manager or command-line interface.
● The use of directories is a fundamental aspect of modern operating systems, and they
are widely used in both desktop and server environments to organize and manage files
and other resources

19. Device Drivers

● Device drivers are software programs that allow a computer operating system to
communicate and interact with hardware devices, such as printers, scanners, and

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network cards.
● Device drivers act as a translator between the hardware device and the operating
system, enabling the computer to understand and use the device.
● Each hardware device requires a specific device driver that is compatible with the
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operating system and the device's hardware components.
Device drivers are typically installed automatically by the operating system when a new
device is connected to the computer or can be manually installed by the user.
● Device drivers play a crucial role in ensuring the proper functioning and compatibility of
hardware devices with the computer's operating system.
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20.Basic Electrical Safety in PC’s
● Working with PCs involves handling electrical components and devices that can pose a
risk of electric shock or damage to the equipment.
Some basic electrical safety tips for working with PCs include:
1. Disconnect the power: Before working on a PC, disconnect the power cord and
unplug the device from the wall outlet. This will prevent the risk of electric shock and
damage to the device.
2. Use an anti-static wrist strap: When working on a PC's internal components, wear
an anti-static wrist strap to discharge any static electricity that could damage the
components.
3. Use insulated tools: Use insulated tools when working with a PC's internal
components to prevent electric shock or damage to the components.
 4. Keep liquids away: Keep liquids away from the PC and its components to prevent
the risk of electrical shock or damage to the equipment.
5. Avoid working in wet conditions: Do not work on a PC in wet conditions, such as
during a rainstorm or near water, as this can increase the risk of electrical shock.
6. Follow manufacturer guidelines: Always follow the manufacturer's guidelines for
working with a PC and its components.
This will ensure that you are following the correct safety procedures and prevent damage to the
equipment.

21. Active Directory

● Active Directory (AD) is a directory service developed by Microsoft that provides a

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centralized database for managing and organizing information about resources on a
network.
● Active Directory is used to manage user accounts, computers, servers, printers, and
other network resources.
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It allows administrators to control access to network resources and enforce security
policies across the network.
Active Directory is a hierarchical database that is organized into domains, trees, and
forests, with each level providing different levels of administrative control and security.
● Active Directory is a core component of the Windows Server operating system and is
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widely used in enterprise-level networks.

22.Non Windows WorkStation

● A non-Windows workstation is a computer or computing device that does not run on the
Microsoft Windows operating system.
● It could run on a variety of other operating systems such as macOS, Linux, Unix,
Android, iOS, or other proprietary operating systems developed by specific
manufacturers.

23.Enterprise with computers

● An enterprise with computers refers to a business or organization that utilizes computer
systems, hardware, and software to perform its operations and manage its resources.
● These computers can be desktops, laptops, servers, or any other computing device.
 ● They are used for a variety of purposes such as data processing, communication,
storage, analysis, and automation of business processes.
● The enterprise may have an IT department responsible for the maintenance, support,
and security of these computers and their networks.

24.Security Mapping
● Security mapping refers to the process of identifying and assessing potential security
risks and vulnerabilities within a system, network, or application.
● This involves identifying the different components of the system and mapping out the
potential attack surfaces, entry points, and weaknesses that could be exploited by
attackers.

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● Once these vulnerabilities are identified, appropriate security measures can be
implemented to mitigate the risks and protect the system from potential threats.
● This process can be carried out using various tools and techniques such as vulnerability
scanning, penetration testing, and risk assessments.
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26. Cloud computing
● Cloud computing is a model for delivering computing services over the internet, including
servers, storage, databases, networking, software, analytics, and more.
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● Instead of relying on local servers or personal devices to store and manage data or run
applications, cloud computing allows users to access resources and services from
remote servers that are managed by third-party providers.
● These providers can offer flexible, scalable, and cost-effective solutions, allowing
businesses and individuals to access computing resources on demand and pay only for
what they use.
● Cloud computing offers various deployment models such as public, private, and hybrid
clouds, and offers a range of benefits including improved agility, scalability, reliability, and
security.
27. Characteristics of Cloud Computing
The key characteristics of cloud computing are:
1. On-demand self-service: Users can provision computing resources and services as
needed without requiring human intervention from the service provider.
2. Broad network access: Cloud services are accessible over the network and can be
accessed from various devices and locations.
3. Resource pooling: Multiple customers share a pool of computing resources that are
dynamically allocated and de-allocated based on demand.
4. Rapid elasticity: Computing resources can be rapidly and elastically scaled up or
down to meet changing demand.
5. Measured service: Cloud services are metered, and usage is monitored, controlled,

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and optimized, providing transparency and cost control for users and service providers.
6. Resilient: Cloud services are designed to be highly available and fault-tolerant, with
built-in redundancy and backup mechanisms to ensure continuity of service.
7. Multi-tenancy: Multiple customers can use the same computing infrastructure,
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data and processes.

28. AGP
● AGP stands for Accelerated Graphics Port. It is a high-speed interface that was
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developed to connect graphics cards to the motherboard of a computer.
● AGP is designed to improve the performance of 3D graphics applications by providing a
direct and dedicated pathway between the graphics card and the system's memory.
● This allows the graphics card to access data more quickly and efficiently, resulting in
faster and smoother performance for graphics-intensive applications such as video
games and digital content creation.
● AGP has since been largely replaced by newer and faster interfaces such as PCI
Express.

29. NTFS
● NTFS stands for New Technology File System, which is a file system used by Microsoft
Windows operating systems.
● NTFS is a file system used by Windows operating systems to organize and manage files
on a hard drive or other storage device.
 ● NTFS has several advantages over older file systems used by Windows, including
support for larger file sizes, improved security features, and better performance.

30. Server
● A server is a computer program or hardware device that provides services or resources
to other devices or programs, often over a network.
● Common types of servers include web servers, file servers, email servers, database
servers, and game servers.

31. Memory devices

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● A memory device is a computer component or hardware that is used to store data,
instructions, and programs that are currently being used by the computer.
● The main types of memory devices are RAM (Random Access Memory), ROM
(Read-Only Memory), and secondary storage devices such as hard disk drives,
I1 solid-state drives, and flash drives.

32. Motherboards
● A motherboard is the main circuit board of a computer that connects all the other
components together.
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● The components of a motherboard include the CPU socket, RAM slots, expansion slots,
storage connectors, power connectors, and various input/output ports.
● The function of a motherboard is to provide a physical and electrical connection between
all the computer components, allowing them to communicate with each other and work
together to perform various tasks.

33. Domain
● A domain is a unique name or address that identifies a website or network on the
internet.
● A domain name typically consists of two parts: the top-level domain (TLD) and the
second-level domain (SLD).
● For example, in the domain name "example.com", "com" is the TLD and "example" is the
SLD.
 ● The purpose of a domain is to provide a human-readable way to access websites and
other resources on the internet, without having to remember the IP address of the server
hosting those resources.

34. SmartCard
● A smart card is a small plastic card with an embedded microchip that can store and
process data securely.
● A smart card can store various types of data, including personal identification
information, financial information, access codes, and biometric data.
● Smart cards can be used for a variety of purposes, including secure identification,

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authentication, access control, and electronic payments.

35. RAID
● RAID is a technology that combines multiple hard drives into a single logical unit for
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improved performance, data redundancy, or both.
There are several RAID levels, including RAID 0, RAID 1, RAID 5, RAID 6, RAID 10, and
more. Each level provides a different combination of performance and data redundancy.
● RAID can improve performance by spreading data across multiple hard drives, allowing
multiple disks to be accessed simultaneously.
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36. Expand FAT and give its uses
● FAT stands for File Allocation Table, and it is a file system used by computers to
organize and manage data on a storage device such as a hard drive or a USB flash
drive.
● FAT is commonly used on removable storage devices and older operating systems, such
as Windows 95 and Windows 98.
● It is also used in some embedded systems and digital cameras.
● The advantages of using FAT include compatibility with a wide range of devices and
operating systems, simple directory structure, and relatively low overhead.
37. VGA
● VGA is a video display standard that was introduced in the 1980s.
● The maximum resolution supported by VGA is 640x480 pixels.
● VGA connectors typically use a 15-pin D-sub connector.
● The advantages of using VGA include compatibility with a wide range of devices, low
cost, and simplicity of use.

38. Who is Client?

● A client is a computer or software application that requests services or resources from a
server.

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● There are various types of clients, including web browsers, email clients, file transfer
clients, database clients, and more.
● A client communicates with a server using a network protocol, such as HTTP, FTP,
SMTP, or SQL.
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39. Drivers
● A driver is a software program that enables a computer to communicate with hardware
devices.
● Hardware devices such as printers, scanners, network adapters, graphics cards, and
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sound cards typically require drivers to function properly.
● Drivers act as a translator between the hardware device and the operating system,
allowing the device to send and receive data.

40. Kerberos
● Kerberos is a network authentication protocol that is designed to provide secure
authentication between clients and servers in a distributed network environment.
● Kerberos uses a ticket-based system to verify the identity of users and servers.
● When a user logs in to a network, they are issued a ticket that includes their identity and
a timestamp.
● This ticket is encrypted and sent to the server, which decrypts the ticket and verifies the
user's identity.
41. RSA
● RSA is a public-key cryptosystem that is widely used for secure data transmission over
the internet.
● RSA works by using a pair of keys: a public key that can be distributed freely, and a
private key that is kept secret.
● The public key is used to encrypt data, while the private key is used to decrypt the data.

42. Types of processors

The types of processors include:

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● Desktop processors: designed for use in desktop computers and workstations.
● Mobile processors: designed for use in laptops, tablets, and mobile devices.
● Server processors: designed for use in servers and data centers.
● Embedded processors: designed for use in embedded systems, such as medical
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devices and industrial equipment.
Graphics processing units (GPUs): designed for handling graphics-intensive tasks,
such as gaming and video rendering.

43. BIOS
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● BIOS is a firmware that is built into a computer's motherboard and is responsible for
controlling the boot process and basic system functions.
BIOS performs several functions, including:
● Checking hardware components for proper operation
● Configuring system settings
● Controlling the boot process
● Providing low-level input/output (I/O) operations

44. Printers
● A printer is a device that produces physical copies of electronic documents or images.
The types of printers include:
● Inkjet printers: use liquid ink to produce high-quality color and black-and-white prints.
● Laser printers: use toner and a heated roller to produce high-quality black-andwhite
prints.
 ● Multifunction printers (MFPs): combine printing, scanning, copying, and faxing
capabilities in one device.
● 3D printers: use additive manufacturing technology to produce three dimensional
objects.

45. Who is the custodian?

● A custodian is a person or organization responsible for protecting and managing assets
or property owned by others.
● A custodian is responsible for safeguarding assets, maintaining accurate records, and
ensuring compliance with regulations and legal requirements.

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46. Removable Memory devices
● Removable memory devices are portable storage devices that allow users to store and
transfer data between different devices.
● Examples of removable memory devices include: USB flash drives SD cards External
I1 hard drives Memory sticks Compact flash cards

47. Data buses

● A data bus is a communication pathway that allows different components of a computer
or electronic system to exchange information.
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● The types of data buses include: Address bus: used to transmit memory addresses from
the processor to memory and input/output (I/O) devices.
● Data bus: used to transmit data between the processor and memory and I/O devices.
● Control bus: used to transmit control signals that regulate the flow of data between
different components.

48. Forest
In cloud computing, a forest is a collection of Active Directory domains that share a common
schema, configuration, and global catalog.
49. Multi tenancy Model
● Multi-tenancy is a software architecture model where a single instance of an application
or system serves multiple tenants or customers.
● Each tenant has their own isolated and secure data and resources, but they all share the
same application instance and underlying infrastructure.
● This model enables more efficient use of resources and lower costs for both the provider
and the tenants, while still providing customization and flexibility for each tenant.
● Multi-tenancy is commonly used in cloud computing, SaaS (Software-as-a-Service)
applications, and other shared computing environments.

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 6 MARKS: QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

1. Explain the removable storage devices and their uses

● Removable storage is an external media device that is used by a computer system to
store data.
● Usually, these are referred to as the Removable Disks drives or the External Drives.
● Removable storage is any storage device that can be removed from a computer system
while the system is running.
● Examples of external devices include CDs, DVDs, Blu-ray disk drives, and diskettes and
USB drives.
● Removable storage makes it easier for a user to transfer data from one computer system

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to another.
● The main benefit of removable disks in storage factors is that they can provide the fast
data transfer rates associated with storage area networks (SANs).
● We have the following types of Removable Storage: Optical discs (CDs, DVDs, Blu-ray
I1 discs) Memory cards Floppy disks Magnetic tapes Disk packs Paper storage (punched
tapes, punched cards)

2. Write note on Cloud computing Deployment Model

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● It works as your virtual computing environment with a choice of deployment model
depending on how much data you want to store and who has access to the
Infrastructure.
● Different Types Of Cloud Computing Deployment Models Most cloud hubs have tens of
thousands of servers and storage devices to enable fast loading.
● It is often possible to choose a geographic area to put the data "closer" to users.
● Thus, deployment models for cloud computing are categorized based on their location.

To know which model would best fit the requirements of your organization, let us first learn
about the various types.
● Public Cloud - It is accessible to the public.
○ Public deployment models in the cloud are perfect for organizations with growing
and fluctuating demands. It also makes a great choice for companies with
low-security concerns.
 ○ Thus, you pay a cloud service provider for networking services, compute
virtualization & storage available on the public internet.
○ It is also a great delivery model for the teams with development and testing. Its
configuration and deployment are quick and easy, making it an ideal choice for
test environments.
○ Benefits of Public Cloud
■ Minimal Investment - As a pay-per-use service, there is no large upfront
cost and is ideal for businesses who need quick access to resources
■ No Hardware Setup - The cloud service providers fully fund the entire
Infrastructure No Infrastructure Management - This does not require an
in-house team to utilize the public cloud.

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○ Limitations of Public Cloud
■ Data Security and Privacy Concerns - Since it is accessible to all, it does
not fully protect against cyber-attacks and could lead to vulnerabilities.
■ Reliability Issues - Since the same server network is open to a wide range
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of users, it can lead to malfunction and outages
Service/License Limitation - While there are many resources you can
exchange with tenants, there is a usage cap.

● Private Cloud - Companies that look for cost efficiency and greater control over data &
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resources will find the private cloud a more suitable choice.
○ It means that it will be integrated with your data center and managed by your IT
team. Alternatively, you can also choose to host it externally.
○ The private cloud offers bigger opportunities that help meet specific
organizations' requirements when it comes to customization.
○ It's also a wise choice for mission-critical processes that may have frequently
changing requirements.
○ Benefits of Private Cloud
■ Data Privacy - It is ideal for storing corporate data where only authorized
personnel get access
■ Security - Segmentation of resources within the same Infrastructure can
help with better access and higher levels of security.
■ Supports Legacy Systems - This model supports legacy systems that
cannot access the public cloud.
 ○ Limitations of Private Cloud
■ Higher Cost - With the benefits you get, the investment will also be larger
than the public cloud.
■ Fixed Scalability - The hardware you choose will accordingly help you
scale in a certain direction
■ High Maintenance - Since it is managed in-house, the maintenance costs
also increase
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● Community Cloud - The community cloud operates in a way that is similar to the public
cloud.
○ There's just one difference - it allows access to only a specific set of users who

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share common objectives and use cases.
○ This type of deployment model of cloud computing is managed and hosted
internally or by a third-party vendor.
○ Benefits of Community Cloud
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Smaller Investment - A community cloud is much cheaper than the private
& public cloud and provides great performance
Setup Benefits - The protocols and configuration of a community cloud
must align with industry standards, allowing customers to work much
more efficiently.
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○ Limitations of Community Cloud
■ Shared Resources - Due to restricted bandwidth and storage capacity,
community resources often pose challenges.
■ Not as Popular - Since this is a recently introduced model, it is not that
popular or available across industries

● Hybrid Cloud - It’s a combination of two or more cloud architectures.

○ While each model in the hybrid cloud functions differently, it is all part of the same
architecture.
○ Further, as part of this deployment of the cloud computing model, the internal or
external providers can offer resources.
○ A company with critical data will prefer storing on a private cloud, while less
sensitive data can be stored on a public cloud.
 ○ The hybrid cloud is also frequently used for 'cloud bursting'. It means, suppose
an organization runs an application on-premises, but due to heavy load, it can
burst into the public cloud.
○ Benefits of Hybrid Cloud
■ Cost-Effectiveness - The overall cost of a hybrid solution decreases since
it majorly uses the public cloud to store data.
■ Security - Since data is properly segmented, the chances of data theft
from attackers are significantly reduced.
■ Flexibility - With higher levels of flexibility, businesses can create custom
solutions that fit their exact requirements
○ Limitations of Hybrid Cloud

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■ Complexity - It is complex setting up a hybrid cloud since it needs to
integrate two or more cloud architectures
■ Specific Use Case - This model makes more sense for organizations that
have multiple use cases or need to separate critical and sensitive data
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Difference between Public, Private, Hybrid and Community Cloud deployment models:
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3. Elucidate on Cloud Computing Service Model
● It is a computing infrastructure managed over the internet.
There are the following three types of cloud service models, which are:
● Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS) aka Hardware as a Service(HaaS)
● Platform as a Service (PaaS)
● Software as a Service (SaaS)

Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS) aka Hardware as a Service(HaaS)

● The main advantage of using IaaS is that it helps users to avoid the cost and complexity
of purchasing and managing the physical servers.
● Characteristics of IaaS:

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○ Resources are available as a service Services are highly scalable Dynamic and
flexible GUI and API-based access Automated administrative tasks
○ Example: DigitalOcean, Linode, Amazon Web Services (AWS), Microsoft Azure,
Google Compute Engine (GCE), Rackspace, and Cisco Metacloud.
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Platform as a Service (PaaS)
● PaaS cloud computing platform is created for the programmer to develop, test, run, and
manage the applications.
● Characteristics of PaaS
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○ Accessible to various users via the same development application.
○ Integrates with web services and databases.
○ Builds on virtualization technology, so resources can easily be scaled up or down
as per the organization's need.
○ Support multiple languages and frameworks.
○ Provides an ability to "Auto-scale".
○ Example: AWS Elastic Beanstalk, Windows Azure, Heroku, Force.com, Google
App Engine, Apache Stratos, Magento Commerce Cloud, and OpenShift.

Software as a Service (SaaS)

● SaaS is also known as "on-demand software".
● It is a software in which the applications are hosted by a cloud service provider.
● Users can access these applications with the help of internet connection and web
browser.
 ● Characteristics of SaaS
○ Managed from a central location Hosted on a remote server Accessible over the
internet Users are not responsible for hardware and software updates.
○ Updates are applied automatically.
○ The services are purchased on the pay-as-per-use basis Example:
BigCommerce, Google Apps, Salesforce, Dropbox, ZenDesk, Cisco WebEx,
ZenDesk, Slack, and GoToMeeting.

Difference between IaaS, PaaS and Saas:

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4. Explain the characteristics of Cloud Computing.
● On-demand self-services:
○ The Cloud computing services do not require any human administrators, users
themselves are able to provision, monitor and manage computing resources as
needed.
● Broad network access:
○ The Computing services are generally provided over standard networks and
heterogeneous devices.
● Rapid elasticity:
○ The Computing services should have IT resources that are able to scale out and
in quickly and on as needed basis.

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○ Whenever the user requires services it is provided to him and it is scaled out as
soon as its requirement gets over.
● Resource pooling:
○ The IT resources (e.g., networks, servers, storage, applications, and services)
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present are shared across multiple applications and occupant in an uncommitted
manner.
Multiple clients are provided service from the same physical resource.
● Measured service:
○ The resource utilization is tracked for each application and occupant, it will
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provide both the user and the resource provider with an account of what has
been used.
○ This is done for various reasons like monitoring billing and effective use of
resources.
● Multi-tenancy:
○ Cloud computing providers can support multiple tenants (users or organizations)
on a single set of shared resources.
● Virtualization:
○ Cloud computing providers use virtualization technology to abstract underlying
hardware resources and present them as logical resources to users.
5. Elucidate on storage devices
● A storage unit is a part of the computer system which is employed to store the
information and instructions to be processed.
● A storage device is an integral part of the computer hardware which stores
information/data to process the result of any computational work.
● Without a storage device, a computer would not be able to run or even boot up. Or in
other words, we can say that a storage device is hardware that is used for storing,
porting, or extracting data files.
It can also store information/data both temporarily and permanently. Computer storage is of two
types:

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(i) Primary Storage Devices:
● It is also known as internal memory and main memory. This is a section of the CPU that
holds program instructions, input data, and intermediate results.
● It is generally smaller in size. RAM (Random Access Memory) and ROM (Read Only
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●
Memory) are examples of primary storage.
RAM (Random Access Memory)
○ It is used to store information that is used immediately or we can say that it is a
temporary memory. Computers bring the software installed on a hard disk to
RAM to process it and to be used by the user.
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○ Once the computer is turned off, the data is deleted. With the help of RAM,
computers can perform multiple tasks like loading applications, browsing the
web, editing a spreadsheet, experiencing the newest game, etc.
● SRAM (Static Random Access Memory)
○ It consists of circuits that retain stored information as long as the power supply is
on. It is also known as volatile memory.
○ It is used to build Cache memory. The access time of SRAM is lower and it is
much faster as compared to DRAM but in terms of cost, it is costly as compared
to DRAM.
● DRAM (Dynamic Random Access Memory)
○ It is used to store binary bits in the form of electrical charges that are applied to
capacitors. The access time of DRAM is slower as compared to SRAM but it is
cheaper than SRAM and has a high packing density.
● SDRAM (Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory)
 ○ It is faster than DRAM. It is widely used in computers and others.
● ROM (Read-Only Memory)
● The data written or stored in these devices are non-volatile, i.e, once the data is stored in
the memory cannot be modified or deleted.
● The memory from which will only read but cannot write it.
● This type of memory is non-volatile. The information is stored permanently during
manufacture only once. ROM stores instructions that are used to start a computer.
● This operation is referred to as bootstrap. It is also used in other electronic items like
washers and microwaves.
● ROM chips can only store a few megabytes (MB) of data, which ranges between 4 and 8
MB per ROM chip. There are two types of ROM:

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● PROM:
○ PROM is Programmable Read-Only Memory. These are ROMs that can be
programmed. A special PROM programmer is employed to enter the program on
the PROM.
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●
○

EPROM:
Once the chip has been programmed, information on the PROM can’t be altered.
PROM is non-volatile, that is data is not lost when power is switched off.

○ Another sort of memory is the Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory. It is

possible to erase the info which has been previously stored on an EPROM and
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write new data onto the chip.

(ii) Magnetic Storage Devices

● Floppy Disk: It is also known as a floppy diskette. It is generally used on a personal
computer to store data externally. A Floppy disk is made up of a plastic cartridge and
secured with a protective case. Nowadays floppy disks are replaced by new and
effective storage devices like USB, etc.
● Hard Disk: It is a storage device (HDD) that stores and retrieves data using magnetic
storage. It is a non-volatile storage device that can be modified or deleted ‘n’ number of
times without any problem. Most of the computers and laptops have HDDs as their
secondary storage device. It is actually a set of stacked disks, just like phonograph
records. In every hard disk, the data is recorded electromagnetically in concentric circles
or we can say track present on the hard disk, and with the help of a head just like a
phonograph arm(but fixed in a position) to read the information present on the track. The
 read-write speed of HDDs is not so fast but decent. It ranges from a few GBs to a few
and more TB.
● Magnetic Card: It is a card in which data is stored by modifying or rearranging the
magnetism of tiny iron-based magnetic particles present on the band of the card. It is
also known as a swipe card. It is used like a passcode(to enter into a house or hotel
room), credit card, identity card, etc.
● Tape Cassette: It is also known as a music cassette. It is a rectangular flat container in
which the data is stored in an analog magnetic tape. It is generally used to store audio
recordings. (v) SuperDisk: It is also called LS-240 and LS-120. It is introduced by Imation
corporation and it is popular with OEM computers. It can store data up to 240 MB.

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(iii) Flash memory Devices
● It is a cheaper and portable storage device. It is the most commonly used device to store
data because it is more reliable and efficient as compared to other storage devices.
Some of the commonly used flash memory devices are:
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● Pen Drive: It is also known as a USB flash drive that includes flash memory with an
integrated USB interface. We can directly connect these devices to our computers and
laptops and read/write data into them in a much faster and efficient way. These devices
are very portable. It ranges from 1GB to 256GB generally.
● SSD: It stands for Solid State Drive, a mass storage device like HDDs. It is more durable
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because it does not contain optical disks inside like hard disks. It needs less power as
compared to hard disks, is lightweight, and has 10x faster read and write speed as
compared to hard disks. But, these are costly as well. While SSDs serve an equivalent
function as hard drives, their internal components are much different. Unlike hard drives,
SSDs don’t have any moving parts and thus they’re called solid-state drives. Instead of
storing data on magnetic platters, SSDs store data using non-volatile storage. Since
SSDs haven’t any moving parts, they do not need to “spin up”. It ranges from 150GB to a
few and more TB.
● SD Card: It is known as a Secure Digital Card. It is generally used with electronic
devices like phones, digital cameras, etc. to store larger data. It is portable and the size
of the SD card is also small so that it can easily fit into electronic devices. It is available
in different sizes like 2GB, 4GB, 8GB, etc.
● Memory Card: It is generally used in digital cameras. printers, game consoles, etc. It is
also used to store large amounts of data and is available in different sizes. To run a
 memory card on a computer you require a separate memory card reader. (v) Multimedia
Card: It is also known as MMC. It is an integrated circuit that is generally used in-car
radios, digital cameras, etc. It is an external device to store data/information.

(iv) Optical Storage Devices

Optical Storage Devices is also a secondary storage device. It is a removable storage device.
Following are some optical storage devices:
● CD: It is known as Compact Disc. It contains tracks and sectors on its surface to store
data. It is made up of polycarbonate plastic and is circular in shape. CDs can store data
up to 700MB. It is of two types:
● CD-R: It stands for Compact Disc read-only. In this type of CD, once the data is written it

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can not be erased. It is read-only.
● CD-RW: It stands for Compact Disc read Write. In this type of CD, you can easily write or
erase data multiple times.
● DVD: It is known as Digital Versatile Disc. DVDs are circular flat optical discs used to
I1 store data. It comes in two different sizes one is 4.7GB single-layer discs and another
one is 8.5GB double-layer discs. DVDs look like CDs but the storage capacity of DVDs is
more than as compared to CDs. It is of two types:
● DVD-R: It stands for Digital Versatile Disc read-only. In this type of DVD, once the data is
written it can not be erased. It is read-only. It is generally used to write movies, etc.
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● DVD-RW: It stands for Digital Versatile Disc read Write. In this type of DVD, you can
easily write or erase data multiple times.
● Blu-ray Disc: It is just like CD and DVD but the storage capacity of blu ray is up to
25GB. To run a Blu-ray disc you need a separate Blu-ray reader. This Blu-ray technology
is used to read a disc from a blue-violet laser due to which the information is stored in
greater density with a longer wavelength.

(v) Cloud and Virtual Storage

● Nowadays, secondary memory has been upgraded to virtual or cloud storage devices.
● We can store our files and other stuff in the cloud and the data is stored for as long as
we pay for the cloud storage.
● There are many companies that provide cloud services, largely Google, Amazon,
Microsoft, etc.
 ● We can pay the rent for the amount of space we need and we get multiple benefits out of
it.
● Though it is actually being stored in a physical device located in the data centers of the
service provider, the user doesn’t interact with the physical device and its maintenance.
● For example, Amazon Web Services offers AWS S3 as a type of storage where users
can store data virtually instead of being stored in physical hard drive devices.
● These sorts of innovations represent the frontier of where storage media goes.

6. Enumerate types of hard disks

● A hard drive is a non-volatile hardware component on a computer that acts as the

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storage for all digital content. It holds program files, documents, pictures, videos, music,
and more.
● These names come from the way they connect to the computer.
● So, there are PATA hard drives, SATA hard drives, SCSI hard drives, and NVMe drives.
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Parallel Advanced Technology Attachment (PATA)
● The PATA interfaces were first introduced to the market by Compaq and Western Digital
in 1986. They can have up to 80GB capacity and transfer data as fast as 133 MB/S.
● They were named Parallel Advanced Technology Attachment because they use a
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parallel ATA interface to connect to the computer.
● Apart from PATA, they are also called Integrated Drive Electronics (IDE) and Enhanced
Integrated Drive Electronics (EIDE). PATA interfaces are made of mechanical moving
parts and are based on parallel signaling technology – meaning they transmit multiple
bits of data simultaneously.

Serial Advanced Technology Attachment (SATA)

● In recent times, a lot of desktop and laptop computers have gotten SATA interfaces
because they have superseded PATA interfaces in size, power consumption, and even
better pricing.
● The mode of connection to a computer remains the same as PATA, but instead of
parallel signaling technology for data transmission, they use serial signaling technology.
 ● This means that they transfer data one bit at a time. A notable advantage SATA
interfaces have over PATA interfaces is the transmission of data at a rate of 150 – 300
MB/S.
● In addition, they have thinner cables and a cable limit of 1 meter.

Small Computer System Interface (SCSI)

● SCSI interface is an upgrade over SATA and PATA interfaces for many reasons such as
round-the-clock operations, speed, storage, and several others.
● For connection, SCSI hard drives use a small computer system interface – which is a
standard for connecting peripheral devices such as printers, scanners, and others.
● Best of all, they allow the connection of peripheral devices such as printers, scanners,

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and other hard drives.
● In addition, they transmit data at 320 MB/S and you can connect them internally or
externally.
● Connections through SCSI on personal computers have now been replaced by the
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●
Universal Serial BUS (USB).
This means that SCSI is no longer used as consumer hardware. NVMe (Non-volatile
Memory Express) NVMe interface is a revolution.
● It is built for high demanding and computing-intensive tasks So, it is an upgrade over the
interfaces already discussed.
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● Because of its high performance and scalability, you'll find it mostly in data centers and
newer computers. There are now SSDs using the NVMe interface.
● Its many advantages over other interfaces are: lower power consumption, multiple
command queues, reduced latency and input/output overhead – leading to better
performance utilization of CPU to full potential One of the disadvantages of NVMe
interfaces is that they're more expensive than other interfaces.
7. Write a note on functions of client operating system
A client operating system is a type of operating system that runs on personal computers,
laptops, and other devices used by individual users. The main functions of a client operating
system are as follows:

● User Interface:
○ A client operating system provides a user interface that allows users to interact
with the computer system.
○ This interface typically includes a graphical user interface (GUI) that provides
windows, menus, icons, and other elements that users can use to access
applications and manage files.

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● File Management:
○ A client operating system provides tools for managing files and directories.
○ Users can create, modify, move, copy, and delete files using the file management
tools provided by the operating system.
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● Device Management:
○ A client operating system manages the devices attached to the computer, such
as printers, scanners, and cameras.
○ It provides drivers that allow the devices to communicate with the operating
system and enables users to configure and manage the devices.
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● Security:
○ A client operating system provides security features to protect the computer and
its data from unauthorized access.
○ These features may include user accounts, passwords, file permissions, and
encryption.
● Networking: A client operating system provides networking features that allow users to
connect to other computers, devices, and the internet. These features may include
network protocols, such as TCP/IP, and network services, such as email and web
browsing.
● Application Support:
○ A client operating system provides support for running applications, such as word
processors, spreadsheets, and games.
○ It provides APIs and libraries that developers can use to create applications that
run on the operating system.
Overall, a client operating system provides a user-friendly environment that enables users to
perform a variety of tasks on their personal computers and other devices.

8. Differentiate the functions of server and client operating system

Server operating systems and client operating systems serve different purposes and have
distinct functions. Here are the main differences:

Server Operating System:

● Resource Management:

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○ A server operating system is designed to manage and allocate computer
resources, such as processing power, memory, and storage, to various
applications and users on the network.
● Network Management:
○ A server operating system provides advanced network management features,
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●
such as file sharing, printer sharing, and user authentication, to allow multiple
users to access network resources.
Performance and Reliability:
○ A server operating system is optimized for high performance and reliability, as it
is expected to run continuously without downtime and handle heavy workloads
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and complex operations.
● Security:
○ A server operating system is designed to provide advanced security features,
such as firewalls, access controls, and encryption, to protect sensitive data and
prevent unauthorized access.
● Administration:
○ A server operating system provides powerful administrative tools, such as remote
management, backup and restore, and monitoring and reporting, to enable IT
professionals to manage and maintain the network.
Client Operating System:

● User Interface:
○ A client operating system is designed to provide a user-friendly interface that
allows individual users to interact with the computer and run applications.
● Application Support:
○ A client operating system provides support for running a wide range of
applications, such as word processors, web browsers, and media players.
● Device Management:
○ A client operating system manages the devices attached to the computer, such
as printers, scanners, and cameras.

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● Security:
○ A client operating system provides basic security features, such as user accounts
and passwords, to protect the computer and its data from unauthorized access.
● Networking:
I1 ○ A client operating system provides networking features that allow users to
connect to other computers, devices, and the internet.

In summary, a server operating system focuses on managing and providing advanced services
to a network of computers, while a client operating system focuses on providing a user-friendly
interface and supporting individual users' needs on a single computer.
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9. Give the importance of re-building a PC.

● Re-building a PC refers to the process of upgrading or replacing some or all of its
components to improve its performance, reliability, and functionality.

Here are some of the key importance of re-building a PC:

● Improved Performance:
○ By upgrading components such as the processor, graphics card, RAM, and
storage, a rebuilt PC can significantly improve its overall performance, enabling
faster boot times, better multitasking, smoother gaming, and quicker file
transfers.
 ● Increased Reliability:
○ As PCs age, their components can wear out or become obsolete, leading to
system crashes, slowdowns, and other issues.
○ Rebuilding a PC with newer, more reliable components can help to prevent these
problems and ensure stable, consistent performance.
● Better Compatibility:
○ Rebuilding a PC with newer components can also help to ensure better
compatibility with newer software and hardware, enabling users to take
advantage of the latest technologies and features.

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● Customization:
○ Rebuilding a PC allows users to customize their computer to their specific needs
and preferences, such as choosing components that are optimized for gaming,
video editing, or other specialized tasks.
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● Cost Savings:
○ Rebuilding a PC can be a cost-effective way to upgrade an existing system rather
than buying a completely new one, especially if the user already has some
components that can be reused, such as the case or power supply.

In summary, re-building a PC can help to improve performance, reliability, compatibility,

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customization, and cost savings, making it an important process for those who want to keep
their computer up-to-date and running smoothly.

10.Kerberos
● Kerberos provides a centralized authentication server whose function is to authenticate
users to servers and servers to users.
● In Kerberos Authentication server and database is used for client authentication.
Kerberos runs as a third-party trusted server known as the Key Distribution Center
(KDC).
● Each user and service on the network is a principal.
The main components of Kerberos are:
● Authentication Server (AS):
○ The Authentication Server performs the initial authentication and ticket for Ticket
Granting Service.
● Database:
○ The Authentication Server verifies the access rights of users in the database.
● Ticket Granting Server (TGS):
○ The Ticket Granting Server issues the ticket for the Server

Kerberos Overview:
● Step-1: User login and request services on the host. Thus user requests for

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ticket-granting service.
● Step-2: Authentication Server verifies user’s access right using database and then gives
ticket granting-ticket and session key. Results are encrypted using the Password of the
user.
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● Step-3: The decryption of the message is done using the password then sent to the
Ticket Granting Server. The Ticket contains authenticators like user names and network
addresses.
● Step-4: Ticket Granting Server decrypts the ticket sent by User and authenticator
verifies the request then creates the ticket for requesting services from the Server.
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● Step-5: The user sends the Ticket and Authenticator to the Server.
● Step-6: The server verifies the Ticket and authenticators then generate access to the
service. After this User can access the services.

Kerberos Limitations:

● Complexity:
○ Kerberos is a complex protocol that requires specialized knowledge and skills to
implement, configure, and maintain.
○ It involves multiple components, such as Kerberos Authentication Server (KDC),
Kerberos Clients, and Kerberos Tickets, which can be difficult to manage and
troubleshoot.
 ● Single Point of Failure:
○ Kerberos relies heavily on the KDC to function properly, which means that if the
KDC fails, the entire authentication process may fail.
○ This makes the KDC a single point of failure, which can lead to system downtime
and security vulnerabilities.
● Time Synchronization:
○ Kerberos uses a time-based mechanism to prevent replay attacks, which
requires all clocks on the network to be synchronized.
○ If the clocks are not synchronized, the authentication process may fail or be
vulnerable to attacks.
● Limited to Microsoft Environments:

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○ While Kerberos is an open standard, it is primarily used in Microsoft
environments and may not be as widely supported in other platforms.
● Key Distribution:
○ Kerberos relies on the distribution of secret keys between clients and servers,
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which can be challenging to manage in large or complex environments.
If the keys are compromised, the entire authentication process may be
compromised.
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11. Database security
● Database security is the technique that protects and secures the database against
intentional or accidental threats.
● Security concerns will be relevant not only to the data residing in an organization's
database
● The breaking of security may harm other parts of the system, which may ultimately affect
the database structure.
● Consequently, database security includes hardware parts, software parts, human
resources, and data. To efficiently do the uses of security needs appropriate controls,
which are distinct in a specific mission and purpose for the system.
● The requirement for getting proper security, while often having been neglected or
overlooked in the past days; is now more and more thoroughly checked by the different
organizations.
We consider database security in the following situations:
● Theft and fraudulent.
● Loss of confidentiality or secrecy.
● Loss of data privacy.
● Loss of data integrity.
● Loss of availability of data.

● Database security refers to the set of measures taken to protect the confidentiality,
integrity, and availability of data stored in a database.
● It involves a range of techniques, policies, and procedures designed to prevent
unauthorized access, use, modification, and destruction of data.

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Here are some of the key aspects of database security:

● Access Control:
○ Access control is the process of controlling who has access to the database and
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what actions they can perform.
This can be achieved through user authentication, authorization, and permissions
management, such as assigning roles and privileges to users and restricting
access to sensitive data.
● Encryption:
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○ Encryption is the process of converting plain text data into a coded or encrypted
format to prevent unauthorized access or data theft.
○ This can be done at various levels, such as at the database, table, or column
level, and can be used to protect sensitive data, such as passwords, credit card
numbers, or personal information.
● Backup and Recovery:
○ Backup and recovery is the process of creating backups of data and restoring it
in case of data loss or system failure.
○ This is critical for database security as it helps to ensure data availability and
prevent data loss.
● Monitoring and Auditing:
○ Monitoring and auditing is the process of tracking and recording database
activities, such as user logins, queries, and modifications.
 ○ This can help to detect and prevent unauthorized access or data theft and
provide evidence in case of security incidents.
● Security Testing:
○ Security testing is the process of testing the security of the database, such as
vulnerability scanning, penetration testing, and security assessments, to identify
potential security risks and weaknesses and implement measures to address
them.

12. Contents and importance of Database

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The various reasons a database is important are:

● Manages large amounts of data:

○ A database stores and manages a large amount of data on a daily basis.
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●
○ This would not be possible using any other tool such as a spreadsheet as they
would simply not work.
Accurate:
○ A database is pretty accurate as it has all sorts of built- in constraints, checks etc.
○ This means that the information available in a database is guaranteed to be
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correct in most cases.
● Easy to update data:
○ In a database, it is easy to update data using various Data Manipulation
languages (DML) available. One of these languages is SQL.
● Security:
○ Security of data Databases have various methods to ensure security of data.
○ There are user logins required before accessing a database and various access
specifiers. These allow only authorized users to access the database.
● Data integrity:
○ This is ensured in databases by using various constraints for data.
○ Data integrity in databases makes sure that the data is accurate and consistent in
a database.
● Easy to research data:
○ It is very easy to access and research data in a database.
 ○ This is done using Data Query Languages (DQL) which allow searching of any
data in the database and performing computations on it.

13. Elucidate on the Multi-tenancy model.

● Multitenancy in Cloud computing is a type of software architecture where a single
software instance can serve multiple distinct user groups.
● It means that multiple customers of cloud vendors are using the same computing
resources.
● As they are sharing the same computing resources but the data of each Cloud customer
is kept separate and secure.

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● It is a very important concept of Cloud Computing.
● Multitenancy is also a shared host where the same resources are divided among
different customers in cloud computing.
● For Example : The example of multi tenancy is the same as working as a Bank.
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○
○
Multiple people can store money in the same Bank.
But every customer asset is different.
One customer cannot access the other customer's money and account, and
different customers are not aware of each other's account balance and details,
etc.
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● Advantages of Multi Tenancy :
○ The use of Available resources is maximized by sharing resources.
○ Customer's Cost of Physical Hardware System is reduced, and it reduces the
usage of physical devices and thus power consumption and cooling cost savings.
○ Save Vendor's cost as it becomes difficult for a cloud vendor to provide separate
Physical Services to each individual.
● Disadvantages of Multi Tenancy :
○ Data is stored in third-party services, which reduces our data security and puts it
into vulnerable conditions.
○ Unauthorized access will cause damage to data.
○ Each tenant's data is not accessible to all other tenants within the cloud
infrastructure and can only be accessed with the permission of the cloud
provider.
14. What Is a Black Box Model?
● In science, computing, and engineering, a black box is a device, system, or object which
produces useful information without revealing any information about its internal workings.
● The explanations for its conclusions remain opaque or “black.” Financial analysts, hedge
fund managers, and investors may use software that is based on a black-box model in
order to transform data into a useful investment strategy.
● A black box model is a type of machine learning or statistical model that can make
predictions or decisions based on input data, without revealing the underlying
mechanisms or reasoning behind those predictions or decisions.
● In other words, the model is considered a "black box" because the internal workings are
not transparent or interpretable to the user.

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● Black box models are typically used when the data is complex or when there is no clear
understanding of the relationships between the input data and the output predictions.
● Examples of black box models include neural networks, decision trees, and random
forests.
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●

●
While black box models can be useful for making accurate predictions or decisions, they
also have some drawbacks.
One of the main limitations is the lack of interpretability or transparency, which can make
it difficult to understand how the model arrived at its predictions or decisions.
● This can be a problem in applications where transparency is important, such as in
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healthcare, finance, and legal contexts.
● Another limitation of black box models is the potential for bias or errors in the input data
or model design, which can result in inaccurate predictions or decisions.
● This can be especially problematic in sensitive applications such as criminal justice or
hiring decisions, where biased or inaccurate predictions can have significant
consequences.
● Overall, black box models can be a useful tool for making predictions or decisions in
complex or data-driven environments, but it is important to be aware of their limitations
and potential biases, and to develop strategies for evaluating and improving their
accuracy and fairness.

16. Explain different input systems in a computer.

Following are some of the important input devices which are used in a computer:
● Keyboard
● Mouse
● Joystick
● Light pen
● Trackball
● Scanner
● Graphic Tablet (Digitizer)
● Microphone
● Magnetic Ink Card Reader(MICR)
● Optical Character Reader(OCR)

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● Barcode Reader
● Optical Mark Reader(OMR)

Keyboard
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●

●
Keyboard is the most common and very popular input device which helps to input data to
the computer.
The layout of the keyboard is like that of a traditional typewriter, although there are some
additional keys provided for performing additional functions.
● Keyboards are of two sizes 84 keys or 101/102 keys,
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● but now keyboards with 104 keys or 108 keys are also available for Windows and
Internet.

Mouse
● Mouse is the most popular pointing device.
● It is a very famous cursor-control device having a small palm size box with a round ball
at its base, which senses the movement of the mouse and sends corresponding signals
to the CPU when the mouse buttons are pressed.
● Generally, it has two buttons called the left and the right button and a wheel is present
between the buttons.
● A mouse can be used to control the position of the cursor on the screen, but it cannot be
used to enter text into the computer.
● Advantages:
○ Easy to use
 ○ Not very expensive
○ Moves the cursor faster than the arrow keys of the keyboard.

Joystick
● Joystick is also a pointing device, which is used to move the cursor position on a monitor
screen.
● It is a stick having a spherical ball at its both lower and upper ends. The lower spherical
ball moves in a socket.
● The joystick can be moved in all four directions.
● The function of the joystick is similar to that of a mouse. It is mainly used in Computer
Aided Designing (CAD) and playing computer games.

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Light Pen
● Light pen is a pointing device similar to a pen.
● It is used to select a displayed menu item or draw pictures on the monitor screen.
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It consists of a photocell and an optical system placed in a small tube.
When the tip of a light pen is moved over the monitor screen and the pen button is
pressed, its photocell sensing element detects the screen location and sends the
corresponding signal to the CPU.
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TrackBall
● Trackball is an input device that is mostly used in a notebook or laptop computer, instead
of a mouse.
● This is a ball which is half inserted and by moving fingers on the ball, the pointer can be
moved.
● Since the whole device is not moved, a trackball requires less space than a mouse.
● A track ball comes in various shapes like a ball, a button, or a square.

Scanner
● A Scanner is an input device, which works more like a photocopy machine.
● It is used when some information is available on paper and it is to be transferred to the
hard disk of the computer for further manipulation.
● Scanner captures images from the source which are then converted into a digital form
that can be stored on the disk.
 ● These images can be edited before they are printed.

Digitizer
● Digitizer is an input device which converts analog information into digital form.
● Digitizer can convert a signal from the television or camera into a series of numbers that
could be stored in a computer.
● They can be used by the computer to create a picture of whatever the camera has been
pointed at.
● Digitizer is also known as Tablet or Graphics Tablet as it converts graphics and pictorial
data into binary inputs.
● A graphic tablet as a digitizer is used for fine works of drawing and image manipulation

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applications.

Microphone
● Microphone is an input device to input sound that is then stored in a digital form.
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● The microphone is used for various applications such as adding sound to a multimedia
presentation or for mixing music.

Magnetic Ink Card Reader (MICR)

● MICR input device is generally used in banks as there are a large number of cheques to
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be processed every day.
● The bank's code number and cheque number are printed on the cheques with a special
type of ink that contains particles of magnetic material that are machine readable.
● This reading process is called Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR). The main
advantages of MICR is that it is fast and less error prone.

Optical Character Reader (OCR)

● OCR is an input device used to read a printed text. OCR scans the text optically,
character by character, converts them into a machine readable code, and stores the text
on the system memory.

Bar Code Readers

 ● Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar-coded data (data in the form of light
and dark lines).
● Bar coded data is generally used in labeling goods, numbering the books, etc. It may be
a handheld scanner or may be embedded in a stationary scanner.
● Barcode Reader scans a barcode image, converts it into an alphanumeric value, which
is then fed to the computer that the bar code reader is connected to.

Optical Mark Reader (OMR)

● OMR is a special type of optical scanner used to recognize the type of mark made by
pen or pencil.
● It is used where one out of a few alternatives is to be selected and marked.

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17. Ticket Granting Ticket (TGT)
● In computer networks, Ticket Granting Ticket (TGT) is a type of ticket used in the
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Kerberos authentication protocol to authenticate users and grant them access to network
resources.
When a user logs in to a Kerberos-enabled network, they are issued a TGT by the
Kerberos Authentication Server (AS).
● The TGT is encrypted with the user's password and contains the user's identity and a
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session key that will be used to encrypt subsequent communication with the network.
● Once the user has obtained a TGT, they can request a Service Ticket (ST) from the
Ticket Granting Server (TGS) for a specific network resource.
● The TGS verifies the user's identity and the validity of the TGT, and then issues a
Service Ticket encrypted with a session key specific to that resource.
● The user can then use the Service Ticket to access the requested resource. The use of
TGTs provides several benefits, including:
○ Single Sign-On:
■ Once a user has obtained a TGT, they can access multiple network
resources without having to provide their credentials again.
○ Security:
■ The use of encrypted tickets and session keys helps to prevent
unauthorized access to network resources.
○ Scalability:
 ■ The use of TGTs and STs allows for efficient and scalable authentication
of users and resources in large networks.
Overall, TGTs are an important part of the Kerberos authentication protocol and are widely used
in enterprise networks to provide secure and efficient access to network resources.

19. Explain RAM. Explain its mechanism.

● RAM (Random Access Memory) is the internal memory of the CPU for storing data,
program, and program result.
● It is a read/write memory which stores data until the machine is working.
● As soon as the machine is switched off, data is erased. Access time in RAM is

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independent of the address, that is, each storage location inside the memory is as easy
to reach as other locations and takes the same amount of time.
● Data in the RAM can be accessed randomly but it is very expensive.
● RAM is volatile, i.e. data stored in it is lost when we switch off the computer or if there is
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a power failure.
Hence, a backup Uninterruptible Power System (UPS) is often used with computers.
RAM is small, both in terms of its physical size and in the amount of data it can hold.

RAM is of two types − Static RAM (SRAM) & Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
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● Static RAM (SRAM)
○ The word static indicates that the memory retains its contents as long as power is
being supplied.
○ However, data is lost when the power gets down due to volatile nature. SRAM
chips use a matrix of 6-transistors and no capacitors.
○ Transistors do not require power to prevent leakage, so SRAM need not be
refreshed on a regular basis.
○ There is extra space in the matrix, hence SRAM uses more chips than DRAM for
the same amount of storage space, making the manufacturing costs higher.
○ SRAM is thus used as cache memory and has very fast access.
○ Characteristic of Static RAM
■ Long life
■ No need to refresh
■ Faster
 ■ Used as cache memory
■ Large size
■ Expensive
■ High power consumption

● Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

○ DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be continually refreshed in order to maintain the data.
○ This is done by placing the memory on a refresh circuit that rewrites the data
several hundred times per second.
○ DRAM is used for most system memory as it is cheap and small.
○ All DRAMs are made up of memory cells, which are composed of one capacitor

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and one transistor.
○ Characteristics of Dynamic RAM
■ Short data lifetime
■ Needs to be refreshed continuously
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■
■
Slower as compared to SRAM
Used as RAM
Smaller in size
■ Less expensive
■ Less power consumption
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20. Describe Device Drivers.
● Device Driver in computing refers to a special kind of software program or a specific type
of software application that controls a specific hardware device that enables different
hardware devices to communicate with the computer’s Operating System.
● A device driver communicates with the computer hardware by computer subsystem or
computer bus connected to the hardware.
● Device Drivers are essential for a computer system to work properly because without a
device driver the particular hardware fails to work accordingly, which means it fails in
doing the function/action it was created to do.
● Most use the term Driver, but some may say Hardware Driver, which also refers to the
Device Driver.
● Working of Device Driver:
 ○ Device Drivers depend upon the Operating System’s instruction to access the
device and perform any particular action.
○ After the action, they also show their reactions by delivering output or
status/message from the hardware device to the Operating system.
○ For example, a printer driver tells the printer in which format to print after getting
instruction from the OS.
○ Card reader, controller, modem, network card, sound card, printer, video card,
USB devices, RAM, Speakers, etc need Device Drivers to operate.

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● Types of Device Driver:
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○ For almost every device associated with the computer system there exists a
Device Driver for the particular hardware.
But it can be broadly classified into two types:

Kernel-mode Device Driver –

● This Kernel-mode device driver includes some generic hardware that
loads with the operating system as part of the OS; these are BIOS,
motherboard, processor, and some other hardware that are part of kernel
software.
● These include the minimum system requirement device drivers for each
operating system.
User-mode Device Driver –
● Other than the devices which are brought by the kernel for working the
system the user also brings some devices for use during the using of a
 system that devices need device drivers to function those drivers fall
under User mode device driver.
● For example, the user needs any plug-and-play action that comes under
this.
Virtual Device Driver -
● There are also virtual device drivers(VxD), which manage the virtual
device.
● Sometimes we use the same hardware virtually at that time virtual driver
controls/manages the data flow from the different applications used by
different users to the same hardware.
● It is essential for a computer to have the required device drivers for all its

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parts to keep the system running efficiently.
● Many device drivers are provided by manufacturers from the beginning
and also we can later include any required device driver for our system.
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21. Active Directory
● Active Directory is a directory service or container which stores data objects on your
local network environment.
● The service records data on users, devices, applications, groups, and devices in a
hierarchical structure.
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● The structure of the data makes it possible to find the details of resources connected to
the network from one location.
● In essence, Active Directory acts like a phonebook for your network so you can look up
and manage devices easily.
● What does Active Directory do?
○ There are many reasons why enterprises use directory services like Active
Directory. The main reason is convenience.
○ Active Directory enables users to log on to and manage a variety of resources
from one location.
○ Login credentials are unified so that it is easier to manage multiple devices
without having to enter account details to access each individual machine.

10 MARKS: QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

1. Write a detailed note on Display Arrays (All forms).
● A display array, also known as a matrix display, is a type of electronic display that
consists of a grid of individual pixels arranged in rows and columns.
There are several forms of display arrays, including:
● LED Display Arrays:
○ LED (Light Emitting Diode) display arrays use an array of individual LEDs to
create a display.
○ They are commonly used in large outdoor displays and signs, as well as smaller
indoor displays such as digital clocks and calculator displays.
● LCD Display Arrays:
○ LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) arrays use an array of liquid crystal cells to create a

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display.
○ They are commonly used in electronic devices such as smartphones, televisions,
and computer monitors.
● OLED Display Arrays:
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○
OLED (Organic Light Emitting Diode) display arrays use an array of organic
LEDs to create a display.
They are commonly used in high-end smartphones and televisions, as well as in
virtual reality and augmented reality devices.
● Plasma Display Arrays:
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○ Plasma display arrays use an array of tiny cells containing a mixture of gasses to
create a display.
○ They are commonly used in large flat-screen televisions and are known for their
high contrast and deep blacks.
● E-Paper Display Arrays:
○ E-paper (Electronic Paper) display arrays use a special type of display
technology that mimics the appearance of ink on paper.
○ They are commonly used in e-readers and other electronic devices that require a
low-power, high-contrast display.
● Display arrays have several advantages over traditional displays, including their ability to
display high-resolution images and video, their low power consumption, and their ability
to display a wide range of colors.
● They are also highly customizable, with the ability to create displays of various shapes
and sizes.
However, they can be more expensive than traditional displays and may have limited viewing
angles or poor performance in extreme temperatures.

2. System files
● System files are essential files that are required for the operating system to function
properly.
● These files contain instructions, settings, and configuration information that are used by
the operating system and other software programs installed on a computer.
● The boot process is the process that a computer goes through when it is turned on, and
it involves loading the operating system and other essential files into memory.

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There are several types of system files, including:
● Boot files: These files are required to boot the operating system and include the boot
loader, the Master Boot Record (MBR), and the Boot Configuration Data (BCD).
● Device drivers: These files allow the operating system to communicate with hardware
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devices, such as printers, graphics cards, and network adapters.
Configuration files: These files contain settings and preferences for the operating system
and other software programs, such as the Registry in Windows and the configuration
files in Linux.
● Dynamic Link Libraries (DLLs): These files contain reusable code and functions that can
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be shared by multiple software programs.
● System executables: These are programs that are required for the operating system to
function properly, such as the Task Manager in Windows and the Terminal in Linux.

Boot Process: The boot process typically involves several stages, including:
● Power-On Self-Test (POST):
○ When a computer is turned on, it performs a POST to test the hardware
components and ensure that they are functioning properly.
● Boot loader:
○ The boot loader is a program that loads the operating system into memory. It is
typically stored in the MBR of the hard drive or on a separate boot partition.
● Kernel initialization:
○ The kernel is the core of the operating system, and it is loaded into memory by
the boot loader.
 ○ Once the kernel is loaded, it initializes the hardware devices and other essential
components of the operating system.
● User mode initialization:
○ After the kernel has initialized, the operating system loads other essential files
and programs, such as device drivers and configuration files.
● Login screen:
○ Once the operating system has loaded, it displays a login screen or desktop
environment, depending on the configuration.

Overall, system files and the boot process are critical components of an operating system, and
they ensure that a computer can function properly and run the software programs that users rely

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on.

3. Explain briefly about the functions of Seven Operating System Functions of Operating
Systems Let us discuss the function of the operating system (OS) in detail.
I1 ● Security
○ The operating system uses a password protection to protect user data it also
prevents unauthorized access to programs and user data, but for external
functionality we need to install malware software to protect the system.
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● Control over system performance
○ The operating system monitors overall system setup to help in improving the
performance and it also records the response time between service requests and
system response so that it has a complete view of the system.
○ This can help improve performance by providing important information that is
needed at the time of troubleshooting problems.

● Job Accounting
○ Operating systems always keep track of time and resources that are used by
various tasks and users, this information can be used to track resource usage for
a particular user or a group of users.
● Error detecting aids
 ○ Operating systems constantly monitor the system which helps us to detect errors
and also avoid the malfunctioning of computer systems.
○ Coordination between other software and users Operating systems help in
coordinate and assign interpreters, compilers, assemblers, and other software to
the various users of the computer systems.

● Memory Management
○ The operating system controls the primary memory or main memory. Primary
memory is a large array of bytes or words where each byte or word is assigned a
certain address.
○ It is a fast storage, and it can be accessed directly by the CPU which is present

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inside the system.
○ If a program wants to be executed, it should be first loaded in the main memory.
The following activities are performed by the operating system for memory
management − It keeps track of primary memory.
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Memory addresses that have already been allocated and the memory addresses
of the memory that has not yet been used.
In multiprogramming, the OS decides for how long the process must stay and the
order in which processes are granted access to memory.
○ It allocates the memory to a process when the process requests it and
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deallocates the memory when the process has terminated.

● Processor Management
○ The OS manages the order in which processes have access to the processor,
and how much processing time that each process must stay in the
multiprogramming environment.
○ This is called process scheduling. The following activities are performed by the
operating system for processor management − Keeps track of the status of
processes.
○ The program to track the status is known as traffic controller. It allocates the
CPU and deallocates the processor when it is not required.

● Device Management
 ○ An OS manages device communication through respective drivers.
○ The following activities are performed by the operating system for device
management.
○ Keeping track of all devices connected to the system. The OS designates a
program that is responsible for every device which is called the Input/output
controller.
○ It decides which process gets access to which device and for how long.
○ It then allocates the devices in an effective and efficient way and de-allocates
devices when they are not required.

● File Management

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○ A file system is arranged into directories for efficient navigation and usage. These
directories contain other directories and other files.
○ The following activities are performed by the operating system for file
management activities − It keeps track of where information is stored, user
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access settings and status of every file and more.
These facilities are called the file system.

4. Write a note on computer hardware. Explain its functions.

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● Computer hardware is a physical device of computers that we can see and touch.
● For e.g. Monitor, CPU, Mouse, Joystick, etc. Using these devices, we can control
computer operations like input and output.
● These hardware components are further divided into the following categories, which are:
○ Input Devices
○ Output Devices
○ Storage Devices
○ Internal Components

Input Devices:
● Input devices are those devices with the help of which the user interacts with the
computer.
● With the help of input devices, the user enters the data or information into the computer.
● This information or data is accepted by the input devices and converted into a computer
acceptable format, which is further sent to the computer system for processing.
● Now we discuss some input devices:
○ Keyboard: It is the most common and main input device for computers. The data
is inputted by typing on the keyboard. It consists of 104 keys in total. It contains
numeric keys, alphabet keys, and different function keys as well. Earlier, it was
connected to the computer via cable, now as the technology has advanced, so
you can connect a keyboard using Bluetooth.
○ Mouse: A mouse is a kind of pointing device which is rolled over to control the
cursor on the screen and it has functional keys like left, middle, and right buttons.
Using these functional keys, on by the click of which an object is selected or to

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open a file by just click of a mouse. It also consists of a sensor inside which
notifies its speed to the computer and according to which the cursor is moved on
the screen.
○ Scanner: As the name suggests, it scans images, documents, etc., and converts
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them into digital form that can be further edited and used. It works just like a
Xerox machine.
Track Ball: It is a device much like an upside-down mouse. It does not use much
space for a movement like a mouse. As the trackball remains stationary and the
user moves the ball in various directions, it affects the screen movements
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directly.
○ Light Pen: It is a light-sensitive device and it is touched to the CRT screen where
it can detect, raster on the screen as it passes by and, with the help of this user
can draw anything like lines, figures or any objects.
○ Microphone: It is a kind of voice input system which can be attached to a
computer system to record sounds. It converts human speech or voice into
electrical signals. This electrical signal is processed by the computer and the
word is recognized.
○ Optical Character Reader: It is used to detect alphanumeric characters that are
written or printed on paper using a low-frequency light source. This light is
absorbed by the dark areas and reflected by the light areas, now this reflected
light is received by the photocells. It is like a scanner.
 ○ Barcode Reader: It is used to read bar codes and convert them into electric
pulses which will be further processed by the computer. Here, the bar code is
data that is coded into white and black lines(or light and dark lines).

Output Devices:
● These are the devices that are used to display the output of any task given to the
computer in human-readable form.
● Now we discuss some output devices:
○ Monitor: Monitor is the main output device. It is also called a VDU(visual display
unit) and it looks like a TV screen. The Monitor displays the information from the

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computer. It is used to display text, video, images, etc.
○ Printer: A printer is an output device that transfers data from the computer in a
printed format by using text or images on paper. There are both colored and
black & white printers. Further, there are also different types of printers, like Laser
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Printer, Dot-matrix printers, and Inkjet printers.
Plotter: It is similar to a printer but potters are large in size. A plotter is used to
generate large drawings, architectural blueprints, etc. on paper and these are
high-quality images and drawings and large in size.
○ Speakers: It is a very common output device and it gives sound as an output. It
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is generally used to play music or anything having sound.

Storage Devices:
● There are some devices that are used for storage purposes and are known as
secondary storage devices.
● Some of them were discussed below:
○ CD (Compact disc): A CD is circular in shape and made up of thin plated glass
and plastic polycarbonate material. It has a storage capacity of 600 MB to 700
MB of data. It has a standard size of 12 cm with a hole in the center of about 1.5
cm and 1.2 mm in thickness.
○ DVD(Digital Video/Versatile Disc): A DVD is the same as a CD but with some
more features. A DVD comes in single and dual-layer format. It has much greater
storage capacity in comparison to CDs. The storage capacity of a DVD with one
 sided single layer is – 4.7 GB, one sided double layer – 8.5 GB, double sided
single layer – 9.4 GB, double sided double layer – 17 GB.
○ Hard Disk: A hard disk is a non-volatile storage device that uses its read/write
heads to store digital data on a magnetic surface of a rigid plate. It is generally
3.5 inches in size for desktops and 2.5 inches in size for laptops. A hard disk can
be classified further into 3 types, which are:
■ Internal Hard Disk: It has a common storage capacity stated as GB or
TB. A system case or cabinet is the place where it is located. It can
perform faster operations and its storage is fixed. It is mainly used to store
large data files and programs.
■ Internal Cartridges: As the Internal hard disk can’t be removed from the

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system cabinet easily. To resolve this problem Internal Cartridges are
introduced. So, Internal cartridges are easy to remove CDs. It has a
storage capacity of 2 GB to160 GB. It is used as an alternative for an
internal hard disk. Hard Disk Packs: It is used by organizations such as
I1 banks, government sector organizations to store large amounts of data. It
has a storage capacity of range PB( Peta Bytes).

Internal Components
● Some important hardware devices known as the internal components are discussed
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below:
○ CPU (Central Processing Unit): CPU is also known as the heart of the
computer. It consists of three units, in general known as the control unit,
Arithmetic Logical Unit (ALU), and the memory unit. Below is the block diagram
of CPU is given: As shown in the diagram input is given to the CPU through input
devices. This input goes to memory and the control unit gets instructions from
memory. Control unit now decides what to do with the input or instructions and
transfers it to ALU. Now, ALU performs various operations like addition,
subtraction, multiplication, division, and logical operations, etc. After that, the final
result gets stored in a memory and finally passed to output devices to give the
output. So, this is how the CPU works.
○ Motherboard: It is the main circuit board inside a computer and it contains most
of the electronic components together. All the components of the computer are
 directly or indirectly connected to the motherboard. It includes RAM slots,
controllers, system chipset, etc.
○ RAM (Random Access Memory): It is also known as temporary or volatile
memory. It holds the program and data, which are currently in process or
processing. All the data is erased as soon as the computer is turned off or in
case of a power failure. Data stored in this memory can be changed. There are
two types of RAM:- SRAM (Static RAM): It basically consists of a flip-flop using a
transistor or Mosfet (MOS). It is fast and has less access time. In this, refreshing
circuits are not required. But it is costly and requires more space. For e.g. cache
memory. DRAM (Dynamic RAM): It consists of capacitors and the Data is stored
in the form of capacitors. Capacitors charge when data is 1 and don’t charge if

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data is 0. It requires refreshing circuits, as leakage of current in the capacitor can
occur, so they need to be refreshed to the data. It is slower and has a higher
access time. It is cheaper in comparison with SRAM. For e.g. Main memory.
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5. What is an Operating system? Explain its types? Explain with an illustration.
● An Operating System performs all the basic tasks like managing files, processes, and
memory.
● Thus the operating system acts as the manager of all the resources, i.e. resource
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manager.
● Thus, the operating system becomes an interface between user and machine. Types of
Operating Systems: Some widely used operating systems are as follows

BATCH OPERATING SYSTEM:

● This type of operating system does not interact with the computer directly.
● There is an operator which takes similar jobs having the same requirement and groups
them into batches.
● It is the responsibility of the operator to sort jobs with similar needs.
● Advantages of Batch Operating System:
○ It is very difficult to guess or know the time required for any job to complete.
○ Processors of the batch systems know how long the job would be when it is in
queue Multiple users can share the batch systems.
 ○ The idle time for the batch system is very less It is easy to manage large work
repeatedly in batch systems

● Disadvantages of Batch Operating System:

○ The computer operators should be well known with batch systems.
○ Batch systems are hard to debug.
○ It is sometimes costly.
○ The other jobs will have to wait for an unknown time if any job fails
● Examples of Batch based OSs are: Payroll System, Bank Statements, etc.

TIME_SHARING OPERATING SYSTEMS:

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● Each task is given some time to execute so that all the tasks work smoothly. Each user
gets the time of CPU as they use a single system.
● These systems are also known as Multitasking Systems.
● The task can be from a single user or different users also. The time that each task gets
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to execute is called quantum.
After this time interval is over OS switches over to the next task.
Advantages of Time-Sharing OS:
○ Each task gets an equal opportunity
○ Fewer chances of duplication of software
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○ CPU idle time can be reduced
● Disadvantages of Time-Sharing OS:
○ Reliability problem
○ One must have to take care of the security and integrity of user programs and
data
○ Data communication problem
● Examples of Time-Sharing OSs are: Multics, Unix, etc.

DISTRIBUTED OPERATING SYSTEMS:

● These types of operating systems are a recent advancement in the world of computer
technology and are being widely accepted all over the world and, that too, with a great
pace.
 ● Various autonomous interconnected computers communicate with each other using a
shared communication network.
● Independent systems possess their own memory unit and CPU. These are referred to as
loosely coupled systems or distributed systems.
● These system’s processors differ in size and function.
● The major benefit of working with these types of the operating system is that it is always
possible that one user can access the files or software which are not actually present on
his system but some other system connected within this network i.e., remote access is
enabled within the devices connected in that network.
● Advantages of Distributed Operating System:
○ Failure of one will not affect the other network communication, as all systems are

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independent from each other
○ Electronic mail increases the data exchange speed Since resources are being
shared, computation is highly fast and durable Load on host computer reduces.
○ These systems are easily scalable as many systems can be easily added to the
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network Delay in data processing reduces
Disadvantages of Distributed Operating System:
○ Failure of the main network will stop the entire communication
○ To establish distributed systems the language which is used are not well defined
yet
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○ These types of systems are not readily available as they are very expensive.
○ Not only that the underlying software is highly complex and not understood well
yet
● Examples of Distributed OSs are- LOCUS, etc.

NETWORK OPERATING SYSTEMS:

● These systems run on a server and provide the capability to manage data, users,
groups, security, applications, and other networking functions.
● These types of operating systems allow shared access of files, printers, security,
applications, and other networking functions over a small private network.
● One more important aspect of Network Operating Systems is that all the users are well
aware of the underlying configuration, of all other users within the network, their
individual connections, etc. and that’s why these computers are popularly known as
tightly coupled systems.
 ● Advantages of Network Operating System:
○ Highly stable centralized servers
○ Security concerns are handled through servers
○ New technologies and hardware up-gradation are easily integrated into the
system
○ Server access is possible remotely from different locations and types of systems
● Disadvantages of Network Operating System:
○ Servers are costly
○ User has to depend on a central location for most operations
○ Maintenance and updates are required regularly
● Examples of Network OSs are: Microsoft Windows Server 2003, Microsoft Windows

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Server 2008, UNIX, Linux, Mac OS X, Novell NetWare, and BSD, etc.

REAL-TIME OPERATING SYSTEMS –

● These types of OSs serve real-time systems.
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The time interval required to process and respond to inputs is very small. This time
interval is called response time.
Real-time systems are used when there are time requirements that are very strict like
missile systems, air traffic control systems, robots, etc.
● Two types of Real-Time Operating System which are as follows:
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○ Hard Real-Time Systems:
■ These OSs are meant for applications where time constraints are very
strict and even the shortest possible delay is not acceptable.
■ These systems are built for saving life like automatic parachutes or
airbags which are required to be readily available in case of any accident.
■ Virtual memory is rarely found in these systems.
○ Soft Real-Time Systems:
■ These OSs are for applications where time-constraint is less strict

● Advantages of RTOS:
○ Maximum Consumption - Maximum utilization of devices and systems, thus
more output from all the resources
 ○ Task Shifting: The time assigned for shifting tasks in these systems is very less.
For example, in older systems, it takes about 10 microseconds in shifting one
task to another, and in the latest systems, it takes 3 microseconds.
○ Focus on Application:Focus on running applications and less importance to
applications which are in the queue.
○ Real-time operating system in the embedded system: Since the size of
programs are small, RTOS can also be used in embedded systems like in
transport and others.
○ Error Free: These types of systems are error-free.
○ Memory Allocation: Memory allocation is best managed in these types of
systems.

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● Disadvantages of RTOS:
○ Limited Tasks: Very few tasks run at the same time and their concentration is
very less on few applications to avoid errors.
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Use heavy system resources: Sometimes the system resources are not so
good and they are expensive as well.
Complex Algorithms: The algorithms are very complex and difficult for the
designer to write on.
○ Device driver and interrupt signals: It needs specific device drivers and
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interrupts signals to respond earliest to interrupts.
○ Thread Priority: It is not good to set thread priority as these systems are very
less prone to switching tasks.

● Examples of Real-Time OSs are: Scientific experiments, medical imaging systems,

industrial control systems, weapon systems, robots, air traffic control systems, etc.

6. Enumerate and explain types of Cloud computing.

There are the following 4 types of cloud that you can deploy according to the organization's
needs
● Public Cloud
● Private Cloud
● Hybrid Cloud
● Community Cloud
PUBLIC CLOUD:
● Public cloud is open to all to store and access information via the Internet using the
pay-per usage method.
● In the public cloud, computing resources are managed and operated by the Cloud
Service Provider (CSP).
● Example: Amazon elastic compute cloud (EC2), IBM SmartCloud Enterprise, Microsoft,
Google App Engine, Windows Azure Services Platform.

● Advantages of Public Cloud

○ There are the following advantages of Public Cloud - Public cloud is owned at a
lower cost than the private and hybrid cloud.

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○ Public cloud is maintained by the cloud service provider, so do not need to worry
about the maintenance.
○ Public cloud is easier to integrate. Hence it offers a better flexibility approach to
consumers.
I1 ○ Public cloud is location independent because its services are delivered through
the internet. Public cloud is highly scalable as per the requirement of computing
resources.
○ It is accessible by the general public, so there is no limit to the number of users.
● Disadvantages of Public Cloud
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○ Public Cloud is less secure because resources are shared publicly.
○ Performance depends upon the high-speed internet network link to the cloud
provider.
○ The Client has no control of data.

PRIVATE CLOUD:
● Private cloud is also known as an internal cloud or corporate cloud.
● It is used by organizations to build and manage their own data centers internally or by a
third party.
● It can be deployed using Open Source tools such as Openstack and Eucalyptus.
● Based on the location and management, National Institute of Standards and Technology
(NIST) divide private cloud into the following two part:
○ On-premise private cloud
○ Outsourced private cloud
 ● Advantages of Private Cloud
○ Private cloud provides a high level of security and privacy to the users.
○ Private cloud offers better performance with improved speed and space capacity.
○ It allows the IT team to quickly allocate and deliver on-demand IT resources.
○ The organization has full control over the cloud because it is managed by the
organization itself.
○ So, there is no need for the organization to depend on anybody.
○ It is suitable for organizations that require a separate cloud for their personal use
and data security is the first priority.
● Disadvantages of Private Cloud
○ Skilled people are required to manage and operate cloud services.

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○ Private cloud is accessible within the organization, so the area of operations is
limited.
○ Private cloud is not suitable for organizations that have a high user base, and
organizations that do not have the prebuilt infrastructure, sufficient manpower to
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HYBRID CLOUD:
maintain and manage the cloud.

● Hybrid Cloud is a combination of the public cloud and the private cloud. we can say:
Hybrid Cloud = Public Cloud + Private Cloud
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● Hybrid cloud is partially secure because the services which are running on the public
cloud can be accessed by anyone, while the services which are running on a private
cloud can be accessed only by the organization's users.
● Example: Google Application Suite (Gmail, Google Apps, and Google Drive), Office 365
(MS Office on the Web and OneDrive), Amazon Web Services.
● Advantages of Hybrid Cloud
○ Hybrid cloud is suitable for organizations that require more security than the
public cloud.
○ Hybrid cloud helps you to deliver new products and services more quickly.
○ Hybrid cloud provides an excellent way to reduce the risk.
○ Hybrid cloud offers flexible resources because of the public cloud and secure
resources because of the private cloud.
● Disadvantages of Hybrid Cloud
○ In Hybrid Cloud, security features are not as good as the private cloud.
 ○ Managing a hybrid cloud is complex because it is difficult to manage more than
one type of deployment model.
○ In the hybrid cloud, the reliability of the services depends on cloud service
providers.

COMMUNITY CLOUD:
● Community cloud allows systems and services to be accessible by a group of several
organizations to share the information between the organization and a specific
community.
● It is owned, managed, and operated by one or more organizations in the community, a
third party, or a combination of them.

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● Example: Health Care community cloud
● Advantages of Community Cloud
○ Community cloud is cost-effective because the whole cloud is being shared by
several organizations or communities.
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○
Community cloud is suitable for organizations that want to have a collaborative
cloud with more security features than the public cloud.
It provides better security than the public cloud.
○ It provides a collaborative and distributive environment.
○ Community cloud allows us to share cloud resources, infrastructure, and other
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capabilities among various organizations.
● Disadvantages of Community Cloud
○ Community cloud is not a good choice for every organization.
○ Security features are not as good as the private cloud.
○ It is not suitable if there is no collaboration.
○ The fixed amount of data storage and bandwidth is shared among all community
members.
7. Elucidate on Characteristics of Cloud Computing.
There are basically 5 essential characteristics of Cloud Computing.

● On-demand self-services:
○ The Cloud computing services does not require any human administrators, user
themselves are able to provision, monitor and manage computing resources as
needed
● Broad network access:
○ The Computing services are generally provided over standard networks and
heterogeneous devices.

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● Rapid elasticity:
○ The Computing services should have IT resources that are able to scale out and
in quickly and on as needed basis.
○ Whenever the user requires services it is provided to him and it is scaled out as
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soon as its requirement gets over.
Resource pooling:
○ The IT resources (e.g., networks, servers, storage, applications, and services)
present are shared across multiple applications and occupant in an uncommitted
manner.
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○ Multiple clients are provided service from the same physical resource.
● Measured service:
○ The resource utilization is tracked for each application and occupant, it will
provide both the user and the resource provider with an account of what has
been used.
○ This is done for various reasons like monitoring billing and effective use of
resources
● Multi-tenancy:
○ Cloud computing providers can support multiple tenants (users or organizations)
on a single set of shared resources.
● Virtualization:
○ Cloud computing providers use virtualization technology to abstract underlying
hardware resources and present them as logical resources to users.
9. Cloud computing is unsafe – Opine. (give at least 10 points) What are the Security
Risks of Cloud Computing ?
● Cloud computing provides various advantages, such as improved collaboration,
excellent accessibility, Mobility, Storage capacity, etc.
● But there are also security risks in cloud computing. Some most common Security Risks
of Cloud Computing are given below

Data Loss:
● Data loss is the most common cloud security risk of cloud computing.
● It is also known as data leakage. Data loss is the process in which data is being deleted,
corrupted, and unreadable by a user, software, or application.

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● In a cloud computing environment, data loss occurs when our sensitive data is
somebody else's hands, one or more data elements can not be utilized by the data
owner, hard disk is not working properly, and software is not updated
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Hacked Interfaces and Insecure APIs
● Cloud computing completely depends on the Internet, so it is compulsory to protect
interfaces and APIs that are used by external users.
● APIs are the easiest way to communicate with most of the cloud services.
● In cloud computing, few services are available in the public domain.
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● These services can be accessed by third parties, so there may be a chance that these
services are easily harmed and hacked by hackers.

Data Breach
● Data Breach is the process in which the confidential data is viewed, accessed, or stolen
by the third party without any authorization, so the organization's data is hacked by the
hackers.

Vendor lock-in
● Vendor lock-in is one of the biggest security risks in cloud computing.
● Organizations may face problems when transferring their services from one vendor to
another.
● As different vendors provide different platforms, that can cause difficulty moving one
cloud to another.
 ● Increased complexity strains IT staff Migrating, integrating, and operating the cloud
services is complex for the IT staff.
● IT staff must require the extra capability and skills to manage, integrate, and maintain the
data to the cloud.

Spectre & Meltdown

● Spectre & Meltdown allows programs to view and steal data which is currently processed
on a computer.
● It can run on personal computers, mobile devices, and in the cloud. It can store the
password, your personal information such as images, emails, and business documents
in the memory of other running programs.

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Denial of Service (DoS) attacks
● Denial of service (DoS) attacks occur when the system receives too much traffic to buffer
the server.
● Mostly, DoS attackers target web servers of large organizations such as banking sectors,
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media companies, and government organizations.
To recover the lost data, DoS attackers charge a great deal of time and money to handle
the data.

Account hijacking
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● Account hijacking is a serious security risk in cloud computing.
● It is the process in which an individual user's or organization's cloud account (bank
account, email account, and social media account) is stolen by hackers.
● The hackers use the stolen account to perform unauthorized activities.

10. Write a detailed note on printers and its types

● A printer is a hardware output device that is used to generate hard copy and print any
document.
● A document can be of any type such as a text file, image, or the combination of both. It
accepts input commands by users on a computer or on other devices to print the
documents.
● For example, if you have to submit a project report at your college, you need to create a
soft copy of your report and print it with the help of the printer.
 ● Printers are one of the common computer peripheral devices that can be classified into
two categories that are 2D and 3D printers.
● The 2D printers are used to print text and graphics on a paper, and 3D printers are used
to create three dimensional physical objects.
● Types of printers Although there are different types of printers, nowadays, two types of
printers are commonly used, which are inkjet and laser printers.

A list of all the various types of printers is given below:

● Inkjet Printers
● Laser Printers
● 3D Printers

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● LED Printers
● Solid Ink Printers
● Dot Matrix Printers
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Inkjet Printers
● It is widely used by home and business computer users that prints characters by
spraying the ink using magnetic plates on the paper.
● It contains a paper feed assembly, ink cartridge, print head, stabilizer bar, and belt.
● It stores the ink in cartridges, and uses separate cartridges to print several types of color
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documents.
● These colors are a combination of cyan, magenta, yellow, and black color.
● These types of printers have the ability to create high-quality pictures with the help of
vivid colors.
● Furthermore, the inkjet printers are more affordable and easier to use as compared to
other printers.
● Advantages of Inkjet Printers:
○ The Inkjet printers have the ability to produce high-quality output. These printers
are reasonably fast and easy to use.
○ Additionally, these types of printers do not take warm up time.
● Disadvantages of Inkjet Printer:
○ It may take more time to print. Its running cost is high. It does not allow the
highlighter marker.
○ Sometimes, it can produce a wrong warning of an empty cartridge.
Laser printers
● The laser printer is one of the common personal computer printers.
● It was introduced in 1971, and after that it was developed at Xerox PARC by Gary
Starkweather.
● It uses the laser or non-impact photocopier technology to print the text and images on
the paper.
● Whenever it gets input to print any document, a laser beam draws the document on the
selenium-coated drum with the help of electric charges.
● When the drum is charged, it is rolled in toner (dry ink powder). The ink follows the
image, which has charged on the drum.

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● The ink is combined with the paper, including heat and pressure, then transferred on a
chunk (piece) of paper.
● When the document is printed, the excess toner is collected, and an electric charge is
removed from the drum.
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Most of the laser printers are capable of printing only in monochrome.
The monochrome laser printer is around ten times cheaper than a color laser printer.
Advantages of a Laser printer:
○ These types of printers have a higher paper capacity.
○ It is less expensive than the inkjet printer.
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○ It has the ability to print documents speedily. Furthermore, it is able to increase
productivity.
● Disadvantages of a Laser printer:
○ Laser printers may need warm up time.
○ Laser printers are bulky as they require the laser technology and imaging drum.
○ It requires high voltage leads to small carbon emissions.

3D Printers
● One of the best enhancements in the history of printing technology is the 3d printer,
which was developed by Chuck Hull in 1984.
● It produces 3D objects and items by using quality resin.
● It uses materials like plastics, polymers, metal alloys, or even food ingredients.
● There are many applications where 3D printers are used, such as archaeology,
aerospace engineering, information systems, dentistry, and biotechnology.
 ● For example, it might be used to reconstruct ancient artifacts of archaeology physically,
which have been destroyed with time.
● Generally, the design of an object starts in a computer-aided design (CAD) software
system where its prototype is created.
● Then, the computer-aided design system sends this prototype to the printer in STL
(stereolithography) file format.
● The printer then starts the process of recreating the object layer-by-layer after reading
the prototype in cross-sections.
● Advantages of 3D printer:
○ The main advantage of a 3D printer is that it allows users to print objects in 3D .
○ It has the ability of full customization.

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○ It is easy to access and cost-effective. It prints the documents with better quality.
○ It provides users unlimited shapes and geometry.
● Disadvantages of 3D printer:
○ Its initial and resin costs are high.
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3D printing is still developing technology.
It consumes high energy around 50 to 100 more than injection molding.
It includes limited materials
○ The 3D printers are slow as they are limitless for mass customization.
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LED Printers
● The LED printer is mostly like a laser printer.
● It uses the drum, ink, and fuser system to print the black or colored documents.
● Initially, Casio and function developed the LED printers by focusing light throughout the
whole length of the drum.
● These types of printers are nonimpact, but instead of using a laser in the printhead they
use a light-emitting diode.
● These printers were invented by the manufacturer OKI in 1989.
● There is a difference between laser printers and LED printers; the LED printers use a
strip of LEDs to create an ink-attracting static charge on the printing drum while laser
printers use a laser and mirror.
● Although LED printers are not more popular as compared to inkjet and laser printers,
they are gently gaining popularity as they provide users with unique benefits.
 ● LED printers have a photoreceptive drum-like laser printer, which contains a surface that
is extremely charged with static electricity with the help of high voltage wire.
● In a laser printer, to draw an image or text from a circuit board, laser uses the data,
which is sent to it that needs to be printed into a mirror and moves on its axis for
transferring the beam onto the drum.
● Whereas, in the LED printer, the negative static charge is produced by LEDs that may be
located above or below the drum.
● The light that comes from the LED strikes the positively charged drum that erases the
charge from the drum and produces a negative electrostatic charge.
● This charge attracts the positively charged toner particles, which stick to the negatively
charged surface created by the LEDs.

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● When the paper enters the printer’s mechanism, it gets positively charged with the help
of high voltage wire and draws the toner from the negatively charged parts where it has
stuck.
● Then, the paper moves between two heated rollers, and before it comes out from the
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printer, it carries the toner on the page.
Advantages of the LED printer:
○ The manufacturing of LED printers is cheaper than laser printers.
○ These types of printers mostly contain free warranty extensions.
○ These printers are capable of printing on thick 3D items.
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Solid Ink Printers
● A laser class solid ink printer is designed to save space and money on packaging.
● It uses a unique type of ink technology that is melted into a liquid before being used.
● As inkjet printers stream the ink directly on the paper, but solid ink printers are different
as they stream the ink on the drum.
● Firstly, transferring the ink to the drum rather than to the printer is a better way to get a
good color combination as a drum can be controlled appropriately than moving paper.
● Xerox acquired the color printer division of Tektronix, Inc., in 2000.
● The solid ink printer was introduced in the market by Tektronix, Inc., with its crayonlike
cartridges.
● Advantages of solid ink printer:
 ○ The print quality of a solid ink printer is good as it produces dynamic colors and
extraordinary print quality on a broad range of media like envelopes, recycled
paper, transparencies, and cardstock.
○ The solid ink printers are easy to handle because these are made by non-toxic
vegetable oils and do not melt in our hands.
○ Unlike laser or inkjet printers, they do not spill or leak.
○ These types of printers are capable of printing the documents fast.
○ Generally, it can print up to 30 pages per minute.
○ The ink loading in the solid printer is easy as it includes sticks in particular
shapes that only go to the correct slot.
○ These types of printers contain the ink slot on the top of the printer, and they

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allow you to replace the ink at any time, including at the time of printing.
○ The solid ink printers are designed in that way; they comprise only three main
assemblies, print drum, print head, and controller.
○ It takes less space as compared to the color laser printer. Furthermore, these
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printers and their parts are more affordable than the color toner cartridges and
color laser printers.
Disadvantages of a solid ink printer:
○ These printers may require warm-up and cool downtime. These are sensitive to
UV light, and color may fade under the sunlight with time.
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○ These printers consume more power than the laser printer These printers are
mainly used for a large number of printing.
○ If it is turned off in the middle of the printing, it will take some time to warm up
again.

Dot Matrix Printers

● The dot matrix printers are also known as a pin printer that was released by IBM in 1957.
In 1970, Centronics created the first dot-matrix impact printer.
● It strikes an ink ribbon using print heads that place thousands of little dots to form
images and text.
● Nowadays, as compared to laser and inkjet printers, it is less used, as its printing speed
is slow and generates lower quality images.
● However, dot matrix printers are still in use in some sectors like package delivery
companies and auto part stores.
 ● Advantages of Dot matrix printer:
○ A dot matrix printer is less expensive as compared to most of the printers, and it
is easily available in the market.
○ It has the ability to print carbon copies of a particular print out, unlike non-impact
printers. Its printing cost is lower than the other printers.
○ Furthermore, its maintenance cost is less expensive than the other printers.
● Disadvantages of Dot matrix printer:
○ The speed of the dot matrix printer is slow as compared to non-impact printers,
and its output is also not of high resolution.
○ It creates high noise when the pins hit the ribbon to the paper.
○ It may be a time-consuming printer as it requires a single paper to be wound up

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and aligned manually.

11. Explain the basics of files and directories, also give examples
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In computing, a file is a collection of data or information that is stored on a computer's
storage device.
A directory, also known as a folder, is a container that holds files and other directories.

The following are some basic concepts of files and directories:

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File:
● A file is a collection of data or information that is stored on a computer's storage device.
● A file can be of any type, such as a text file, image file, audio file, or video file.
● Each file has a unique name and extension, which identifies the file type.
● For example, "document.txt" is a text file, and "image.jpg" is an image file.

Directory:
● A directory is a container that holds files and other directories.
● A directory can be created to organize files into specific categories or to group related
files together.
● Directories can be nested within other directories, forming a hierarchical structure.
● For example, a directory named "Documents" can contain other directories such as
"Work," "School," and "Personal."
Path:
● A path is the location of a file or directory on a computer's storage device.
● A path can be either absolute or relative.
● An absolute path specifies the location of a file or directory from the root of the file
system, while a relative path specifies the location of a file or directory relative to the
current directory.
● For example, an absolute path on a Windows system might be
"C:\Users\John\Documents\document.txt," while a relative path might be
"Documents\document.txt."

File system:

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● A file system is a method used by operating systems to organize and store files on a
computer's storage device.
● Examples of file systems include NTFS, FAT32, and HFS+.
● A file system provides a hierarchical structure of directories and files, and it tracks the
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location of each file on the storage device.
Examples of files and directories include:
○ Documents folder: This is a directory that can contain various files such as text
documents, spreadsheets, and presentations. Music folder:
● This is a directory that can contain audio files such as MP3, WAV, and FLAC files.
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Image.jpg:
● This is a file that contains an image in JPEG format. Program.exe: This is a file that
contains an executable program.

In summary, files and directories are basic concepts of computing that are used to organize and
store data on a computer's storage device. Understanding how files and directories work is
essential for managing and organizing files effectively.
12. Discuss the functioning of power on self-test of PC
● The power on self-test (POST) is a diagnostic process that a computer performs when it
is powered on.
● The purpose of the POST is to check that the essential hardware components of the
computer are functioning correctly before the operating system (OS) is loaded.
● The POST checks various components such as the CPU, RAM, hard disk, and other
hardware components to ensure that they are functioning correctly.

The following are the basic steps that occur during the POST process:

● POWER ON Check:

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○ When the computer is powered on, the POST process is initiated.

● CPU check:
○ The POST first checks the CPU to ensure that it is working correctly.
I1 ○ The CPU test involves checking that the CPU is properly seated, that its internal
cache is functioning correctly, and that the CPU is running at the correct clock
speed.

● RAM check:
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○ The next step of the POST is to check the computer's RAM.
○ This check involves verifying that all RAM modules are properly seated and that
they are functioning correctly.
○ The POST also checks the amount of RAM installed in the system to ensure that
it matches the configuration in the BIOS.

● Power supply check:

○ The POST then checks the power supply to ensure that it is supplying the correct
voltage to the system.
○ This check involves verifying that the power supply is providing the correct
voltages to the motherboard and that there are no voltage spikes or drops.
 ● Peripheral check:
○ The POST then checks various peripherals such as the hard disk, CD/DVD drive,
and other devices to ensure that they are properly connected and functioning
correctly.

● BIOS check:
○ Finally, the POST checks the BIOS to ensure that it is functioning correctly.
○ The BIOS check involves verifying that the BIOS is properly configured and that it
has the correct settings for the hardware components installed in the system.
○ If the POST process detects any errors, it will display an error message or beep
code that indicates the source of the problem.

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○ The error message or beep code can help the user or technician diagnose the
problem and take the appropriate steps to resolve it.

● In summary, the power on self-test (POST) is a diagnostic process that a computer

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performs when it is powered on.
The POST checks various hardware components to ensure that they are functioning
correctly before the operating system (OS) is loaded.
● If any errors are detected during the POST process, the computer will display an error
message or beep code that indicates the source of the problem.
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13. Loopback processing
● Loopback processing is a feature in Group Policy that allows administrators to apply user
policies based on the computer that the user is logging on to, rather than the user's
organizational unit (OU) or group membership.
● This is useful in scenarios where a computer is shared by multiple users and needs to
have different policies applied depending on the user that is currently logged on.
● In a typical Group Policy implementation, user policies are applied based on the user's
location in the Active Directory OU structure, while computer policies are applied based
on the location of the computer object in the Active Directory OU structure.
● This means that user policies are not affected by the location of the computer object, and
vice versa.
● However, in some scenarios, administrators may need to apply user policies based on
the computer that the user is logging on to.
● Loopback processing can be enabled in two modes: Replace mode and Merge mode.
● Replace mode:
○ In this mode, the user policies that are applied to the computer object overwrite
any user policies that are applied to the user object.
○ This means that the user policies that are applied to the computer object are
used for all users that log on to that computer.
○ For example, if a computer object has a Group Policy Object (GPO) that applies
a screen saver policy to all users that log on to that computer, and the loopback
processing is set to Replace mode, the screen saver policy for all users that log

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on to that computer will be the one defined in the GPO that is linked to the
computer object.
● Merge mode:
○ In this mode, the user policies that are applied to the user object are combined
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with the user policies that are applied to the computer object.
This means that both sets of user policies are applied to the user when they log
on to that computer.
○ For example, if a user object has a GPO that applies a wallpaper policy, and the
computer object has a GPO that applies a screen saver policy, and loopback
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processing is set to Merge mode, both the wallpaper policy and the screen saver
policy will be applied to the user when they log on to that computer.
○ Loopback processing can be configured at the GPO level or the computer level,
and it can be enabled for specific GPOs or for all GPOs that apply to a computer.
○ It is important to note that loopback processing can have a significant impact on
the user experience and can affect the performance of the computer, so it should
be implemented carefully and only in scenarios where it is necessary.
14. Explain common computer ports.
● A computer port is a connection point on a computer where peripherals, devices, or
other computers can be plugged in or connected to transfer data, signals, and power.

Here are some common computer ports:

● USB (Universal Serial Bus) Port:
○ USB ports are the most common ports found on computers today.
○ They are used to connect a variety of peripherals such as printers, scanners,
external hard drives, cameras, and other devices.

● Ethernet Port:

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○ An Ethernet port is used to connect a computer to a wired network. It is
commonly used to connect to the internet, local area network (LAN), or other
devices on the network.
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● HDMI (High-Definition Multimedia Interface) Port:
○ HDMI ports are used to connect computers to high-definition displays such as
HDTVs, monitors, or projectors.
○ It can transmit both audio and video signals.
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● VGA (Video Graphics Array) Port:
○ VGA ports are used to connect computers to analog displays such as CRT
monitors, older projectors, and some older HDTVs.

● DisplayPort:
○ DisplayPort is a digital display interface used to connect computers to
high-definition displays such as monitors, projectors, or HDTVs.
○ It can transmit both audio and video signals.

● Audio Ports:
○ Audio ports are used to connect speakers, headphones, microphones, and other
audio devices to a computer.
○ They include 3.5mm headphone jacks, microphone jacks, and line-in jacks.
 ● Thunderbolt Port:
○ Thunderbolt ports are used to connect high-speed peripherals such as external
hard drives, monitors, and other devices to a computer.
○ Thunderbolt ports support fast data transfer rates and can transmit both video
and audio signals.

● FireWire Port:
○ FireWire ports are used to connect high-speed peripherals such as external hard
drives, cameras, and other devices to a computer.
○ They are similar to USB ports but offer faster data transfer rates.

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● Serial Port:
○ Serial ports are used to connect legacy devices such as older printers, scanners,
and modems to a computer.
○ They are less common today and have been largely replaced by USB and
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These are some of the most common computer ports. It is important to ensure that you have the
appropriate ports available on your computer to connect the devices and peripherals you need.
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15. What are Serial Ports?
● Serial Ports provide an interface to connect serial lines to prepare a serial
communication.
● Serial ports are the types of computer ports through which the data bits are transmitted
as a single stream of binary 0s and 1s in the form of electric signals.
● Serial ports provide only a single transmission path that can be a single wire, a pair of
wires, or a single channel in case of wireless communication.
● Serial ports are the oldest communication interfaces that are mainly used to connect
printers and modem to the computer system.
● But in modern computers, serial ports are used to connect modern devices like
flat-screen monitors, security cameras, GPS devices, etc.
● Serial ports are sometimes also called COM Ports (or Communication Ports).
● A serial port uses a DB-9 connector, a 9-pin D-Shaped Connector which connects to the
transmission line.
● A serial port provides serial communication using one line and thus has no dependency
on other wire's speed and its length can be extended as per the need.
● A parallel port is another type of computer port to connect a peripheral device to the
computer system.
● As its name implies, a parallel port can transmit multiple bits of data all together at the
same time.
● Therefore, in the case of parallel ports, the rate of data transmission is relatively high as
compared to series ports because these transmit data without any hold-up.
● Parallel ports are mainly used to connect those computer peripheral devices that require

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high bandwidth.
● The most common examples of such devices are printers, monitors, projectors, etc.
● Parallel ports provide an interface to connect multiple lines to prepare a parallel
communication to send large data at a time.
●
●
●
I1Parallel ports are used in connecting printers, hard-drives, CD-drives, etc.
All line’s speed should be the same to avoid error and cross-talk issues.
To avoid such issues, the wires are kept small in length.
● A parallel port uses a D-25 connector, a 25 pin D-Shaped connector that connects to the
transmission wires.
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● A USB port is a standard cable connection interface for personal computers and
consumer electronics devices.
● USB stands for Universal Serial Bus, an industry standard for short distance digital data
communications.
● USB ports allow USB devices to be connected to each other with and transfer digital
data over USB cables.
● They can also supply electric power across the cable to devices that need it.
● Both wired and wireless versions of the USB standard exist, although only the wired
version involves USB ports and cables.