Spring

2024

ASSIGNMENT NO.1
Educational Philosophy
Name: Maryam Tahira
Roll no: 0000500440
Course Code: 8609
Session: Spring 2024
Tutor Name: Khurram Rafi

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Question no.1
Education cannot be separated from philosophy. Give examples to support
your answer.
Answer:
Educational thinking, like every other branch of knowledge, started in the philosophical
deliberation of the ancient Greek philosophers. Thus the meaning of education in west is initially
available in the works of Plato. It is interesting to note that thousands of years ago Plato gave a
meaning to education which is even now followed in the West with slight changes here and
there.
Plato defined education as a life-long process starting, "from the first years of childhood and
lasting to the very end of the life." He used the term education in a very wide sense, "which
makes a man eagerly pursue the ideal perfection of citizenship and teaches him how rightly to
rule and how to obey."
Education not only provides knowledge and skills but also inculcates values, training of instincts,
fostering right attitude and habits. In (Republic), Plato points out, that "true education, whatever
that may be, will have the greatest tendency to civilize and humanize them in their relation to one
another and to those who are under their protection. “This humanist definition of education
propounded by Plato is still the most widely accepted meaning of education in the West.
Education everywhere has been taken as a process of inculcating values. As Plato said, "Now I
mean by education that training which is given by suitable habits to the first instincts of virtue in
children."
These views of Plato have been universally accepted in West as well as in the East. Education
has been defined differently by the idealists, the pragmatists, the naturalists and the realist
philosophers. However, its meaning has been generally idealistic. Without some sort of idealism
there can be no education worth the name.
In the words of Robert R. Rusk, "We may accept the aim of education is the enhancement or
enrichment of personality, the differentiating feature of which is the embodiment of universal
values."
The Western educational philosophers have generally agreed that the growth of the human child
is the essence of education. In the words of A.G. Hughes, "The essence of discipline is, thus not
forced subordination to the will of hated tyrants, but submission to the example of admired
superiors".
In the Middle Ages Comenius declared education to be a process whereby an individual
developed quality relating to religion, knowledge and morality, and thereby established his claim
to be called a human being. "The fundamental principles of education", according to Froebel,
"instruction and teaching should be passive and protective not directive and interfering."

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The principle of liberty has found most eloquent expression in the definition of education given
by Rousseau when he said, "Let us obey the call of Nature. We shall see that her yoke is easy
and that when we give heed to her voice we find the joy in the answer of a good conscience."
Other has laid emphasis upon the social meaning of education whereby it aims at making an
individual fit in the society. It was in this sense that Aldous Huxley said, "A perfect education is
one which trains up every human being to fit into the place he or she is to occupy in the social
hierarchy, but without, in the process, destroying his or her individuality."
All the foregoing definitions have stated that education is the process of development. It,
therefore, becomes necessary to discover what is implied in this development. Although the
ability to learn depends upon development, but development is not synonymous with education.
Development means the gradual and continuous progress of mind and body.
Through this development the child acquires the following elements:
1. Knowledge of the environment by which he is surrounded.
2. The necessary motor control to fulfill has individual needs.
3. Linguistic abilities to enable him to converse.
4. Some knowledge of individual and collective relationship.
The development of all these elements begins at home itself. The educator's task is to continue
this process and to encourage it while the child is at school.
In fact, this process of development continues right through an individual's life time.
Consequently, it is accepted that education in its general sense continues throughout a man's
natural span of life, Even the successful teacher or educator himself remains a student throughout
his life. On the one hand, he teaches certain things to some people but at the same time he learns
something from them. All successful educators experience that the development undergone by
their thoughts, personalities and abilities would have been impossible otherwise. In much the
same way, people other than the educator, teach and learn simultaneously (Shrivastava, 2003).

Role of philosophy in education policy and practice

Both philosophy and education are integrally and interdependently related to each other.
Education is dependent of Philosophy due to following reasons:
1) Philosophy Determines the Real Destination towards Which Education has to Go
Education is a conscious dynamic process which needs proper guidance and supervision.
Without proper guidance and supervision, it cannot achieve its goal. Philosophy
determines the goal of life and also provides suitable and effective guidance and
supervision for education to achieve that goal. Without the help of philosopher, education
cannot be a successful process of development and achievement. Spencer has rightly
remarked—"True education is practicable only by a true philosophy".
2) Philosophy Determines the Various Aspects of Education Some scholars believe that
philosophy is concerned with abstract items and conceptions only, while education deals
with practical, concrete things and processes. Hence, the two are different and there exists

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 no relation between them. But this is a wrong belief. Both philosophy and education are
intimately and integrally connected with each other. Separation between the two is not
possible on any account. It is the philosophy, we must know, that has been influencing all
aspects of education since the very beginning and will go on influencing education for all
times to come. Once again it will be better to recollect the slaying of Ross that
"Philosophy and education are like the sides of the same coin, present different views of
the same thing, and that one is implied by the other."
3) Great Philosophers have been Great Educationists Also History bears eloquent testimony
to the fact that great philosophers have been great educationists also of their times. Plato,
Socrates, Locke, Comenius, Rousseau, Froebel, Dewey, and others who were great
philosophers of their times have also talked about education. Their philosophical treatises
have been important guide books for educational planning and determination of
educational aims for children of the world. In other words, all great philosophers have
employed education as a means to translate their philosophical ideas into practice for the
people to follow and develop themselves.
Philosophy is dependent on education due to following reasons:
i. Education is the Dynamic Side of Philosophy. Two things are essential for
completing any task
 Thought or plan and
 Application or practicability.
Philosophy is the thought or plan side and education is the application or practical
side. Philosophy determines the aim of life and by analysis lays down the principles
to be followed for achieving the set aims. Education translates these principles and
ideas into practice, because the purpose of education is to mould human behaviour.
Thus, Adams has rightly said “Education is the dynamic side of philosophy."
ii. Education is a Means to Achieve the Goal. As said above it is philosophy which
determines the aims of life. Through analysis and classification these are divided into
goals to be achieved by the process of education. Herbart holds the same opinion
—"Education has no time to make holiday till all the philosophical questions are once
for all cleared up." At times educationists and educators put before philosophers such
problems which face them and defy solutions. In this way, education contributes to
new thinking and new philosophy may born out of his thinking and analyzing. So
close are these two, the philosophy and the education, that it will be better to discuss
this relation in greater details as Philosophy and Aims of Education, Philosophy and
Curriculum, Philosophy and Methods of teaching, Philosophy and Disciplines,
Philosophy and Textbooks and so on.

Philosophy and Aims of Education

The answer to every educational question is ultimately influenced by our philosophy of life.
Although few formulate it, every system of education must have an aim, and the aim of
education is relative to the aim of life. Philosophy formulates what it conceives to be the end of
life; education offers suggestions how this end is to be achieved.

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Philosophy acquaints us with values in life and education tells us how these values can be
realized. That is why so much emphasis is placed on value in life while considering the nature of
the school curriculum, the method of school discipline, and techniques of instruction and school
organization.
These values are nothing but a philosophy of education which in the ultimate analysis is a
philosophy of life. Philosophy gives meaning to all that is done in an educational process.
Philosophy is the main guide towards which we have to look at points of conflicts in the
educational endeavor.
We must have an aim of education for giving direction to various educative efforts. The aim of
education is related with the aim of life, and the aim of life is always dependent on the
philosophy that the individual has at a particular time. Thus we cannot do without a
philosophical foundation of education. In the following lines more light is being thrown on this
close relationship as borne by history:
1) Ancient Period. First of all, let us take the example of Sparta state in ancient Greece. It
should be remembered that Sparta was under a constant attack by the enemies. Hence, the
state needed resolute commanders and brave soldiers to defend its freedom and integrity.
Hence, the aim of philosophy of ancient Sparta came to be a constant struggle against the
enemy. To achieve this aim, the system of education tried to inculcate in children virtues
of patriotism, courage, fearlessness, bodily power, strict discipline and a spirit of self-
sacrifice at the call of the state. Weakness of body was condemned as vice and death in
the service of the state was considered as the highest virtue. After Sparta; let us come to
Rome, Athens and India. Romans were very conscious of their rights and duties and as
such Roman education catered to the needs of fullest development of children in all
spheres of human activity. In Athens, the aim of life was to have beauty of physique,
beauty of character and a sense of appreciation for the objects of beauty. Hence, the aim
of education was the development of wholesome character and inculcation of qualities
which enable children to lead their lives comfortably. Thus, children were given full
freedom and ample opportunities to develop themselves physically, mentally and
emotionally. One can note here that with a change in the philosophy of life aims of
education in Athens were quite different to those of Rome and Sparta, in ancient India,
religion was regarded as most essential. The aim of life was to perform all worldly duties
and then achieve salvation from worldly ties of rebirth. Hence, education, during those
days, was organized to attain happiness, bliss and in the end salvation.
2) Medieval Period. Philosophy of life during medieval times saw great ups and downs.
Aims of life changed from time to time and so the aims of education also changed
accordingly. In these days Islam and Christianity were busy with proselytization
programmes in a very aggressive manner. Hence, religion entered the precincts of
education also. The chief aims of Muslim education in India were:
i. Propagation of Islam,
ii. Spread of education among Muslims,
iii. Extension of Islamic kingdoms,

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 iv. Development of morality,
v. Achievement of material wellbeing,
vi. Propagation of Shariyat, and
vii. Building of character.
In Europe Reformation and Renaissance criticized the infallibility of Catholism. People asserted
their right to know the truth themselves and did not believe blindly in the rituals and ceremonies.
Thus, aims of education changed again. Education was to develop critical insight and
reasonableness in all beliefs and activities. It was expected of education to demolish all blind
beliefs and mechanical rituals.
3) Modern Period. Philosophy of life again changed in modem period. As a result,
revolutionary changes began transforming education also. Philosophy of Locke fell from
prominence and it came to be argued that education should develop the inherent qualities,
aptitudes and capacities of children Psychological tendency began to influence education
very powerfully. Education became child-centered and according to famous educationist
Pestalozzi the aim of education was declared to develop the personality of the child to the
fullest extent. Herbart advocated the aim of education to be the formation of character. As
times went by, aims of life changed again. The industrial revolution had its impact on
education. As a result, one of the aims of education, namely, development of vocational
efficiency came to the forefront. At present, all nations of the world are organizing their
educational systems according to their needs and ideologies. In countries where the
sentient of democracy is strong, the aims of education are the inculcation of democratic
values and promotion of democratic principles. On the contrary, countries where
communism, fascism or other kinds of despotism prevails as political ideology, education
is so organized as to promote absolute obedience, blind beliefs and rigid discipline in
children.
In England and America where democratic values prevail, aims of education inculcate
democratic ideals and values. The chief aim is to develop fully the individuality of the child. In
America the philosophy of pragmatism is in vogue. This has influenced education to be really
practical useful and purposive. Utility is the motto of all activities and experiences. On the
contrary Russia and China exploit education as an instrument of indoctrination of enforced
obedience and rigid discipline. During the British rule in India the purpose of education was to
prepare native clerks to run the administrative machinery efficiently. After the attainment of
independence in 1947, we have declared our country as a Republic and Socialistic welfare State.
As such, the prime aim of our education is to develop dynamic citizens devoted to the service of
the nation. Thus, we see that changing philosophy of nation always brings about corresponding
changes in the aims of education.
Thus J.S. Ross rightly says:
"Philosophy and education are like the two sides of the same coin; the one is implied by the
other; the former is the contemplative side of life, while the latter is the active side."

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Philosophy and the Curriculum
Nowhere is this dependence of education on philosophy more marked than in the question of the
curriculum. In the first chapter of his work on Education Spencer asserts that in the
determination of the curriculum "our first step must obviously be to classify, in the order of their
importance, the leading kinds of activity which constitute human life."
To this principle there can be but little objection. But immediately we seek to fix the relative
value of subjects, to classify them "in the order of their importance," differences of aim and of
philosophy emerge and confuse the issues.
Smith, Stanley and Shores speak of moral authority as one of the chief guides of curriculum
building. They say that 'moral authority is derived from fundamental principles of right and
wrong. Evidently, the problem is philosophical. According to Spencer, the building of a
curriculum should be based on the main human activities. He fixes the relative value of subjects
in order of their importance; e.g., he gives first place to subjects that relate to self-preservation.
According to the naturalists, the present experiences, activities and interests should be the
guiding factor. The idealists, the child’s present and future activities are not important at all in
the curriculum construction. The experiences of the human race as epitome in sciences and
humanities should provide the primary consideration in deciding a curriculum.
The idealist does not emphasize one subject in preference to another. In fact, he attaches great
importance to the quality of personal greatness which some subjects have in abundance. The
idealist's point of view is subjective, as opposed to merely objective values.
The pragmatists emphasize the principle of utility as the main criteria for determining the nature
of curriculum. Lodge in "Philosophy of Education" writes:
"All subjects on the curriculum will be used to develop mastery over techniques in order to solve
new problems rather than to train memory capable of flawless reproduction of systematic
contents." The realists think that a bookish, abstract or sophisticated curriculum is useless. They
want to concentrate on realities of life. They emphasize the importance of subjects that fall
within the range of natural science.
The surprising and welcome interest and activity recently manifested in the problem of the
curriculum is at present arrested for the want of a philosophical criterion. Thus Bode in "Modem
Educational Theories", remarks that unless we have some sort of guiding philosophy in the
determination of objectives we get nowhere at all.
Briggs in discussing Curriculum Problems says: "It is just here that education seriously needs
leaders—leaders who hold a sound comprehensive philosophy of which they can convince
others, and who can direct its consistent application to the formulation of appropriate curricula."
The philosopher, on the one hand, looking at life from the idealistic standpoint believes that
work can, and ought to, be humanized, that man should be able to find satisfaction in his labour,

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that "we have somehow to discover there a theatergoer the attainment if not of the highest,
certainly of genuine spiritual values." The educationist, on the other hand, has assumed a
principle of 'compensation'.
It is not without significance that almost the best plea ever made for practical work in schools
was penned by one of the most idealistic of educational philosophers, namely, Frobel.
The above discussion indicates that the problem of curriculum construction is philosophical in
terms of the philosophical beliefs held by a group of people.

Philosophy and Teacher

Philosophy has a great influence on the teacher both in the area of thinking and behaving. Really
speaking, a teacher is not a teacher alone. He is a philosopher also. In other words, a teacher
himself has a philosophy of his own and he influences children accordingly. As such, his
philosophy of life should be such which develops the individuality of children to the fullest
extent. For this, the teacher should know full well the needs of children and the demands of
society and then plan his methods of teaching. He must keep in mind that his own beliefs,
ideology and principles of behaviour have a powerful impact on the development of children.
Hence, he must possess a good understanding of all the philosophies of life and choose good and
wholesome elements from them to form his own philosophy. Further, he must beam an imbued
with high ideals and possess moral and spiritual values which go to form his character and shape
his conduct. He must also be well-conscious of national needs in all spheres and plan his
teaching activities to fulfill those needs. Only such teachers imbued with high ideals, moral and
spiritual values together with a sense of national responsibility for national prosperity and honour
can create patriotic, dynamic, resourceful and enterprising citizens devoted to national service
and international goodwill.

Philosophy and Method of Teaching

As with curriculum, so with method. The outstanding problem in educational method at the
present time is the extent to which, if at all, the teacher should intervene in the educative process,
and this raises philosophical issues. Non-intervention is justified for two quite different reasons,
either because of the nature of the pupil's endowment or because of his environment. Rousseau,
Fichte, and Froebel all assume that the child's nature is good, and any interventionism
consequently harmful, hence the 'negative' or preventive education of Rousseau and the 'passive'
education of Froebel. Montessori takes the environmentalist standpoint, and assumes that as the
environment, comprising the didactic apparatus, etc., which she has prepared for the child, is
ideal and perfectly adapted to evoke only the right type of response and the good impulses of the
child, the teacher's intervention is unnecessary and unjustified. The choice of methods of
teaching depends on a philosophy. Kilpatrick's use of the term "Philosophy of Method" shows
that there is a close relation between educational method and philosophy. Method is a means by
which a contact is developed between the student and the subject matter. But in absence of a
definite aim of education or an adequate philosophy of life, the method of teaching employed by
the teacher may repel the student from the subject. Teachers who think that they can do without a
philosophy of life render their methods of teaching ineffective, because thereby the students are
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not able to see a relation between their life ideals and what they read. Evidently, there is a need
of a philosophical foundation of education. Teachers, who assume that they can afford to ignore
philosophy, pay the penalty of their neglect, for their efforts, lacking a coordinating principle, are
thereby rendered ineffective (Sharma, 2002).

Question no: 2
How does ‘idealism’ impact different areas of education, Discuss.
Answer:
Idealism:
Idealism is one of the oldest schools of thought in the world of philosophy, originating inhuman
nature itself, continuing from the primitive man to his present counterpart in some modified
former the other. From the idealistic and point it has overtones of spirituality since it believes
that the ultimate existing element is spiritual innate. The entire universe is an extension of them
in do soul. From the epistemological stand point it is better called Ideal ism, implying there by
that thought or idea has greater validity than the physical object. From then or motives and point
it is accurately represented by the term Idealism which means that the theory attaches greater
importance to ideals than of acts in this world. Obviously, the term idealism connotes different
concepts when placed in various contexts. Whatever the context, the word definitely represents a
particular theory in philosophy.

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Characteristics of Idealism:
It has always been believed that idealism is the philosophic theory which is a complete
contradiction of the theory known as realism. Idealism has the following characteristics:
i. Universe subsists within the spirit or mind. According to this philosophic theory, the
entire world is fundamentally of the nature of spirit or mind which accounts for its being
called idealism.
ii. Mechanistic explanation of universe is inadequate. Idealists refuse to accept that the
world or universe is susceptible to a mechanical explanation, or to believe that the
processes of Nature can be explained on a mechanistic principle. For this reason, the
idealists are opposed to all deterministic thinking.
iii. Teleological explanation of universe. Opposed to the mechanistic explanations of the
universe the idealists turn to a teleological theory which holds that human life and natural
processes have a common objective which both is simultaneously trying to achieve. They
do not object to or reject science but for them the scientific explanation of the universe is
not the last word on the subject. Their standpoint is best exemplified by the axiological
attitude.
iv. Synthesis between Man and Nature. It becomes inevitable for the idealists to believe that
there is harmony between the natural processes and human activity. Both Man and Nature
are busy in working out a common destiny.

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 v. Man is central to the universe. Idealists are also humanists from this standpoint. They
believe that man, being the ultimate in spiritual existents, is central to the universe.
Human life has a universal and omniscient importance or value. And in man's ultimate
good lies the final objective of the universe. It is in man that mind, the spiritual element
underlying the entire universe, realizes its essential and purest nature.
vi. Special attention to the normative and social sciences. Opposed to the realists and the
materialists, the spiritualists or idealists do not accept the scientific explanation of the
universe, based on scientific laws. They prefer the assistance of the normative and the
social sciences in their own scheme of the universe. Ethics, aesthetics and logic make up
the three normative sciences while the chief among the social sciences are psychology
and sociology. The idealistic explanation of the universe makes greater use of
psychology, ethics, logic, aesthetics, etc., than of chemistry, physics, mathematics and the
rest of the natural sciences. It is only natural for such an explanation to be completely
opposed to the materialistic or naturalistic explanation of the universe.
vii. Evaluative explanation of the universe. In other words, the idealists profess an evaluative
explanation of the universe and of human life, which is what makes them idealists. It
should be kept in mind that the term idealists do not imply the vague-minded dreamer or
imaginative visionary. The idealist does not reject the assistance of the natural sciences in
comprehending the universe but he does not accept such natural facts to be the be all and
end all of human life. His notion comprehends the realization of truth, beauty and
goodness in human life.
viii. Conceptualists. In the field of epistemology, the idealist is better called a conceptualist
since he believes that the object has no existence apart from its concept. In professing this
view the idealist propounds a theory completely at variance with the realist conception of
the problem. He believes that the object and its qualities do not have any existence
independent of the conception of them. Knowledge influences them. Knowledge of an
object occurs not directly but indirectly, through the medium of thought. Objects are not
public, since they change with the viewpoint from which they are observed. An object
has no existence apart from the thought of it. Existence lies in being related to
consciousness.
ix. Universe is knowledge. The idealists hold that the universe can be known through the
medium of reason or mind since both mind and the universe are invested with an
identical spiritual element. Hegel goes so far as to establish an identity between mind and
Nature by positing that mental categories coincide with stages in the development of the
universe. Whatever the minor differences among them, all idealists hold that the universe
is knowable.
x. Emphasis on the mental or spiritual aspect of universe. Another important characteristic
of the idealist thought is that it emphasizes the mental or spiritual aspects of the universe
without nullifying or completely rejecting materialistic explanations of it. It is this higher
aspect which conveys some meaning to the lower or material aspect. And everywhere the
lower can be explained in terms of the higher. The naturalists or materialists reverse this
by explaining the higher in terms of the lower. Idealism opposes this process
(Shrivastava, 2003).

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Impact of idealism on different areas of education:
A. Educational Aims and Objectives
Idealism has influenced every sphere of education. In the first place we will glance at the impact
of idealism on the aims of education. Since idealism believes human personality to be the most
important, it wants education to aim at the development of human personality culminating in
self-realization. In the words of Home, "The end of ends, the goal of goals, according to
Idealism, is the increasing realization of the Absolute Idea for the individual, society and the
race". Further explaining this aim of education, Rusk has commented, "We may accept that the
aim of education is the enhancement or enrichment of personality, the differentiating feature of
which is the embodiment of universal values". These universal values are expressed as the
beauty, goodness and truth, and the aim of education is to concretize these values in the child's
life. Thus the idealists cherish the following aims and ideals of education:

1. Development of personality:
As has been already pointed out, the most important aim of education, according to the idealist
thinkers, both ancient and modern, Eastern and Western, is the development of personality. This
has been called man making by Vivekananda. Explaining this ideal of education, Herman Harell
Home says, "The forces that make men and women I find to be heredity, environment and will.
Education is not a fourth elemental force, but it does its work in cooperation with these three.
Education, through public-opinion influences and may come to control, the force of heredity, it is
itself a part of the physical and social environment; it assists in the formation of will. By
consciously directing, through education and otherwise, these forces shall in time have the true
superman of our modern dreams, as well as the ideal people of Plato's Republic. But unlike Plato
and Shaw, we shall have to work through, not without, the family as an institution."
The idealists believe that man is God's finest and ultimate creation. That is why development of
the human personality has been accepted as the aim of education, and stress has been laid on the
teaching of humanitarian subjects such a literature, art, religion, ethics, etc. Through education
the cultural and social heritage of the community must be maintained and transmitted to the
following generations. Some other idealists believe that the aim of education is to guide the
individual to self-realization, for this also includes the development of the personality. Such
development, in fact, is the development of those divine qualities which are inherent in human
beings but which are dormant at his birth. The educator's task is to manifest these qualities. And
for this reason every human being has an equal right to education.

2. Self-realization
As has been already pointed out, according to idealists the aim of education is self-realisation.
This is the individualist aim of education emphasised by the idealist.
Idealism promotes the idea that education should help individuals realize their fullest potential,
which includes intellectual, moral, and spiritual growth. The ultimate aim is to develop the
learner into a morally and ethically sound person.

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 3. Development of will power
Self-realization requires development of will power. H.H. Home has given eight points for the
realization of this ideal:
(i) The training of the will should be indirect by activity rather than idea.
(ii) The object lesson method according to time and context should be used.
(iii) The power of will should be increased by self-suggestion, knowledge and
practice.
(iv) Practice is the only way to acquire will power.
(v) Proper discipline leads to will power.
(vi) The educands should be acquainted of facts concerning nature and society.
(vii) Development of moral character by ethical instruction.
(viii) Freedom to make choice in most of the matters concerning the individual.

4. Synthesis of Man and Nature

Another aspect of the idealistic conception of education is the synthesis between nature and
human beings. Adams has suggested that education must aim at achieving an understanding of
nature in human beings and educating them to achieve harmony with it. This can be done by
acquainting the educated with the permanent laws which guide and control natural phenomena.
These laws of nature are the causes of all natural activity. Only through such knowledge can the
educand arrive at a harmony with all that lies around him.

5. Cultural Development
Greatest significance is attached to the cultural environment created by religion, morality, art,
literature, mathematics, science, etc. That is why the idealist tendency is to stress the teaching of
humanities so that the cultural and social heritage is maintained intact and allowed to grow.
Education is also concerned with enabling the individual to make his own contribution to the
cultural development of the community. The ideals of beauty, goodness and truth are the spiritual
ideals of the human race, and the child has to be trained to achieve them in reality. Education
must transform the child into a true human being by educating him to manifest the divine
qualities which are invested in him. The idealists argue that there is system in every part of the
universe, and hence the individual must also be taught to create some system in his life through
intellectual and spiritual guidance. For this it is essential to develop every aspect of his life the
physical, moral, ethical, intellectual, spiritual and the aesthetic. Failure to develop any one of
these would create an imbalance in the individual's personality. In the words of Froebel, "The
object of education is the realization of a faithful, pure, inviolable and hence holy life. Education
should lead and guide man to clearness concerning himself, and in himself, to face with nature,
and to unity with God".

6. Exploration of Universal Values

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Idealism places more emphasis upon more universal objects of education. Ross puts it thus, "The
function of education is to help us in our exploration of the ultimate universal values so that the
truth of the universe may become our truth and give power to our life. Education must aim at
adapting not only to the physical environment but to every kind of environment."3 Rusk points
out, "The purpose of education is to enable the child to reconcile himself to reality in all its
manifestations, not merely to adapt himself to a natural environment". From among all these
various kinds of environment, the cultural environment is considered to be the most important
because man's cultural characteristics are his most distinctive qualities.

7. Emphasis on Absolute Truths:

Idealists believe in the pursuit of universal truths. Education, therefore, aims to connect students
with these timeless and unchanging truths, often through the study of classic literature,
philosophy, and the humanities.

B. Curriculum

1. Impart spiritual and cultural heritage:

Explaining the idealist bases of curriculum as the imparting of spiritual and cultural heritage to
the child along with his self and personality development, Herman H. Horne writes, "It is better
to centre education in ideals for children and the race rather than in children themselves. After all
children are immature, dependent and plastic members of the race. They are often irrational in
their individuality." As Socrates said in effect to the sophists, "Not man but reason is the measure
of all things, not individuality but universality, not percepts, but concepts. Ideals are the norms
for all human experience, including that of children. After all, it is still true that obedience to just
law is a virtue, that following physical laws leads to health, that truth is something to be
discovered, rather than made, that conformity is a large element even in creativity, that
repression is a necessary phase of expression. Under the influence of paidocentrism (what a
hybrid), self-expression may easily become self-explosion."

2. Emphasis on Liberal Arts:

Idealists insist on emphasis being placed on the study of humanities such as literature, art,
religion, morality, etc., along with the teaching of science. All the elements necessary for
attaining God are included in the curriculum suggested by idealistic followers of Plato, who laid
down that education must aim to realize the ideals of truth, beauty and goodness. Hence, he has
suggested the inclusion of all those subjects or disciplines which help in the realization of these
ideals. Most significant among man's activities are the intellectual, the aesthetic and the moral.
The teaching of language, literature, history, geography, mathematics and science will encourage
intellectual activity while the aesthetic impulse can be reinforced through art and poetry. Moral
activities can be taught and instilled in the educand through the teaching of religion, ethics, etc.
This curriculum is determined on the basis of the goals to be realized through education and by
the criterion that it must reflect the experience, culture and glory of the human race. Man's
experiences relate not only to his physical or natural environment but also to his social

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experiences, knowledge of which can be obtained through a study of the natural and the social
sciences.An idealist curriculum often prioritizes subjects like philosophy, literature, history, and
the arts, which are seen as vehicles for exploring and understanding universal truths and values.

3. Moral and Character Education:

Idealism stresses the importance of teaching values, ethics, and morality. The curriculum is
designed to instill virtues such as honesty, integrity, and justice, aiming to develop well-rounded
individuals.

C. Teaching Methods
Turning to methodology in education, idealists suggest that the method must be oriented to
achieving the complete development of all the innate abilities of the child and to train him for
self-realization. In Rivers' words, "The process of education in childhood consists, or should
consist, in the direction of innate or instinctive tendencies towards an end in harmony with the
highest good of society of which the child is an active member. Idealists believe in a harmony
between individual and social objectives. The child must be provided with a liberal environment
for his development and his education should be related to present experience. One finds,
therefore, that many elements of the idealist methodology are common with those of the
naturalist, realist and pragmatist methodology.
The idealist methodology in education lays special stress on the three following processes:

1. Instruction:
The term instruction as used here implies educational instruction which is believed by Herbart to
be essential to education. But instruction does not mean that the child's mind should be stuffed
with various scraps of information. It implies a modification and a refinement of the child's
mind. For this it is essential that the educator must provide sympathetic guidance. The idealists
believe that training of all kinds must be provided in the school.

2. Activity:
Like the naturalist methodology, the educational methods recommended by the idealists also are
based on activity. The child must learn through doing. Although the child can learn much by
asking questions after lectures in the school, creative activity is much more important. This
creative activity should be natural, continuous and progressive. This helps in moving towards
self-realization, because it encourages the child to manifest his innate tendencies. Through
mental activity the child learns cheerfully and happily and this also helps in the development of
his personality. Besides, by these means the child learns rapidly. Hence, idealists also stress that
instruction should be active.

3. Experience:
Idealist methodology also places considerable stress on experience. Every educand must base all
his education on his own experience. The educator's task is not to stuff his own experience in the

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educand's mind but to provide the latter some insight into his own experience. The guidance
given by the educator helps to manifest many frustrated and repressed tendencies and drives of
the educand. Independence is an essential pre-requisite for experience. For this reason, idealists
believe freedom to be an essential part of education but it must be remembered that this freedom
is not absolute, but controlled and guided.

4. Socratic Method:
Idealism favors the Socratic Method, where dialogue and questioning are used to stimulate
critical thinking and draw out ideas. This method encourages students to think deeply and engage
in philosophical inquiry.

5. Lectures and Discussions:

Teachers are viewed as intellectual and moral guides. They often use lectures to convey
established truths, followed by discussions to deepen understanding and encourage reflection.

D. Role of the Teacher

Idealistic pattern of education grants the highest place to the educator, and conceives of the
educator and educand as two parts of an organic plan. The educator creates a specific
environment for the educand's development and provides guidance so that the latter may
progress towards perfection and a rounded personality. The most precise explanation of the
educator's role is manifested in Froebel's kindergarten pattern of education, in which the school
is treated as a garden, the educand as a delicate plant which requires nurturing and the educator
as the cautious gardener. Although even in the absence of the gardener the plant will continue to
grow and will inevitably follow the laws governing its nature, the gardener has a certain
significance in that he has the skill to develop plants. He may be unable to change a rose into a
cabbage, but he certainly can contribute his mite to the plant's development. His efforts help in
achieving perfection in this development, a level of perfection which would otherwise have been
impossible. The educator plays a parallel role in the school. He can guide the educand
appropriately because he knows the rules which govern the latter's development. Through his
guidance he can make this natural development into a process leading to perfection and beauty.
Ross explains, "The naturalist may be content with briars, but the idealist wants fine developing
according to the laws of nature, to attain levels that would otherwise be denied to him".Clearly,
the idealists attach much more value to the educator than do the naturalists. Adams opined that
both the educator and the educand are two parts of the intellectual universe both of which should
be considered equally important. The educator inspires the educand to realize the ideals of truth,
goodness and beauty, and guides him along the path to its realization

1. Teacher as a Moral Model:

In idealism, teachers are seen as role models who embody the moral and intellectual virtues they
seek to impart to their students. They are expected to inspire and guide students toward self-
realization.

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 2. Guiding the Soul:
Teachers are not just transmitters of knowledge but also mentors who help shape the character
and soul of the students, nurturing their intellectual and moral development.

E. Student's Role
1. Active Learner:

While students are expected to be active participants in their learning, idealism also sees them as
developing minds that need guidance. They are encouraged to engage in deep thinking and
reflection.

2. Pursuit of Ideals:
Students are motivated to aspire toward higher ideals and strive for self-improvement, both
intellectually and morally.

F. Assessment
1. Qualitative Over Quantitative:

Idealism tends to favor qualitative assessments over quantitative ones. The focus is on assessing
a student's understanding of concepts, moral reasoning, and the ability to engage with ideas
rather than simply measuring factual recall.

2. Reflective Assessments:
Tools like essays, discussions, and presentations are often used to assess students' grasp of
complex, abstract ideas and their ability to apply them in real-life contexts.

G. Impact on Educational Policy

1. Support for Humanities:

Idealist influence in educational policy often manifests in strong support for the humanities and
liberal arts. Policies may prioritize funding and support for these areas, considering them
essential for the development of well-rounded individuals.

2. Value-Based Education:
Educational policies shaped by idealism often include mandates for character education, ethical
instruction, and the promotion of civic virtues, ensuring that schools not only educate but also
build character.

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 H. Impact on Educational Technology

1. Cautious Adoption of Technology:

Idealists may approach educational technology with caution, emphasizing that while technology
can be a tool, it should not replace the humanistic aspects of education. The focus remains on
personal interaction, critical thinking, and moral development.

2. Human-Centered Learning:
Technology in education, from an idealist perspective, should be used to enhance rather than
diminish the human element, supporting activities like discussion, debate, and reflection rather
than rote learning or passive consumption of information.

Conclusion
Idealism in education fosters a holistic approach, emphasizing intellectual and moral
development. It impacts curriculum design, teaching methods, and assessment practices,
advocating for a deep, reflective, and value-driven educational experience. This philosophy
shapes not only the content and methods of education but also the overarching goals, seeking to
develop individuals who are not only knowledgeable but also virtuous and wise.

Question no: 3
Define and explain ‘Pragmatism’ as a modern philosophy which has reshaped
educational policy and practices.
Answer:
Pragmatism is a modern philosophy that has significantly influenced educational policy and
practices, especially in the 20th and 21st centuries. Originating in the United States in the late
19th century, with key figures like Charles Sanders Peirce, William James, and John Dewey,
pragmatism focuses on the practical consequences of ideas and the belief that knowledge and
truth are not fixed but are constantly evolving through experience and interaction with the world.
The term ‘Pragmatism’ derives its origin from a Greek word ‘Pragma’ meaning ‘Activity’ or
‘Practice’ or ‘Action’. As action gets priority over thought, Pragmatism is also known as
‘Expenditure’ which believes in ‘practicability’ or ‘utility’ depending upon the truth, reality,
goodness or badness which are all relative terms and are not predetermined or absolute.
Pragmatism tends to hold the idea that the truth/fact of yesterday needs to be experienced truly,

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today and tomorrow. It idealizes the activity on the basis of its consequence over time frame. In
short, it conceptualizes an inference on the basis of changed or changing needs, circumstances
and places. Pragmatists believe that no truth is absolute and permanent as it is ever changing
from time to time and place to place and from circumstance to circumstance. Thus, their
fundamental start is “change”. Whatever was true yesterday need not be the true today. The
philosophy of pragmatists is predetermined to those ideas and values which result in utility to
mankind in certain time, place or circumstance rather than any predetermined of life. Pragmatic
philosophy is a practical philosophy having no fixed or absolute standards. Man always creates
new values and education should help him in doing so. Being practical and utilitarian school of
philosophy, Pragmatism has influenced education to the maximum extent. It has tried
overcoming the limitations of other schools like idealism and naturalism and has influenced the
world to a great extent.

Pragmatism and aims of education:

Pragmatists believe that life is dynamic which is subjected to constant change; hence the aims of
education are bound to be dynamic. According to them, Education deals with human life, so it
must help the children to fulfill their biological and social needs. Education should enable a child
to create values in his life. In the words of Ross, education must create new values: “the main
task of educator is to put the educand into a position to develop values for him”.
The aims of education as formulated by the Pragmatists are the following:
 To create new values: The Pragmatists do not believe in the theory of any fixed aim of
education. In their opinion, the aim of education is to create new values and the act of
teacher is to help himself develop new values.
 To enable pupils to gather experience through activity: For the creation of new values,
activity and experience are essential. Education should therefore, provide physical,
intellectual, moral and aesthetic activities as the media for the creation of new values.
 To help the pupil to adjust with him and the society: The other important aim of
education according to pragmatism is to help the pupil to make adjustment with himself
and the society.
 To help the pupil to reconstruct his experience: Every individual has to solve different
types of complex problems in his life. So the another important aim of education,
according to Pragmatism is to enable the pupil to form such an outlook about life as can
help to tackle successfully the different problems of his life in future,
 To make all round development of the pupil: All round development of the individual is
also an important aim of education. The individual develops physically, mentally,
socially and aesthetically.

Contribution of pragmatism to education

“Activity lies at the centre of all educative process. The basis of all teaching is the activity of
the child” - Foster Education is preparation for life.

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Pragmatism makes a man socially efficient. They believe that the children should not be asked to
work according to predetermined goals. They should rather determine their goals according to
their needs and interests. Pragmatism is based on the psychology of individual differences.
Pragmatists want education according to aptitudes and abilities of the individual. Every
individual must be respected and education should be planned to cater his inclinations and
capacities. According to pragmatism, the theory and practice of education is based on two main
principles, namely (i) Education should have a social function and (ii) Education should provide
real life experience to the child. Broadly, pragmatism and education can be discussed as follows:
 Every continuous experience or activity is educative and all education in fact, resides in
having such experience. But continuous growth in experience is not the whole education.
Education is something more. It is constant reorganizing or reconstructing of experience.
 Pragmatism provides definite aims of education. The student is prepared to live in a
society and learn skills and attitude.
 The teaching methods are based on learning by doing. The project method is the
contribution of pragmatism to modern education.  Pragmatism encourages a democratic
way to learning through purposeful and co-operative projects and activities.
 Utility in the educative process is the first criterion. The school is expected to provide
learning experiences that are useful.
 Education is not bound to tradition. Pragmatic philosophers advise us to test everything
through our own experience.
 The teacher has to play a very challenging role in the education process under
pragmatism and he has to be very alert and watchful.

Pragmatism and curriculum:

In the field of curriculum development, the following principles have been prescribed by the
pragmatists.

1. Principle of Utility:
According to this principle only those subjects, activities and experiences should be included in
the curriculum which are useful to the present needs of the child and also meet the future
expectations of adult life as well. The subjects are such as Language, Physical well being,
Physical training, Geography, History, Science, Agriculture and Home Science for girls.

2. Principle of Interest:
According to this principle, only those activities and experiences where the child takes interest
are of four varieties namely
 Interest in conversation

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  Interest in investigation
 Interest in construction and
 Interest in creative expression. Keeping these varieties of interest in view at the primary
stage, the curriculum should include writing, counting, art, craft-work, natural science
and other practical work of simple nature.
3. Principle of Experience:
The third principle of pragmatics curriculum is the child’s activity, vocation and experience. All
these three should be closely integrated. The curriculum should consist of such varieties of
learning experiences which promote original thinking and freedom to develop social and
purposeful attitudes.

4. Principle of Integration:
Pragmatic curriculum deals with the integration of subjects and activities. Pragmatists want to
construct flexible, dynamic and integrated curriculum which aids the developing child and the
changing society more and more as he/she needs, demands and situation requires.

Pragmatism and method of teaching:

Teaching-learning process is social and bi-polar process. Learning takes place as an interaction
between the teacher and the taught. Pragmatism gives priority to the taught. Similarly, between
the thought and action, it gives priority to action. They prefer practical over theory based
teaching–learning process. The pragmatists have completely discarded the conventional method
of teaching and laid emphasis on the invention of new methods. The whole emphasis of method
of teaching in pragmatism is on child, not the book of the teacher or the subject. The dominant
interest of the child is ‘to do’ and ‘to make’. The method should be flexible and dynamic.
Pragmatists believe that minds of different children are different. Hence, we cannot have a fixed
method of teaching which can be useful to all situations. Learning by doing and the project
methods have an important place in the methods of teaching proposed by the pragmatists. All
learning must come as a product of action. Learning by doing makes a person creative, confident
and co-operative. They also put on emphasis on the discovery and enquiry method. The
techniques which follow the principle of learning by doing can be used according to pragmatists
view.

Pragmatism and teacher:

In the opinion of pragmatists the duty of the teacher is to create such an environment in the
school where pupils will have to face different problems relating to real life and will take interest
in the solution of those problems. Pragmatism regards teacher as a helper, guide and philosopher.
The chief function of a pragmatic teacher is to suggest problems to his pupil and to stimulate
them to find by themselves the solution which will work. The teacher must provide opportunities
for the natural development of innate qualities if the children. His main task is to suggest
problem to his student/pupils and to guide them to find out he solutions.

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Pragmatism and discipline:
Pragmatists have opposed against the imposition of rules and regulations to pupils. They believes
in social and personal discipline, In their opinion if we give them opportunities to participate in
different types of collective activities spontaneous discipline will grow in them. Pragmatists
believe that play and work should be combined and this combination will perform a mental
attitude and discipline. By taking part in such activities the qualities like tolerance, sympathy,
mutual respect, attitude of service will be developed in them. Discipline cannot be maintained
through force and domination. Children should be left free in order to develop freely and
harmoniously.
According to pragmatists rewards and punishment are of no significance in the process of
learning. They believed that no moral standard of values are already established. The philosophy
believes in discipline, but the discipline should not be the outcome of external force it should be
backed by freedom and joy. It advocates on discipline based on the principles of child’s activities
and interests. It upholds discipline based on social and mutual understanding. It believes in
engaging the children free and real activities of human life.

Principles of Pragmatism in Education

1. Learning by Doing (Experiential Learning)
i. Active Learning:
Pragmatism emphasizes that learning occurs through active engagement with the environment.
Instead of passively receiving information, students learn best by doing, experimenting, and
reflecting on their experiences.
ii. Problem-Solving Approach:
Education is seen as a process of inquiry where students confront real-life problems and work
towards solutions. This approach makes learning relevant and directly applicable to life outside
the classroom.

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 2. Education as a Social Process
i. Collaborative Learning:
Pragmatism views education as inherently social, where interaction with others is essential for
learning. Group work, discussions, and collaborative projects are encouraged to help students
develop social skills and learn from diverse perspectives.
ii. Democratic Education:
John Dewey, a leading pragmatist, advocated for education that prepares students for active
participation in a democratic society. Schools are seen as microcosms of society where students
learn the importance of cooperation, dialogue, and civic responsibility.

3. Curriculum Flexibility
i. Interdisciplinary Curriculum:
Pragmatism promotes a curriculum that is not rigid but flexible, integrating various subjects and
disciplines to address real-world issues. This approach helps students see the connections
between different areas of knowledge and understand their relevance to everyday life.
ii. Student-Centered Curriculum:
Pragmatists advocate for a curriculum that is responsive to students' interests, needs, and
experiences. The curriculum is often designed around themes or projects that are meaningful to
students, fostering engagement and motivation.

4. Continuous Adaptation and Growth

i. Education as Growth:
Pragmatism rejects the idea of a fixed, final state of knowledge. Instead, education is viewed as
an ongoing process of growth and adaptation. Students are encouraged to be lifelong learners,
continually questioning, exploring, and adapting to new circumstances.

ii. Experimental Method:

The scientific method, characterized by hypothesis, experimentation, and revision, is central to
pragmatism. This method is applied not only in scientific inquiry but also in teaching and
learning, where educators and students continuously test and refine their ideas.

5. Focus on Outcomes and Practical Application

i. Utility of Knowledge:
Pragmatists believe that the value of knowledge lies in its practical application. Education should
equip students with skills and knowledge that are directly applicable to real-life situations,
preparing them to solve problems and contribute to society.
ii. Outcome-Based Education:

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This approach shifts the focus from what students are taught to what they can do with what they
have learned. Educational success is measured by students' ability to apply their knowledge in
practical, meaningful ways.

Impact of Pragmatism on Educational Policy and Practices

1. Progressive Education Movement
Pragmatism has been a driving force behind the progressive education movement, which
advocates for reforms that make education more child-centered, democratic, and experiential.
This movement has influenced educational policies that prioritize active learning, critical
thinking, and the development of social skills.

2. Shift towards Student-Centered Learning

Educational practices have increasingly shifted from teacher-centered to student-centered
approaches, where the needs, interests, and experiences of students are the primary focus. This
has led to the adoption of project-based learning, inquiry-based learning, and other forms of
active, experiential education.

3. Integration of Technology
Pragmatism has influenced the integration of technology in education, where tools like
computers, tablets, and educational software are used to enhance experiential learning and
problem-solving. Technology is seen not just as a way to deliver content but as a means to
engage students in interactive, practical learning experiences.

4. Educational Reforms and Accountability

The emphasis on practical outcomes has led to reforms that focus on accountability in education,
such as outcome-based education and standards-based education. Policies now often include
measurable goals and assessments that ensure students are acquiring the skills and knowledge
necessary for success in the real world.

5. Emphasis on Lifelong Learning

Pragmatism's view of education as a continuous process has influenced policies that promote
lifelong learning. This is reflected in the growing emphasis on adult education, professional
development, and continuing education programs designed to help individuals adapt to changing
job markets and societal needs.

Conclusion
Pragmatism as a modern philosophy has reshaped education by emphasizing practical,
experiential learning, the importance of social interaction, and the need for continuous growth
and adaptation. It has influenced educational policy and practices by promoting student-centered
learning, interdisciplinary curricula, and the integration of technology. Through its focus on real-
world application and democratic education, pragmatism continues to shape the way education is

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approached, ensuring that it remains relevant and responsive to the needs of individuals and
society.

Question no: 4
Briefly discuss different sources of knowledge from prehistoric to modern day
world.
Answer:
Prehistory, also called the prehistoric period, refers to the period extending back when there was
no writing and no engagement with written documentation. The beginning of prehistory is
indicated with the origin of the earliest representatives of genus Homo (comprising the modern
humans and the group of their close extinct ancestors – detailed in Unit 2 of this course). This
evidence is currently dated between 5-2 million years before present (BP) in Africa,
approximately one million years ago in Europe and Asia, an estimated 40,000 years BP in
Australia, and even less in America.
The term ‘prehistory’ originated from the phrase période anti-historique which was coined by
French archaeologist Paul Tournal in 1833 to refer to the period of human history before the
emergence of written documents (Grayson, 1983). The French phrase shrank to ‘prehistory’ and
was first used in 1851 by Daniel Wilson in his seminal book The Archaeology and Prehistoric
Annals of Scotland. 1 The term ‘prehistory’ was initially coined to indicate the period during
which humans were the contemporaries of animals now extinct, the remains of which were found
by geologists (scientists who study the solid and liquid matter that constitutes the Earth) and
palaeontologists (scientists who study fossils) in old geological deposits. Prehistory now
encompasses the entire span of human cultural evolution before written documentation that
extends back at least 2.6 million years. In the absence of written records from this period,
artefacts or material remains form the primary source of understanding prehistory. The material
remains are available mostly in the form of stone tools, the remains of animals, human fossils,
biofacts and cultural landscapes, more on which is detailed in the later Sections of this Unit. It is
important to learn here that between prehistory and the earliest recorded history, researchers have
identified a transitory period which is termed as protohistory. The term protohistory was coined
to denote the period in a culture that occurred immediately before its recorded history begins.
Protohistory is also used to indicate the history of a people or of a region in a period during
which the people or the region’s inhabitants were still illiterate but were written about in the texts
of neighbouring peoples who were more advanced and already literate. For example, in the 4th
century BCE, the Celtic tribes were written about by Greek and Latin historians while the tribe
was still illiterate (History of Humanity, I: 95). The term ‘protohistoric’ is often also used for
populations whose writing has not been understood so far (e.g. the language of the Etruscans, the
ancient Italic people and the Harappans).
Throughout history, humans have relied on various sources of knowledge to understand the
world around them. These sources have evolved significantly from prehistoric times to the
modern day.

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 1. Prehistoric Era:
i. Oral Tradition:
Knowledge was passed down orally from generation to generation through stories, myths, and
rituals. This included practical knowledge about hunting, gathering, and survival.
ii. Observation of Nature:
Early humans learned about their environment through direct observation, understanding the
cycles of nature, and the behavior of animals.

2. Ancient Civilizations:
i. Written Records:
The invention of writing (e.g., cuneiform in Mesopotamia, hieroglyphs in Egypt) allowed for the
recording of knowledge. Early texts included religious writings, legal codes, and astronomical
records.
ii. Philosophy and Inquiry:
In civilizations like Greece, philosophy emerged as a way to seek knowledge through reasoning
and debate. Thinkers like Plato and Aristotle laid the foundations for various fields of
knowledge.

3. Medieval Period:
i. Religious Texts:
Knowledge was largely centered around religious institutions, with texts like the Bible, the
Quran, and religious commentaries serving as primary sources of knowledge.
ii. Monastic Preservation:
Monasteries in Europe preserved ancient texts and were centers of learning, where monks
copied and studied manuscripts.

4. Renaissance and Enlightenment:

i. Scientific Inquiry:
The Renaissance sparked a revival of interest in classical knowledge and the natural world. The
Scientific Revolution, led by figures like Galileo and Newton, emphasized experimentation and
observation as sources of knowledge.
ii. Printing Press:
The invention of the printing press by Gutenberg in the 15th century revolutionized the
dissemination of knowledge, making books more accessible and spreading new ideas rapidly.

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 5. Modern Era:
i. Scientific Method:
The modern scientific method, based on hypothesis testing, observation, and experimentation,
became the dominant way of acquiring knowledge in the natural sciences.
ii. Digital Age:
The rise of the internet and digital technologies in the late 20th and early 21st centuries has
democratized access to knowledge. Online platforms, databases, and open-source information
have made knowledge more widely available than ever before.

6. Contemporary Sources:
i. Data and Analytics:
In the 21st century, big data and advanced analytics have become critical sources of knowledge,
allowing for the extraction of insights from vast amounts of information.
ii. Artificial Intelligence:
AI and machine learning are increasingly used to process and generate new knowledge, from
predicting trends to solving complex problems.
Each of these sources has contributed to the cumulative growth of human knowledge, shaping
our understanding of the world across different eras.

Sources of new knowledge:

There is only one accepted source of new knowledge and that is empiricism.
Epistemic Awareness:
Epistemology is the branch of philosophy defined as “the study of human knowledge.” Like
epistemology TOK involves questioning our sources and the nature and accuracy of our
knowledge in the hope that we will develop a more informed understanding of what we know
and don't know. That is, enabling us to become more epistemically aware.

It is important because accurate knowledge of our two worlds - the real world and the inner
world correctly informs us of the conditions we must cope with. To know facts is to survive; not
to know, or to assess one's environment wrongly, is to lose the fight for survival.

We face two serious epistemological problems.

1. How can we determine which facts are true? As human beings living in the
21st Century we are surrounded by a wealth of information but not all of it is trustworthy,
so we must find a way to double check fact-claims. We must learn somehow to screen
out the fictions but let in the facts. On what criteria can we decide what facts are and
what are false claims?

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 2. How can we determine which facts are important? However, it is not enough to
simply determine which facts are true, we must also consider which facts are useful. A
correct catalogue of the size and shape of every blade of grass on my lawn may well be
factually true but it will not be as useful as knowing that my lawn is on fire and about to
engulf my house. Given the overwhelming number of facts available to us, what criteria
can we use for deciding what is more important, what less?
Almost everything that we know originates from four basic sources:
 Senses (possibly the most important)
 Authority (knowledge from other sources, hopefully experts)
 Reason
 Intuition

The Senses:
Information from the senses is called empirical knowledge and empiricists believe that the
fundamental source of all knowledge is our senses. Our senses are exploratory organs; we use
them all to become acquainted with the world we live in. We learn that candy is sweet, and so
are sugar, jam, and maple syrup. Lemons are not, and onions are not. The sun is bright and
blinding. Glowing coals in the fireplace are beautiful if you don't touch them. Sounds soothe,
warn, or frighten us. Through millions of single sense-events we build a fabric of empirical
information which helps us interpret, survive in, and control the world about us.
We have a number of different kinds of senses:
 The objective senses that tell us about the world: sight, sound, smell, touch and taste
 The visceral senses, in our mouths and gut that give us the sense of stomach ache
 The proprioceptive senses, in our muscles that tell us if our fist is clenched or not
 The balance senses, mostly in our ears that tell us if we are … um … balanced
However, our senses present us with a serious credibility problem. Before we start the TOK
course most of us are naïve realists people who simply accept what their senses are telling them
as the truth … but is there any way we can actually be sure about this? Can we really trust what
our senses seem to tell us?
Unfortunately the answer must be a reluctant no. Our senses do not give us a "true picture" of the
real world; they give us useful picture – a picture that is designed to help us move around,
survive in and take advantage of our world. To take a simple example: if you think about it we
know that the chairs we sit on are not actually not solid: they are made of atoms which are
actually more space than anything else. Yet our senses tell us that they are solid. Why? Because
in terms of day to day survival there is no point knowing about atoms: you need to know that a
chair will hold you up if you sit on it and that a rock will hurt if it falls on you: a sensitive
awareness of the arrangement of the sub-atomic particles of a boulder as it plummets towards
you will not do your survival chances any good.
Authority:
Other people are continual sources of information. Such information, however, is always second-
hand knowledge - or third-, fourth-, or nth-hand knowledge. It is all "hearsay." The farther it is

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removed from our own personal experience, the more caution we must exercise before accepting
a fact-claim.
All of our historical knowledge is acquired in this way as is most of our knowledge of the
sciences. We can't experience the past or personally repeat every experiment, so we must trust
the specialists and accept, though not blindly, the discoveries they record for us. They key thing
with knowledge from authority is that it can be double-checked and the work of scientists and
historians is continually being ‘double checked’ as other workers in the same field (even
sometimes us in our classrooms) repeat their experiments or investigations. A healthy cynicism
of sources, the development of the skills required to check facts and an awareness of which
sources are more or less reliable is a good way to ensure that the knowledge we receive from
authority is as good as it can be.
Reason:
Reasoning might be defined as the process of using known facts to arrive at new facts. In this
way Reason can help us arrive at new facts or new knowledge BUT only as long as the original
facts we put into the process are correct and the process itself is reliable.
Imagine you are travelling in Japan and you know that the exchange rate is 200 yen to a dollar,
you can easily work out that an 800 yen sushi meal will actually cost you $4. This is new
knowledge (you didn’t know it before) but … it only works if your original facts are right (i.e.
you’ve got the correct exchange rate and are correct about the cost of the meal) and if the process
is right (you can do multiplication / division properly)
Reasoning generally comes in two forms: deduction and induction. Deduction is the kind of
reasoning usually used in Maths and is the more certain of the two as it involves ‘drawing out’
valid conclusions from previously known facts – e.g. All cats are animals, Jack is a cat, so Jack is
an animal. Induction, on the other hand, is usually used in Science and is less certain as it
involves jumping from some things you have observed to making universal statements about all
things – e.g. I drop this pencil and it falls, so it is likely all dropped pencils (and indeed things)
will fall. Notice that both forms are usually dependent on sensation to give us the initial facts or
ideas in the first place.
The problem with reasoning is that deduction (the most certain form of reasoning) can never
teach us anything new because all the information is there in the facts at the start, while induction
(the thing that can give us what seems like new knowledge) can’t ever give us anything certain,
only things that are likely to be the case.
Intuition:
Although the word intuition has connotations of the mystical or unscientific, when carefully
defined it can be considered a source of knowledge. Intuition refers to insights or bits of
knowledge which suddenly ‘pop’ into consciousness as our deeper subconscious chugs away
working on data that we have collected earlier. We have all probably had the experience where
the answer to a question we were previously thinking about but have currently forgotten has
suddenly popped into our minds for no reason. This is intuition and, as such, like reason, it too is
dependent on our senses to provide the raw material on which the subconscious works.

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Sometimes intuition seems to be a ‘feeling’. We often say something like "I have the feeling he's
not telling the truth," without being sure of why. The psychologist Jung suggested that actually
this is actually a form of unconscious reasoning where your subconscious picks up on the tell-
tale signs of lying (sweating, nervous movements, etc) that are too subtle for your conscious
mind to notice and processes them resulting in the ‘feeling’ that this person is untrustworthy.
The problem with intuition however, is that most of our intuitions are wrong and they need
careful double checking before they are trusted.
Other Sources:
 Faith often accompanied by supernatural revelation;
 Instinct;
 Racial Memory / the Collective Unconscious – another idea of Jung’s, that we have
cultural memories that we can all inherit and share without actually experiencing the
thing that caused the memory in the first place;
 Extrasensory Perception;
 Anamnesis ("recollection") or the remembrance of things from a past life;
 Spiritualism and the Occult, such as Ouija boards, tarot cards, etc.

Question no: 5
Compare and contrast ‘empirical’ knowledge with other sources of knowledge
Answer:
Empirical knowledge is a distinct and powerful source of understanding, but it is not the only
way humans acquire knowledge. Here's a comparison and contrast of empirical knowledge with
other sources:

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 Basis of Empirical Rational Intuitive Authority- Revelatory
Comparison Knowledge Knowledge Knowledge Based Knowledge
Knowledge
Definition Empirical Rational Intuitive Authority- Revelatory
knowledge is knowledge is knowledge is based knowledge is
derived from derived from gained knowledge is believed to be
direct logical reasoning through acquired from acquired
observation, and intellectual immediate trusted sources, through divine
experience, deduction, understanding such as experts, or spiritual
and independent of books, means, often
or insight
experimentatio sensory institutions, or through
without
n. It relies on experience. traditions. religious
sensory input conscious experiences or
and evidence reasoning or mystical insight.
gathered evidence.
through
interaction
with the
physical world.
Characteristics Based on A Priori: Subjective: Dependent on Transcendent:
Observation: Often involves Based on Trust: Goes beyond
Involves knowledge that is personal Relies on the empirical
seeing, known insight or a credibility of evidence and
hearing, independently of "gut feeling." the source logical
touching, or experience (e.g., Immediate: rather than reasoning.
otherwise mathematical Does not personal Faith-Based:
perceiving truths). involve a experience or Requires belief
phenomena Abstract: step-by-step reasoning. in the validity of
directly. Deals with process; Accepted the revelation.
Testable and concepts and knowledge is without
Verifiable: ideas rather than often Evidence:
Empirical physical evidence. spontaneous. Often taken at
knowledge can - face value
be tested because of the
through authority of the
experiments source.
and
observations
that can be
repeated by
others.
Comparison - Empirical: Empirical: Is Empirical: Empirical: Is
Requires sensory grounded in Requires grounded in the
input; knowledge external evidence that material world
is gained after evidence and can be and evidence-
experiencing. can be independently based.

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 Rational: verified by verified. Revelatory: Is
Does not require others. Authority- often considered
sensory Intuitive: Is Based: Relies beyond the
experience; internal and on trust in the realm of
knowledge can be personal, source rather empirical
gained through often lacking than direct validation and
reasoning alone. external evidence. based on
validation. spiritual or
religious faith.

Example Scientific Mathematical A sudden Learning from Prophecies,

experiments, proofs and insight or textbooks, religious
clinical trials, philosophical creative idea religious texts, visions, or
and data arguments. that feels or expert spiritual
collected from "right" opinions. enlightenment.
surveys. without
obvious
reasoning.

Empirical Vs. Rationalism:

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