Unit - 1 ❐ Philosophical Foundations of Education

Structure
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Objectives
Education : concept, definition and scope
1.3 Agencies of education
1.3.1 School
13.2 Family
1.3.3 Community
1.3.4 Media
1.4 Philosophies of Education
1.4.1 Idealism
1.4.2 Naturalism
1.4.3 Pragmatism
1.4.4 Existentialism
1.4.5 Humanism
1.4.6 Constructivism
1.4.7 Connectionism
1.5 Historical perspective of Indian Education
1.5.1 Gandhi
1.5.2 Tagore
1.5.3 Krishna Murthy
1.5.4 Aurobindo
1.6 Contemporary Indian Perspective
1.7 Let us sum up
1.8 Answers to ‘Check your Progress’

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1.9 Unit end exercises
1.10 References.

1. Education : concept, definition and scope

Education enhances one’s knowledge. Education tells a person how to think and how
to walk decision. Education gives an understanding of how we see the world. We need
to know what happened in history and what makes us where we are at today.
In this sub-unit, you will understand the meaning of education, its scope, concept.
After going through this sub-unit, you will be able to :
• State the concept of education
• Define education
• Explain the meaning of education
• State the scope of education

1.1 Concept of Education

According to some learned people, the word ‘education’ has been derived from the
Latin term ‘Educatum’ which means the act of teaching or training. A group of
educationists say that it has come from another Latin word “educare’ which means ‘to
bring up’ or ‘to raise’. According to a few other, the words ‘education’ has originated
from other Latin term ‘Educate’ which means ‘to lead forth’ or ‘to come out’. All these
meaning indicate that education seeks to nourish the good qualities in man and draw
out the best in every individual.
The word ‘Education’ is derived from two words ‘e’ and ‘duco’, ‘e’ means from
inside and ‘duco’ means to develop. The two words combined together give the meaning
to make something grow or develop from within.
The concept of education may also be considered from the narrow and border point
of view. In the narrow sense, education is equated with schooling. In this sense, education
is said to begin when the child enters to school. It ends when the child leaves the
educational institutions which he/she joined for the purpose of receiving education.
Education understood in the narrow sense, gives priority to classroom teaching and
book learning. In the border sense, education is synonymous with growth and
development. In this sense, the span of education is as wide as that of life. This means
every experiences in the life, every activity from the cradle to the grave is educative.

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 According to John Storrs Mill, education, in the narrow sense is ‘the culture which
generation purposely gives to its successors in order to quality, to keep up and improve
the level attained’. In his words, education, in border sense ‘every environment, every
surrounding, every activity helps to shape the human being.
Definition of ‘Education’
The word ‘education’ is defined in many different ways. The concept of education
as a whole cannot be given by any one particular definition.
The concepts of education as given by prominent Indian educationist are as follows :
Rig-Veda : ‘Education is something which makes man self-reliant and selfless.
Upanishad : ‘Education is that whose end product is salvation.’
Bhagavad-Gita : ‘Nothing is more purifying on earth than wisdom.’
Shankarracharya : ‘Education is the realization of self.’
Kautilya : ‘Education means training of the country and love of the nations.’
Panini : ‘Human education means the training which one gets from natire.’
Gandiji : ‘By education, I mean all round drawing out the best in a child and man
by body, mind and spirit.’
Swami Vivekananda : ‘Education is the manifestation of the device perfection,
already existing in man.
Rabindranath Tagore : ‘Education is that which makes one’s life in harmony with
all existences.’
Sri Aurobindo : ‘Education which will offer the tools whereby one can live for the
device, for the country, for oneself and for others and this must be the ideal of every
school which calls itself national.’
Concepts of ‘education’ as defined by Western Philosophers :
Socrates : ‘Education means the bringing out of the ideas of universal validity which
are letant in the mind of every man.’
Plato : ‘Education is the capacity to feel pleasure and pain at the right moment. In
develops in the body and in the soul of the pupil all the beauty and all the perfection
which he is capable of.
Aristotle : ‘Education is the creation of a sound mind in a sound body.’
Rousseau : ‘Education of man comments at his birth; before he can speak, before
he can understand he in already instructed.’

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 Herbert Spencer : ‘Education is complete living.’
Pestalozzi : ‘Education is the natural, harmonious and progressive development of
man’s innate powers.’
Froebel : ‘Education is leading out of hidden power of man.’
UNESCO - ‘Education includes all the process that develops human ability and
behavior,’
The lexicographical definition of ‘education is the act or process of importing or
acquiring general knowledge, developing the powers of reasoning and judgement and
generally of preparing oneself or other intellectually for nature life.’
The remarks of different thinkers and educators highlights the following features of
education:
1. Its unilateral as well as be-polar nature.
2. Its being drawing out or bring up process.
3. Its being knowledge or experience.
4. Its being conducive for the good of the individual or the welfare of the society.
5. Its being a liberal discipline or a vocational course.
Scope of Education
The scope of education is meant to help people deal with various challenges that they
come across in life.
The scope of education can be explained by its various processes.
Education by accretion or storage
According to this view, education is the process of gradually filling up the empty mind
of the child with grains of knowledge. The teacher’s mind and the books are the store
houses of mental granary of the child. This is called the gow-sack theory.
The theory is narrow and unsound. It regards knowledge as information of facts and
statements t be condensed into compact and logical forms and memorized by the pupils.
Education as formation of mind : Education as formation tries to form the mind by a
proper presentation of materials. It is formation of mind by setting up certain association
or connection of content by means of a subject-matter.
Education as preparation : Education as preparation is a process of preparation or
getting ready for the responsibilities and privileges of adult life. Preparation for complete
living. This theory is the outcome of modern scientific tendency in education.

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Education as mental discipline : The theory of mental discipline is a traditional concept
of education. According to this theory, the process of learning is more important than
the thing learned. This theory is based upon the traditional ‘Faculty Theory’ of
psychology according to which the mind is divided into a good number of separate
faculties such as memory, attention, reasoning, imagination, perception, thinking etc.
Education as growth and development : It is a modern concept of education change
is the law of nature. Man undergoes changes and transformations from cradle to grave.
These changes may be of different types such as physical, mental, moral and emotional.
Whenever there is change there is growth. Through change, a living organism can take
entirely a new shape and this again gives his/her power to grow. Thus, growing is
education and getting education is growing.
Education as direction : Educate a child means directing the child in the proper
direction. The young learners have innate powers, attitudes, interests and instincts. It is
the essential function of education to direct those inborn instincts and power properly
in socially acceptable and desirable channels.
Education as adjustment and self-activity : Adjustment is essential to an individual
for self-development. Education gives an individual the power of adjustment in an
efficient manner. Through education, the child learns to adjust with the environment.
Adjustment requires self-activity. Education is nothing but adjustment through self-
activity.
Education as social change and progress : A society is composed of individuals and
when the ideas of individuals change the society is bound to change. Change is the law
of human life ans society. The function of education is to maintain this progressive
trend.
Education as a process of socialization :After birth the child becomes a member of
the society and the process of socialization begins then. Then the formal education of
the child begins. Besides formal education the child continues to learn and gather
experiences in informal or incidental way. The process of socialization starts in family
environment and then the educational institutions take the responsibility of such process,
‘Check your progress’ – 1
1. Devise the term ‘education’
……………………………………………….
2. What is education according to Swami Vivekananda?
……………………………………………….
3. What do you mean by ‘gold sack theory’?
……………………………………………….
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Unit-1 ❐ Philosophical Foundation of Education
Introduction
Education is a systematic process through which a child or an adult acquires knowledge,
experience, skill and sound attitude. It makes an individual civilized, refined, cultured
and educated. For a civilized and socialized society, education is the only means, its
goal is to make an individual perfect. Every society gives importance to education
because it is a panacea for al! evils. It is the key to solve the various problems of life.
Education has been described as a process of waking up to life:
• Waking up to life and its mysteries, its solvable problems and the ways to solve the
problems and celebrate the mysteries of life.
• Waking up to the inter-dependencies of all things, to the threat to our global village,
to the power within the human race to create alternatives, to the obstacles entrenched
in economic, social and political structures that prevent our waking up.
- Education in the broadest sense of the term is meant to aid the human being in his/her
pursuit of wholeness. Wholeness implies the harmonious development of all the
potentialities God has given to a human person.
- True education is the harmonious development of the physical, mental, moral (spiritual),
and social faculties, the four dimensions of life, for a life of dedicated service.
Education and Philosophy
Man is always curious to know: his origin, his aim, his relationship with god, his destiny
etc. and this constant effort of man to understand reality may be termed as Philosophy.
It is an attempt to unfold life’s mysteries and find meaning in them. Hence it is called
the Mother of all Arts and the Science of ail Sciences.
Etymological meaning of Philosophy:-
Greek origin: -”Philos” (Love) + “Sophia” (Wisdom) i.e. Philosophy =
love for wisdom.
Philosophy of Education: It deals with the study of education and ways in which it can
be improved. It tries to find the best ways to impart instruction. It tries to understand
and explain the nature and need of education, methods in which it can be done, and
what its ideals should be. The philosophy of education overlaps in the area of study of
both, the various branches of philosophy and of education. This has been a topic of

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interest for philosophers the world over, and still generates a lot of debate and interest.
Indian schools of philosophy contribute to humanize their education system by their
lifelong education process, where philosophy and education go hand in hand.
Objectives
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
● State the concept, definition and scope of education
● Describe the various roles of different agencies of education
● Explain the different philosophies of education
● Understand the nature of Indian Philosophy
● State the educational thoughts of Indian Educational Philosophers
● Understand contemporary Indian perspective of Educational Philosophy.

Connectionism
Connectionism, today defined as an approach in the fields of artificial intelligence,
cognitive psychology, cognitive science and philosophy of mind which models mental
or behavioral phenomena with networks of simple units is not a theory in frames of
behaviorism, but it preceded and influenced behaviorist school of thought. Connectionism
represents psychology’s first comprehensive theory of learning. It was introduced by
Herbert Spencer, William James and his student Edward Thorndike in the very beginning
of the 20th century although its roots date way back.
Connectionism was based on principles of associationism, mostly claiming that elements
or ideas become associated with one another through experience and that complex
ideas can be explained through a set of simple rules. But Connectionism further
expanded these assumptions and introduced ideas like distributed representations and
supervised learning and should not be confused with associationism.
Thorhdike’s theory was based initially on a series of puzzle box experiments that he
used to plot learning curves of animals. In these experiments learning was defined as a
function of the amount of time required for the animal to escape from the box. A full
account of his experiments, including detailed descriptions of the puzzle boxes he used
and examples of learning curves that were plotted, can be found in Animal intelligence.
In Thorndike’s view, learning is the process of forming associations or bonds, which
he defined as “the connection of a certain act with a certain situation and resultant

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pleasure” His work leading up to 1898 provided “the beginning of an exact estimate of
just what associations, simple and compound, an animal can form, how quickly he
forms them, and how long he retains them”.
The learning theory of Thorndike represents the original S-R framework of behavioural
psychology: Learning is the result of associations forming between stimuli and responses.
Such associations or “habits” become strengthened or weakened by the nature and
frequency of the S-R pairings. The paradigm for S-R theory was trial and error learning
in which certain responses come to dominate others due to rewards. The hallmark of
connectionism (like all behavioral theory) was that learning could be adequately
explained without referring to any unobservable internal states.
Thorndike’s theory consists of three primary laws:
1. Law of exercise (Also: as law of use or law of frequency): The stimulus-response
(S-R)
associations are strengthened through repetition or weakened through lack of repetition.
2. Law of effect: The consequence or outcome of a situation-response event can
strengthen or weaken the connection between situation and response. If an event is
followed by a positive reinforcing stimulus, the connection will be strengthened and
vice versa.
3. Law of readiness: Learning is facilitated by learner’s readiness (emotional and
motivational) to learn. This potential to learn leads to frustration if not satisfied.
These laws have set the basic principles of behaviorist stimulus-response learning,
which was according to Thorndike the key form of learning.
The theory suggests that transfer of learning depends upon the presence of identical
elements in the original and new learning situations; i.e., transfer is always specific,
never general. In later versions of the theory, the concept of “belongingness” was
introduced; connections are more readily established if the person perceives that stimuli
or responses go together (c.f.
Gestalt principles). Another concept introduced was “polarity” which specifies that
connections occur more easily in the direction in which they were originally formed
than the opposite. Thorndike also introduced the “spread of effect” idea, i.e., rewards
affect not only the connection that produced them but temporally adjacent connections
as well.
Connectionism was meant to be a general theory of learning for animals and humans.

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Thorndike was especially interested in the application of his theory to education including
mathematics, spelling and reading, measurement of intelligence and adult learning.
Principles
● Learning requires both practice and rewards
(laws of effect /exercise) o A series of S-R connections can be chained together
if they belong to the same action sequence (law of readiness).
● Transfer of learning occurs because of previously encountered situations.
● Intelligence is a function of the number of connections learned.
Practical implications of Thorndike’s ideas are suggested through his laws of
learning:
● rewards promote learning, but punishments do not lead to learning,
● repetition enhances learning, and
● potential to learn needs to be satisfied.

Criticisms
Thorndike tried to prove that all forms of thoughts and behaviors can be explained
through S-R relations with use of repetition and reward, without need for introducing
any unobservable internal states, yet this is today generally considered incorrect. This
learning
through response was later in 20th century replaced by learning as knowledge
construction. Connectionism was in the first decades of 20th century succeeded by
behaviorism, but Thorndike’s experiments also inspired Gestalt psychology.
Humanism
The roots of Humanism are found in the thinking of Erasmus, who attacked the religious
teaching and thought prevalent in his time to focus on free inquiry and rediscovery of
the classical roots from Greece and Rome. He believed in the essential goodness of
children, that humans have free will, moral conscience and ability to reason, aesthetic
sensibility and religious instinct. Humanism was developed as an educational philosophy
by Rousseau and Pestalozzi, who emphasized nature and the basic goodness of humans,
understanding through the senses and education as a gradual and unhurried process in
which the development of human character follows the unfolding of nature.
Recent applications of Humanist Philosophy focus on the social and emotional well-

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being of the child, as well as the cognitive. Developments of a healthy self-concept,
awareness of psychological needs, helping students to strive to be all that they can are
important concepts, espoused in theories of Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers and Alfred
Adler that are found in classrooms today. Teachers emphasize freedom from threat,
emotional well-being, learning processes and self-fulfilment.
Principles of Humanistic Education
There are five basic principles of Humanistic Education:
1) Students should be able to choose what they want to learn. Humanistic teachers
believe that students will be motivated to learn a subject if it’s something they
need and want to know.
2) The goal of education should be to foster students’ desire to learn and teach them
how to learn. Students should be self-motivated in their studies and desire to learn
on their own.
3) Humanistic educators believe that grades are irrelevant and that only self-evaluation
is meaningful. Grading encourages students to work for a grade and not for personal
satisfaction. In addition, humanistic educators are opposed to objective tests because
they test a student’s ability to memorize and do not provide sufficient educational
feedback to the teacher and student.
4) Humanistic educators believe that both feelings and knowledge are important to
the learning process. Unlike traditional educators, humanistic teachers do not
separate the cognitive and affective domains.
5) Humanistic educators insist that schools need to provide students with an
unthreatening environment so that they will feel secure to learn. Once students
feel secure, learning becomes easier and more meaningful.
Aim of Humanistic Education
● Broadly Educated Man - to produce a broadly educated person possessing a well
rounded personality who could assume leadership.
● Accomplishment - to produce persons who should have a wide range of
accomplishments. They should be able to express themselves in poetry, song, dance
etc. All pupils should be physically and mentally healthy. According to Humanists
perfection must be final aim.
Curriculum of Humanistic Education
According to Humanism child is the centre of all education and the broad aims of

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education reflect on the curriculum.
● The study of old classics should be included in the curriculum as early Humanists
considered these to possessing profundity of content, literary style etc. And they
believed that all the values such as wide learning, all round development, life of
action, qualities of artistic enjoyment could be achieved by teaching classic
literature.
● In comparison with literature and classics, Humanists gave slight attention to
mathematics, natural history, music etc. and much less attentions were given by
them to the vernaculars in their curriculum. They believed that if history and ethics
is to be studied, we should study those as a part of the work of the old classical
writers.
● Physical education was also included in their curriculum and there was due place
for it. It aimed at producing a new brave class of people.
Methods of teaching in Humanistic Education
● In teaching literature teacher should talk about author’s style, vocabulary etc.
● Teacher should give simple directions to overcome the difficulties in the way of
learning.
● Teacher should set exercises for the matter taught. It should not be literal
reproduction, the subjects should be reproduced. Teachers should encourage
memorization, understanding and reproduction. The maxim is - understand-arrange-
repeat. 4 For mature students, early Humanists recommended lectures and debates.
Independence and individuality were introduced in learning of lessons.
Role of teacher in Humanistic Education
Much of a Humanist teacher’s effort would be put into developing a child’s self-esteem.
It would be important for children to feel good about themselves (high self-esteem),
and to feel that they can set and achieve appropriate goals (high self-efficacy). This
form of education is known as child-centred, and is typified by the child taking
responsibility for their education and owning their learning. Both praise and blame are
rejected by the Humanists. Children can become addicted to praise, and put much
effort into receiving praise from their teachers. Such children will often work for the
praise, and not work if their efforts go unnoticed.
The Humanist teacher is a facilitator, not a disseminator, of knowledge. Participatory
and discovery methods would be favoured instead of traditional didacticism .As well

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as the child’s academic needs the Humanistic teacher is concerned with the child’s
affective (or emotional) needs. Feeling and thinking are very much interlinked. Feeling
positive about oneself facilitates learning.
Discipline in Humanistic Education
Humanists believed in discipline in the schools. It was a discipline of kindness than of
vindictiveness. There was an appeal to pride and ambition in the child rather than to
rigors of punishment.
Major contributions of Humanistic Education
● Humanistic education enhances the teaching of the basics. Many of the major
books and articles on humanistic education show teachers how to do a more effective
job of teaching reading, writing, math, social studies, etc. Many of the best
traditional-subject-matter teachers integrate humanistic education methods and
materials into their basic curriculum. Rather than ignoring the basics, humanistic
educators seek to expand our concept of what basic education is, saying that basic
skills for surviving in today’s world go beyond reading, writing, computation, and
vocational skills and include other skills for communicating, problem-solving and
decision-making.
● Humanistic education is supported by years of research and experience. One
of the strongest reasons for supporting humanistic education is that, when done
effectively, students learn!
Considerable evidence shows that cooperative learning structures higher self-
concepts, and the student’s motivation and interest in learning all are related to
greater academic achievement.
● Humanistic education supports many goals of parents. What parent does not
sometimes wish his or her children would listen more respectfully, choose less
impulsively, calm down when overexcited, learn to be assertive without being
aggressive, or make better use of their time? Many humanistic education methods
teach students how to do these things. “Effectiveness training” teach students how
to really listen to others, including parents. “Values clarification” teach students
to “thoughtfully consider the consequences” of their decisions. Several humanistic
education approaches teach students to relax and control their nervous energy and
to plan and take more responsibility for their time. Humanistic educators often
report that parents have told them how good communication was increased in

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 their families as a result of some of the class activities and new skills the students
learned.
● Humanistic education encourages parent involvement in the schools. Many
humanistic educators are parents themselves, who are very active in their children’s
education in and out of school. Humanistic educators believe that parents should
be knowledgeable about their children’s curriculum, should be active in parent-
teaching activities, should be able to visit the school and observe, should have a
way to make suggestions or register complaints about their child’s program, and
within reasonable limits, should be allowed to request alternative learning options
for their children when they disagree strongly with school practices.
● Humanistic educators believe that schools have a role to play in the “values
education” of students. While the home and religion have the major responsibility
in the value development and moral development of children, the school also has
a legitimate role. Few parents have ever questioned the school’s role in encouraging
the values of punctuality, fairness, health, courtesy, respect for property, neatness
and the like. Humanistic educators believe schools also should encourage the
democratic and humanitarian values of tolerance, self-respect, freedom of thought,
respect for others, social responsibility and the like. Schools cannot and should
not be “value-free.”
● Humanistic education is not psychotherapy. It is not the goal of humanistic
education to help students overcome deep-seated emotional problems. Rather,
humanistic education seeks to help students to lean useful skills for living and to
deepen their understanding of issues relevant to their academic and social
development. Teachers do not need to be trained psychologists to conduct humanistic
education activities. They do require sensitivity to students, classroom management
skills, and the ability to conduct a class discussion. These skills are within the
grasp of all good teachers.
● Humanistic education is not a panacea. No one claims that implementing
humanistic education methods and approaches will instantly or even eventually
solve all of society’s problems. There are many problems in our communities,
country and world which require complex and long-term solutions. At best,
humanistic education can better equip young people with the skills and attitudes
to play a more effective role in seeking these solutions.

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● Humanistic education is essential for preparing young people to be citizens in
a democracy. If democracy is to work,’ its citizens must be educated. They must
know how to gather information, distinguish fact from opinion, analyze propaganda,
understand many different viewpoints, understand justice, think for themselves,
communicate their opinions clearly, and work with others for the common good.
These are among the most important skills that humanistic education seeks to
teach our youth.
Constructivism
Constructivism is a theory of learning based on the idea that knowledge is constructed
by the knower on mental activity. In other words, our own perceptions and understandings
create our knowledge. This theory supports the idea that learners are considered to be
active organisms seeking meaning. Constructivism is often associated with Jean Piaget
and Imrnanuel Kant. Piaget coined the terms accommodation and assimilation, which
are both related to constructivism. Through assimilation, individuals incorporate new
information in already existing framework. According to Piaget, accommodation is the
process of reframing one’s mental representation of the external world to fit new
experiencesTherefore, accommodation can be seen as the process of learning from
failure.
Some common tenets of Constructivism
1. Learning is a search for meaning. Therefore, learning must start with the issues
around which students are actively trying to construct meaning.
2. Meaning requires understanding wholes as well as parts. And parts must be
understood in the context of wholes. Therefore, the learning process focuses on
primary concepts, not isolated facts.
3. In order to teach well, we must understand the mental models that students use to
perceive the world and the assumptions they make to support those models.
4. The purpose of learning is for an individual to construct his or her own meaning,
not just memorize the “right” answers and regurgitate someone else’s meaning.
Since education is inherently interdisciplinary, the only valuable way to measure
learning is to make the assessment part of the learning process, ensuring it provides
students with information on the quality of their learning.

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Types of Constructivism
I Trivial Constructivism -The simplest idea in constructivism, root of all the other
shades of constructivism, is Trivial Constructivism or Personal Constructivism or
Cognitive Constructivism. In this principle, Knowledge is actively constructed by
the learner, not passively received from the environment.
II. Radical constructivism - Radical constructivism adds a second principle
to Trivial Constructivism. Coming to know is a process of dynamic adaptation
towards viable interpretations of experience. The knower does not necessarily
construct knowledge of a “real” world.
III. Social Constructivism or Socio-Constructivism - The social world of a learner
includes the people that directly affect that person, including teachers,
friends, students, administrators, and participants in all forms of activity. This
takes into account the social nature of both the local processes in collaborative
learning and in the discussion of wider social collaboration in a given subject,
such as science.
IV. Cultural constructivism - Beyond the immediate social environment of a learning
situation are the wider context of cultural influences, including custom, religion,
biology, tools and language.
V. Critical constructivism - Critical constructivism looks at constructivism within a
social and cultural environment, but adds a critical dimension aimed at reforming
these environments in order to improve the success of constructivism applied as a
referent.
VI. Constructionism - Constructionism asserts that constructivism occurs especially
well when the learner is engaged in constructing something for others to see.
Aims of Constructivism Education
1. We have to focus on the learner in thinking about learning not on the subject or
lesson to be taught.
2. There is no knowledge independent of the meaning attributed to experience by the
learners or community of learners.
3. Learning is an active process in which the learners uses sensory input and constructs
meaning out of it.

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4. Learning consists of both constructing meaning and constructing system of meaning
5. Physical actions, hands on experiences may be necessary for learning, especially
for children, but it is not sufficient, we need to provide activities which engage the
mind as well as the hands Dewey called this reflective activity.
6. Our learning is intimately associated with our connection with other human beings,
our teachers, our peers, our family as well as casual acquaintances, including the
people before us or next to us at the exhibit.
7. We do not learn isolated facts and theories in some abstract ethereal land of the
mind separate from the rest of our lives.
Constructivist Classroom
In the constructivist classroom, both teacher and students think of knowledge not as
inert factoids
to be memorized, but as a dynamic, ever-changing view of the world we live in and the
ability to successfully stretch and explore that view.
Difference between Traditional Classroom and Constructivist Classroom -
Traditional Classroom Constructivist Classroom
Curriculum begins with the parts Curriculum emphasizes big concepts,
of the whole. Emphasizes basic beginning with the whole and expanding to
skills. include the parts.
Strict adherence to fixed curriculum is highly valued. Pursuit of student questions and interests is
valued.
Materials are primarily textbooks and workbooks. Materials include primary sources of
material and manipulative materials.
Learning is based on repetition. Learning is interactive, building on what the
student already knows.
Teachers disseminate information to students; Teachers have a dialogue with students,
students are recipients of knowledge. helping students construct their own
knowledge.
Teacher’s role is directive, rooted in authority. Teacher’s role is interactive, rooted in
negotiation.
Assessment is through testing, correct answers. Assessment includes student works,
observations, and points of view, as well as
tests. Process is as important as product.
Knowledge is seen as inert. Knowledge is seen as dynamic, ever
changing with our experiences.
Students work primarily alone. Students work primarily in groups.

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Characteristics of Constructivist Teaching
One of the primary goals of using constructivist teaching is that students learn how to
learn by giving them the training to take initiative for their own learning experiences.
According to Audrey Gray the characteristics of a constructivist classroom are as follows:
● the learners are actively involved
● the environment is democratic
● the activities are interactive and student-centred
● the teacher facilitates a process of learning in which students are encouraged to be
responsible and autonomous
Teaching Methods
● Engage - The students first encounter and identify the instructional task. Teachers
must engage students in their lessons in order for them to learn. Teachers engage
students by -guiding whole group discussions, asking students to explain what
they learned, working together in small groups to complete projects or tasks.
● Explore- In the Exploration stage the students have the opportunity to get directly
involved with phenomena and materials. Students inquire, work together, form
hypotheses, and learn about new ideas and concepts on their own before coming
together as a whole class. Students develop an idea of what they may think an
object or idea is, and then explores it further to see if their idea was accurate.
Students use tools such as textbooks, the internet, scientific instruments, and their
creative minds to explore new concepts.
● Explain- Explain, is the point at which the learner begins to put the abstract
experience through which she/he has gone into a communicable form. The students
will define and explain the current concept using their own words. The student
will accomplish this using informational readings, group discussions, and teacher
interaction. Learners will support each other by sharing their ideas, observations,
questions, and hypotheses.
● Elaborate- To Elaborate the students expand on the concepts they have learned,
make connections to other related concepts, and apply their understandings to the
world around them. Students will expand their learning on the concepts by making
connections to related concepts and applying their understanding to the world

17
 around them. This ‘will help students make connections that will lead them to
more inquiry which will lead to new understandings.
● Evaluate- Evaluate is an on-going diagnostic process that allows the teacher to
determine if the learner has attained understanding of concepts and knowledge.
Constructivism encourages teachers to assess their students learning on an ongoing
basis. In traditional classrooms, assessment would be paper tests taken by the
students after the content was taught and in which they received a grade. In a
constructivist classroom the teacher assesses the students work and adapts the
lesson plan to meet the needs of the learner.
Techniques and methods in a constructivist classroom:
Teacher encourage students’ intellectual involvement trhough:
● Discussion
● Small group work
● Student presentation
● Debate
● Simultations
● Brain-storming
● Individul study
● Teacher acceptes and encourages students autonomy.
● Teacher acceptes induvidual differences.
● Students are asked open-ended questions and allowed time for resdonding.
● Teacher encourages students to higher-level thinking.
● Students communicate with both teacher and classmates.
● Students engage in experince.
● Raw data, primary sources, malipulatives, physical and interactive materials are
used by students.
Role of the teacher
Constructivist teachers do not take the role of the “sage on the stage.” Instead,

18
 teachers act as a “guide on the side” providing students with opportunities to test
the adequacy of their current understandings-
● The educator should consider the knowledge and experiences students bring to
class
● Learners construct their knowledge through a process of active enquiry
● ‘Discovery’ is facilitated by providing the necessary resources
● Knowledge is actively constructed & learning is presented as a process of active
discovery
● Provide assistance with assimilation of new and old knowledge
● Learning programme should be sufficiently flexible to permit development along
lines of student enquiry
● Create situations where the students feel safe questioning and reflecting on their
own processes
● Present authentic tasks to contextualize learning through real-world, case-based
learning environments
● Support collaboration in constructing knowledge, not competition
● Encourage development through inter-subjectivity
● Providing Scaffolding at the right time and the right level
● Provide opportunities for more expert and less expert participants to learn from
each other
Role of the student
The expectation within a Constructivist learning environment is that the students
plays a more active role in, and accepts more responsibility for their own learning,-
● Students have to accommodate & assimilate new information with their
current understanding
● One important aspect of controlling their own learning process is reflecting on
their experiences
● Students begin their study with pre-conceived notions
● Students are very reluctant to give up their established schema/idea & may reject

19
 new information that challenges prior knowledge
● Learners need to use and test ideas, skills, and information through relevant activities
● Students need to know how to learn or change their thinking/learning style
● For students to learn they need to receive different ‘lenses’ to see things in new
ways
Discipline in a constructivist classroom
● Teacher should give opportunity to the students to choose between two behaviours.
● Teacher should try to understand the reason of the problem behaviours.
● Teacher should clarify his expectations.
● Teacher should focus on the present behaviour of the student.
● There should be a reliable communication between teacher and students.
● Teacher should behave consistently.
● Teacher and students should establish the rules of classroom together.
● Teacher and students should find solutions to the problems in a cooperative way.
● Teacher should use logical consequences rather than punishment.
Teacher should help students to be responsible individuals.
Students should be encouraged to be autonomous learners. Therefore they can take the
responsibility of the negative consequences of their behaviours.
Benefits of Constructivism
● Children learn more, and enjoy learning more when they are actively involved,
rather than passive listeners.
● Education works best when it concentrates on thinking and understanding, rather
than on rote memorization. Constructivism concentrates on learning how to think
and understand.
● Constructivist learning is transferable. In constructivist classrooms, students create
organizing principles that they can take with them to other learning settings.
● Constructivism gives students ownership of what they learn, since learning is based
on students’ questions and explorations, and often the students have a hand in

20
 designing the assessments as well. Constructivist assessment engages the students’
initiatives and personal investments in their journals, research reports, physical
models, and artistic representations. Engaging the creative instincts develops
students’ abilities to express knowledge through a variety of ways. The students
are also more likely to retain and transfer the new knowledge to real life.
● By grounding learning activities in an authentic, real-world context, Constructivism
stimulates and engages students. Students in Constructivist classrooms learn to
question things and to apply their natural curiosity to the world.
● Constructivism promotes social and communication skills by creating a classroom
environment that emphasizes collaboration and exchange of ideas. Students must
learn how to articulate their ideas clearly as well as to collaborate on tasks effectively
by sharing in group projects. Students must therefore exchange ideas and so must
learn to “negotiate” with others and to evaluate their contributions in a socially
acceptable manner. This is essential to success in the real world, since they will
always be exposed to a variety of experiences in which they will have to cooperate
and navigate among the ideas of others.

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Unit - 1.4 ❐ Historical Perspective of Indian Education
(Gandhi, Tagore, Krishnamurti, Aurobindo)
Introduction
Throughout the world today, people find themselves trapped in overwhelming socio-
cultural, moral, and spiritual crises. Visionaries of India’s past - Gandhi, Tagore,
Aurobindo, and Krishnamurti, among others -showed paths to overcome these crises.
In their writings and their experiments, each tried to envision a better reality for India,
one unmarred by the greed and destruction of Western- style development and by the
colonization and debilitation of Western-style schooling. They believed that India could
only grow and regenerate itself by seeking out those beliefs, values, languages, cultures,
knowledges and wisdoms upon which she had developed and lived. They engaged in a
critical traditionalism, believing that the injustices and problems within traditions and
customs required self-correcting mechanisms. Thus, in their own unique ways, these
innovators tried to create alternative visions of living and paths for India.
Why are we focusing on these four individuals? After all, a multitude of thinkers and
experimenters have emerged throughout India’s rich and diverse history. However, what
distinguishes Gandhi, Tagore, Aurobindo, and Krishnamurti from the rest is their effort
to situate education in a complete spiritual, political, socio-cultural, and economic vision
of transformation. For them, education germinated from a context and it was just as
important to transform this context, as it was to transform the system of education. To
varying degrees, all four were engaged in India’s freedom struggle, and their experiences
around this struggle inspired them to imagine a different conception of freedom and,
with it, a different India. They beautifully and forcefully expressed themselves in writings,
poetry, speeches and meditations, and illustrated their ideas in extremely different parts
of India: Gujarat/Madhya Pradesh/Maharashtra; Bengal; Pondicherry; and Andhra
Pradesh/Karnataka.
Finally and perhaps most importantly, while many people still refer to them, few really
know what they envisioned, and even fewer know how to evolve their ideas/experiments
or re-contextualize them to today’s rapidly changing world. The current crises of the
‘schooled’ and of schooling require radical new thinking, new dialogue, and new action.
While this radical discourse is being driven by thinkers in other parts of the world
(mainly from industrialized countries), learning from the radicalism of these four
visionaries could do much to resuscitate the intellectually-stagnated discourse on
education in India. By deeply probing into their critiques, frameworks and experiments,

22
we hope to invigorate the education
discourse and offer fresh insight into the development of learning societies for 21st
century India. For all these reasons, and many more, Gandhi, Tagore, Aurobindo, and
Krishnamurti are worth remembering, revisiting, and re-learning from today.
Objectives
After going through this sub-unit you will be able to:
● Explain the views of Gandhi, Tagore, Aurobindo, and Krishnamurti
● Evaluate the educational contributions of these visionaries
● Bring out the significance of their educational ideas in present educational scenario

Check your progress -1.4

1. Write two educational aims of Rabindranath Tagore.
................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
2. Write Gandiji’s concept of 3 r’s and 3 h’s.
................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
3. Write the role of teacher according to Aurobindo.
................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
4. What do you mean by ‘Right Education’?

................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
Let Us Sum Up
● Gandhiji emphasized certain ideals, practical work and the potentiality of students
in education. Gandhian education has been characterized as encompassing the
head, the heart and the hands that means the all-around development of child.
According to him education is that which draws out and stimulates the spiritual,
intellectual and physical faculties of children.

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● Tagore’s ideas for creating a system of education aimed at promoting international
cooperation and creating global citizens. Tagore envisioned an education that was
deeply rooted in one’s immediate surroundings but connected to the cultures of
the wider world, predicated upon pleasurable learning and individualized to the
personality of the child. He felt that the curriculum should revolve organically
around nature, with flexible schedules to allow for shifts in weather, and with
special attention to natural phenomena and seasonal festivities.
● Aurobindo strongly believed that life has a divine purpose and one of the most
important tasks of education is to lead the student to discover for himself the aim
of life and the specific role that he himself has to play in it. He conceived education
as an instrument for the real working of the spirit in the mind and body of the
individual and the nation. His Integral education is conceived as a process of organic
growth and the way in which the various faculties could be developed and integrated.
● Jiddu Krishnamurti argues that the purpose of education should not just be to
prepare students for a career, but to prepare them for life. That is done by making
students feel free, so that they can think freely and won’t conform to society.
Answers to check your progress
1. Two educational aims of Rabindranath Tagore -
(1) Self Realization:
Spiritualism is the essence of humanism; this concept has been reflected in Tagore’s
educational philosophy. Self-realization is an important aim of education.
Manifestation of personality depends upon the self-realization and spiritual
knowledge of individual.
(2) Intellectual Development:
Tagore also greatly emphasized the intellectual development of the child. By
intellectual development he means development of imagination, creative free
thinking, constant curiosity and alertness of the mind. Child should be free to
adopt his own way learning which will lead to all round development.
2. Gandiji’s concept of 3 r’s and 3 h’s -3h’s: Hand-psychomotor domain/skills
Heart-spiritual domain/skills Head-Cognitive domain/skills 3r’s: Reading, writing
and arithmetic
3. The role of teacher according to Aurobindo-
● A true teacher removes the clouds of ignorance

24
● The role of teacher is to suggest, not to impose.
● Teacher is a “guide”, not a “master”. “Nothing can be taught”.
● A teacher should be like torch-light.
4. Concept of ‘Right Education’ by Jiddu Krishnamurti-
Right education should enable children to perceive truth, to keep their minds empty.
It shoud empty the student’s mind of its fictitious content of ideas, beliefs, opinions,
hopes, and regrets, fears which are, in fact, the manifestation of thought entering
the realm of truth or freedom. Cultivating thought beyond a certain limit creates
imbalance in life. Right education should not allow thought to dominate to whole
of the mind and life. It may condition the mind with information to the extent
necessary but it cannot neglect the vast field of one’s being and life.
Sub-unit End Exercises
1. Discuss the educational philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi.
2. Critically estimate the contribution of Rabindranath to Indian education.
3. Discuss Aurobindo’s educational ideas.
4. Discuss the educational views of Krishnamurti.
References
1. V.R Taneja- Educational thoughts and Practices.
2. Bhatia and Bhatia- Theory and Principles of Education.
3. http://www.preservearticles.com/201106238413/gandhi-on-education.html
4. www.preservearticles.com/.../contribution-of-rabindranath-tagore-in-edu
5. ddceadipur.org/ebooks/sriaurobindoeducation.pdf
6. www.unipune.ac.in/snc/cssh/ipq/english/IPQ/26.../29-4A.729-4-9.pdf

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 Educational Philosophy of Sri Aurobindo
Sri Aurobindo Ghosh (18721950) was philosopher, poet, writer, nationalist and highly
spiritual person. He contributed his intellect in various fields like philosophy, Indian
culture, spirituality and education. He saw education as highly serious matter.
Aurobindo’s Educational Philosophy
Aurobindo is one of the greatest educators whose educational philosophy swayed the
masses of India as never before. He engaged himself for forty five years out of his
seventy eight years in the practice of yoga and developed a philosophy of complete
affirmation, affirming the reality of the world from the ultimate stand point and the
meaningfulness of socio-political action from the spiritual stand point. He dedicated
his life to make all men travel towards divine perfection and to express the power, the
harmony, the beauty and joy of self-realization. According to Sri Aurobindo education
means one that will offer the tools whereby one can live “for the divine, for the country,
for one self and for others” and this must be the ideal in every school which calls itself
national. The guiding principle of the philosophy of education of Sri Aurobindo was
the awakening of man as a spiritual being. According to him neither education nor
religion in the past had changed man. Now it is the time to give a total spiritual orientation
to the whole education and the life of the nation.
Aurobindo’s aims of education
● First aim of education is physical development of a child.
● Second aim is to rear all the senses of a child.
● Third aim is to train all mental field or state of a child.
● Forth aim is the development of moral values.
● The most important and prime aim of education is to develop all four level of
one’s conscience.
Curriculum according to Aurobindo
The Curriculum The essential principle of Sri Aurobindo’s philosophy of education is
freedom. Unity is never demanded at the cost of diversity. On the other hand, diversity
creates a rich unity. Therefore, no rigid scheme of curriculum has been prescribed. The
earliest permissible age for starting regular study according to Sri Aurobindo is seven
or eight years. The proper medium for early education of the child is the mother tongue.
The following criteria for planning curriculum are found in Sri Aurobindo’s writings:

26
1. Human nature: The curriculum should aim at developing whatever is already given
in seed form in the child. Education can only lead to the perfection of the instruments,
which are already present in the students. Nothing can be taught or imposed from
outside.
2. Individual differences: The curriculum should be planned according to individual
difference. The mind has to be consulted in its own growth. The aim of the 60
teacher is to help the growing soul in drawing out his best and to make it perfect
for a noble use.
3. From near to the far: Another principle governing the planning of curriculum is to
proceed from near to the far, from that which is to that which shall be.
4. Modern and up-to-date: Sri Aurobindo was a modern thinker with a love for
modernity and up-to-date knowledge. Therefore, he prescribed that the education
must be up-to-date in form and substance and modern in life and spirit.
5. Universal knowledge: The curriculum should include whatever is universally true.
That is the basis of all scientific knowledge and philosophy.
6. Successive teaching: Sri Aurobindo disagrees with some educationists who wish
to introduce every subject simultaneously to the child. He prescribes that the subjects
should be taught successively.
7. Co-curricular activities: The school should provide not only academic but also
co-curricular activities.
8. Five-fold curriculum: Integral education is psychic and the spiritual education.
Therefore, the curriculum must be fivefold according to these five types of education
9. Multisidedness: Integral education is multisided. It aims at all-round growth.
Therefore its curriculum involves music, poetry, art, painting and sculpture, besides
the academic subjects. These are necessary for the aesthetic development of the
child.
10. Provision for the genius: The curriculum must provide for the genius. According
to Sri Aurobindo, “What we call genius is part of the development of the human
range of being and its achievements especially things of the mind and their will
can carry us half way to the divine.
11. Moral and religious education: Curriculum for moral education should aim at
refining the emotions and forming the proper habits and associations. Thus the
aim of the curriculum according to Sri Aurobindo is the actualization of the

27
 potentialities of the students. The curriculum should not be fixed but flexible
and evolutionary. A variety of choice and opportunities must be prescribed for
maintaining the freedom of growth. The integral curriculum should find a due
palace for every subject and every discipline.
Role of Teacher
Ø A true teacher removes the clouds of ignorance
Ø The role of teacher is to suggest, not to impose,
Ø Teacher is a “guide”, not a “master”. “Nothing can be taught”.
Ø A teacher should be like torch-light.

Integral Education
Integral education is the vision of Sri Aurobindo who first put his views on this topic in
various newspapers and magazines in between 1904-08. According to him, the pattern
of education should be liberal enough and a student should have full freedom to choose
whatever s/he likes. The main aim of Integral Education is that: a student will be guided
by his/her psychic being. A teacher’s duty is to inculcate this quality in the students
mind. Examination system will not put any pressure on the students; depression never
comes to a student’s mind. And evaluation process will be in such a way to influence
the students instead of being frustrated.
It imparts an integrated view of the universe to the learners and tries to bring about an
all round harmonious balanced and integrated development of the learners. In the words
of Sri Aurobindo, “there will be needed a yoga which shall be at once a yoga of integral
knowledge, a yoga of integral will and it works, a yoga of integral love, adoration and
devotion and a yoga of an integral perfection of the whole being and of all its parts and
states and power and motions”. When the number of integral men is increased evil will
disappear from ignorance, hatred, untouchability, slavery and exploitation, people will
be in a position to live of justice, equality, freedom, peace, love and brotherhood. Thus
integral education will be able to produce Supermen having virtues of a super human
being. In devising a true and living education, according to Sri Aurobindo three things
should be taken into account. They are the man, the individual in his commonness and
his uniqueness, the nation or people and universal humanity. Sri Aurobindo conceived
education as an instrument for the real working of the spirit in the mind and body of the
individual and the nation. It is conceived as a process of organic growth, and the way in
which various faculties could be developed and integrated is dependent upon each
child’s inclination, rhythm of progress and law of development, Swabhava (inherent

28
disposition) and Swadharma (inner nature). Integral education is conceived to provide
facilities for varieties of faculties, varieties of subjects and various combinations of
pursuits of knowledge, power, harmony and skill in works. These faculties are so
provided that they could be made use by each student and the teacher so that a natural
process of harmonious development could be encouraged.
The word “integration” means a unity of parts into a whole in such a way that the parts
themselves are blended and transformed into a new character. Sri Aurobindo was of the
opinion that the education should meet the mental and spiritual needs of children and
the demand of the country. He believed that the education of a human being should
begin at birth and continue throughout his life. This education should help to bring
down the best in every individual, by giving ample opportunities for the development
of the child’s interests and abilities. It should lead to the spiritual development of the
child and should create dynamic citizens who are able to meet the needs of the complex
modern life. This he called as an integral education. This has been explained by Sri
Aurobindo’s spiritual collaborator the Mother as, “Education to be complete must have
five principal aspects relating to the five principal activities of human beings: the physical,
the vital, the mental, the psychic and the spiritual. Usually these phases of education
succeed each other in a chronological order following the growth of the individual.
However, this does not mean that one should replace another but that all must continue,
completing each other, till the end of life”. Sri Aurobindo’s scheme of education is
integral in two senses. At first, it is integral in the sense of including all the aspects of
the individual being, physical, vital, mental, psychic and spiritual. Secondly, it is integral
in the sense of being an education not only for the evolution of the individual but also
of the nation and finally of the humanity.

Physical Education (Tapasya of Beauty)

According to Sri Aurobindo beauty is the ideal physical life. The Mother therefore
says, “You must hold within yourself the living ideal of beauty that is to be recognised”.
It is a Tapasya (yoga) of beauty. When grows, the liberation gradually takes place.
Physical education should begin at birth and continue throughout the life of the individual.
Sri Aurobindo’s theory of education lays emphasis on physical and spiritual mastery.
The physical education should provide the child with knowledge about the human
body, its structure and functioning. The child should be taught to observe the functioning
of all his body organs, so that he can control them and see that their functioning remains
normal and harmonious. Mainly they have four important goals:

29
i. To discipline and control the physical functions.
ii. Harmonious development of the body and physical movements.
iii. Rectification of defects and overcoming physical limitations.
iv. To awaken the body consciousness.
To achieve the first three aims one has to undertake physical exercises. To achieve the
fourth goal one has to draw upon multiple faculties. Sri Aurobindo felt that spiritual
discipline, service, bhakti and yoga as the essential of physical education. Asanas
(physical exercise) pranayama (breathing techniques) were considered to be the most
important to control the restlessness of the body and to achieve concentration. Emphasis
on games and sports was given to renew physical and higher forms of energy and to
develop tolerance, self-control, friendliness, self-mastery of ego. This scheme of physical
education is not confined to classroom period. In “Ashram School” at Pondicherry a
definite portion of the time table is allotted for physical education. Along with this,
often minute period is allotted for concentration. Thus through this physical education
programme attempts are made to express the inner consciousness.

Vital Education (Tapasya of Power)

Vital education emphasizes on observation of impulse, energies and desires of the vital
being of the man. Of all the forms of education, vital education is considered to be the
most important. Sri Aurobindo was of the opinion that the vital education of a child
should begin as early as possible. Vital education has two principle aspects:
i. The development and utilization of sense organs. The sense organs help an
individual to receive knowledge. The senses like sight, hearing, smell, touch, taste
and mind should be trained. Sri Aurobindo advises “that their training should be
the first care of the teachers.”
ii. Vital education according to Sri Aurobindo is also a training of the aesthetic
personality.
Awareness and control of the character would bring transformation. He should develop
human habits like emotions and their associations. He is to develop observation and
self-knowledge which will lead to concentration of vital energies. It is the first step.in
the growth and self mastery of one’s character.
Mental Education (Tapasya of knowledge)
For the education of the mental being emphasis is laid on mental silence and

30
concentration. The Mother says “The mind has to be made silent and attentive in order
to receive knowledge from above and manifest it.” To silent the mind, one has to take
the help of “classical yoga”. By yoga one acquires mastery of the mind and reaches a
region higher than the mind which we call knowledge. This “Tapasya”
of knowledge is the education of the mental being. This helps in the gradual liberation
from ignorance. Mental education has three fold functions:
(i) to gather old knowledge
(ii) to discover new knowledge
(iii) to develop the capacity to use and apply the knowledge acquired.
Through the application of the knowledge the student develops cognition, ideas,
intelligence and mental perceptions. As a result of this, man himself becomes the source
of knowledge. Describing the mental education the mother has laid down the following
five phases:
i. The development of the power of concentration, the capacity of attention.
ii. Development of the capacities of expansion, wideness, complexity and richness.
iii. Organisation of ideas around a central idea or a higher ideal or a supremely luminous
idea that will serve as a guide in life,
iv. Thought control, rejection of undesirable thought so that one may, in the end,
think only that on what one wants and when one wants,
v. Development of mental silence and calm, to receive inspirations from the inner
being.

Psychic Education (Tapasya of Love)

While the physical, vital and mental educations are the means to develop the personality,
the psychic education alone leads to the future evolution of man. This is the most
important contribution of Sri Aurobindo to educational theory, psychic being is the
psychological centre of man. The function of education is to enable man to become
conscious of this psychological centre. Their consciousness is the key to an integral
personality. Psychic education is to enable an individual to see his soul to grow in
freedom according to its inner nature. Psychic education helps the individual to realize
the true motive of his existence on the earth. It helps him to discover the purpose of his
life and the end to which his life must go. It helps him to become conscious of a
psychic presence embedded in the depths of his inner being. However, this requires

31
great determination, a strong will power and great perseverance. In the words of the
Mother “only one thing is absolutely indispensable: the will to discover and realize”.
This in fact is the field of occult and yoga.

Spiritual Education
The spiritual education requires the above steps as a prelude to its realization. It is only
after one gets through the physical, vital, mental and psychic education; one realizes a
certain transformation that one can enter into spiritual education. The aim of the spiritual
education is to escape from all earthly manifestations and helps the individual to realize
the presence of god. It involves an earthly escape from all earthly manifestations from
the whole universe, to return to the absolute. The supra mental education will progress
from above to downwards. It will not merely progressively develop human nature; it
will transform nature itself, heightening the consciousness and bringing down the higher
consciousness into the lower. According to Sri Aurobindo, the transformation when it
is supra mental as a result of the descent of the super mind, the body life and mind of a
man are also greatly transformed. The supra mental Education, he believes, will bring
about ascent of the species, leading in the end to the appearance of a divine race upon
the earth. Psychic and spiritual education together is also called “supra mental education”,
because it not only works on the consciousness of the individuals but also on the very
substance of which they are built and on the environment in which they live.
Integral Education regards the child as a growing soul and helps him to bring out all
that is best, most
powerful, most innate and living in his/her nature. It helps the child develop all facets
of his/her personality and awaken his latent possibilities so that he/she acquires -
• a strong, supple, healthy, beautiful body
• a sensitive, emotionally refined, energetic personality
• a wide-ranging, lively intelligence and will
• the subtler spiritual qualities that unify and harmonize the being around his inmost
Truth or Soul
The focus and emphasis in Integral Education (IE) is not just information and skills
acquisition but also
self-development, triggered from within the child and supported and nourished by
teachers and parents. Every experience becomes a learning tool for the child as he
grows. IE helps him to integrate with his/her true self, his surroundings, his society, his

32
country and humanity in other words, to become the complete being, the integrated
being that he/she is meant to be.
According to Sri Aurobindo, true education as a process of self-development through
physical education, vital education and mental education may be the goal of ordinary
men. This process of self development if carried further leads to a total transformation.
True education will establish life divine upon earth. True education will be an instrument
for real working of the spirit in the mind and body of the individual and the nations.
Thus understood, education would be an instrument for social change.
This is more important at the present juncture when most of the educationists are realizing
the need for an educational system aiming at man making. The different types of
education system discussed above should not begin successively but simultaneously.
The focus should be all the time on the inner growth. As the educand advances he
should be taught to identify his real self and to find out the law of his being. The
principles and practices of this new type of education have been explained by Sri
Aurobindo and the Mother in their different works.

Gandhi’s Philosophy of Education

One man who always stood for peace and valued it above political and ideological
conflicts, Mahatma Gandhi’s views on education was always focused on an all-round
education, not just literacy. He stressed on the development of a child as a whole, not
just the mind. He said “By education, I mean an all-round drawing of the best in child
and man in body, mind and spirit.”

Educational Philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi

Gandhiji as an Idealist:- Gandhiji had very high ideals that he followed ideals like
simplicity, truthfulness, non violence. He had not only there principles in mind but
also practised them in his life. Gandhiji as a Pragmatist:- Pragmatist is one who solves
problem in a realistic way. Gandhiji believed that the best way to learn is by doing and
it is believed that when you learn by doing you remember 90% and it leads to knowledge.
Pragmatism is the hallmark of Gandhian philosophy. Gandhiji as a Naturalist:- He
believed that Nature is the best source of knowledge.

Gandhiji gave the concept of 3 r’s and 3 h’s

Hand-psychomotor domain/skills Heart-spiritual dornain/skills Head-Cognitive domain/
skills

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3r’s: Reading, writing and arithmetic
Gandhiji emphasized certain ideals, practical work and the potentiality of students in
education. It is education through which we can find out the potential of the students
and teach them certain ideals which will help them to be a good citizen and through
practical activities students will be in a position to think practically and they will be
attentive and active, this will help them to mould their character. Thus Gandhian education
has been characterized as encompassing the head, the heart and the hands that means
the all-around development of child. According to him education is that which draws
out and stimulates the spiritual, intellectual and physical faculties of children. Thus
Gandhiji’s purpose of education is to raise man to a higher order through full development
of the individual and the evolution of a “new man.”
Aims of Education :-
1. Bread and Butter aim: Bread and Butter aim refers to utilitarian aim which is an
immediate requirement. Gandhiji focused on education that provides learning while
learning. This has to be a tool with each and every learner. S/he can remove
unemployment keeping in mind the poverty and unemployment of India. Gandhiji
focused and suggested industrial training and development of manual skills and
handicraft as subject of education which will give satisfaction to the educand of
his earning and self reliance but also it will be proved as a support to his/her
family and nation at large.
2. Cultural Aim:- According to Gandhiji cultural aspect of education is more important
than the literacy. Culture is the foundation, the primary thing which the girls ought
to get from here. It should show in the smallest detail of your conduct and personal
behaviour, how to sit, how to walk, how to dress etc. it is the education through
which students or everyone learn the glorious culture of the country-India, its
incredible arts, religions and so on. Education is the device which makes them
familiar with our great culture and it is to be taught that how do they adopt and
what is the importance of value of our culture. Thus Gandhiji laid much emphasis
on cultural aim of education and recommended that Geeta and Ramayana to be
taught as a means of introducing students to their rich cultural and spiritual heritage.
3. Harmonious development:- Education should develop all the three levels i. e.
3RS- read, write and arithmetic. The education should help in feeling what is
taught and what happens to him and to express, what he feels and also what he
wants to do. So all the faculties of person should be developed. Writing and reading
will make him literate and arithmetic will help in calculating day-to-day expenses

34
 and more importantly it will help in logical thinking and analyzing things.
4. Moral Aim:- Education should make person aware of what is right & wrong. It
inculcates in us values and manners and moulds our character. Gandhiji focused
more on character building than on literacy. According to him development of
personality was more significant than accumulation of intellectual tools and
academic knowledge. And we also believed that an educand should be taught
nonviolence, truth, and importance of thoughts, word and deed.
5. Social and individual Aim:- The aim of education of Gandhiji is both social and
individual. He wanted individual perfection and a new social order based on “Truth”
& “Non-violence”. Education trains an individual and makes him an ideal citizen
who will help his nation. An individual learns so many things from surrounding,
culture, society and so on and he progresses simultaneously society progresses
because the individuals’ growth is nothing but the growth of the society and nation.
6. Ultimate Aim:- Self-realization is the ultimate aim of life as well as of education.
Through education everyone understands about themselves and get answer of the
universal question who am I? It is the education which helps them to understand
their existence and its purpose. It is the spiritual education which provides
knowledge of God and self-realization. The individuals recognize their potentials
or abilities and prove them as ideal citizens of their nation via education. It is the
education which makes them familiar with spirituality and different religious and
finally every individual realize what they are? This is the self-realization- the
ultimate aim of education. In the words of Gandhiji- “true education should result
not in material power but in spiritual force. It must strengthen man’s faith in God
and not awaken It.” he further adds “Development of the whole-all were directed
towards the realization of the ultimate reality-the merger of the finite being in to
infinite.”

Tyeps of Education:
After the Zakir Hussain’s report of education Gandhiji initiated a concept of Sarvoday
Society. Gandhiji has given six types of education under the Sarvoday society.
1. Basic Education
2. Buniyadi Talim
3. Nayi Talim
4. National Education

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5. Wardha Shikshan/Education
6. Life Education
Basic tenets of Gandhian education
Ø Free primary education - Gandhiji advocated for free and compulsory education
for all boys and girls between seven and fourteen years. A free primary universal
education is to be imparted to all the children in the village.
Ø Vocational education - Being free from mere bookish knowledge, a student resort
to manual work. Thus he put emphasis on vocational and functional education.
Ø Emphasis on morality - By education, Gandhiji meant the improvement of morality
within a student. Without being bookish, a student should adopt certain moral
ethical codes like truth, non-violence, charity which will illuminate the character
of the student.
Ø Non-participation in politics - Gandhiji wanted to keep the students away from
politics. He thought that politicians will utilize them and that will hamper the
development of a student and his education will suffer a setback.
Ø Women education - Gandhiji was a protagonist of women education. He advocated
that there should be no distinction in equality of status between men and women
in society. Gandhiji emphasized the need of women education to improve the
society.
Basic education
Gandhi’s model of education was directed toward his alternative vision of the
social order. Gandhi’s basic education was, therefore, an embodiment of his
perception of an ideal society consisting of small, self-reliant communities with
his ideal citizen being an industrious, self-respecting and generous individual living
in a small cooperative community. Principles of Basic Education:
1. Free and Compulsory Education: - Gandhiji regarding basic education or Bunyadi
Talim, has given his views that education is i.e. elementary education should be
free of charge and all should get educated so that they can do minute calculations
of daily life expense, read and write. This is necessary because this will make a
person live independently.
2. Mother tongue as a medium of education: - Gandhiji emphasized the mother
tongue to be the medium of instruction. Mother tongue would enable the children
to express themselves effectively and clearly. If a student/child learns through

36
 mother tongue then he can easily learn ethical and moral values and importance of
national heritage. According to him if English is to be taught as medium of
instruction then it hinders the development of understanding and clarity of thoughts/
ideas.
3. Craft centeredness:- Learners should get exposure to learn skills and craft like
knitting, weaving, agricultural activities, cooking which make them self-dependent
because they will not only earn on their own but also develop three domains:-
• Physical Domain - by doing physical work like agriculture which will give good
physical exercise.
• Psycho-motor Domain- by developing social skills- how to behave, how to work
in groups; how to co-ordinate.
• Cognitive Domain- by developing thinking skill, analyzing, estimating- what would
be the expense to prepare craft and how much material will be required.
Gandhiji also suggested there should be any inferiority or superiority regarding
work. We should do every work/everything with the thinking that those works are
mine and they have value whether it is sweeping or working in an office.
4. Self-sufficiency:-Bas\c education should provide such training that one can realize
that immediate aim- earning- after or during basic education. Earning for one’s
own self and satisfying one’s needs.
5. Co-related teaching:- Gandhiji considered knowledge as a whole that is each and
every subject interrelated. While doing craft work, it requires economical skills to
buy material and to keep estimate how much it would require. It will also require
mathematical skills to calculate the earnings and so on. As the subject should be
taught which will lead to all-round development, students should develop love for
subjects to learn them.
6. Non-violence:- One of the aims of basic education is to prepare ideal and responsible
citizen who will develop virtues like non-violence so that they are not attracted by
violence and other antisocial activities. If each would try to inculcate this value
then there will be peace and harmony among the citizen of India. There will not
disagreement and it will good understanding with each other.
7. Ideal citizen:- Education makes man to think from broader and ideal perceptive
therefore Gandhiji focused on preparing ideal citizens of the nation who are
responsible and sensible to nation, duties and rights. Education of civics will give
them civic sense- rights and duties to the nation, how government works and it

37
 exist. History will make them aware of golden days as well as of the bravery of the
nation, heroes who fought for the freedom of India which will lift their nationalistic
feeling.

Curriculum Of Basic Education

Basic Craft.
(i) Spinning and Weaving,
(ii) Carpentry,
(iii) Agriculture,
(iv) Fruit and Flower Cultivation,
(v) Leather work,
(vi) Culturing Fish,
(vii) Pottery,
(viii) Any handicraft according to the local need,
(iv) Home Science for girls.
2. Mother tongue.
3. Mathematics.
4. Geography, History and Civics to be combined as Social Studies.
5. Painting and Music.
6. P.T., Drill and Sports etc.
7. General Science comprising Physics Chemistry, Botany, Zoology, Hygiene and
Nature Study etc.
8. Hindi for that area in which it is not the mother tongue.

The role of a Teacher:

The teacher has higher responsibilities. He has to develop values among the learners.
The teacher should follow morality. There should not be any dark patch on his character
because he is role model for many students. Gandhiji says-”education of the heart
could only be done through the living touch of the teacher.” Education becomes effective
and faithful only to the extent to which there is personal touch between the teacher and

38
the taught. It will be very difficult to achieve character building in the absence of devotion
to the teacher. He should have devotion to duty, to the students and to God. He is to
play the role of a mother. An ideal teacher in Gandhiji’s word is the “mother teacher.”
He says I used the word “mother teacher” because the teacher must really be a mother
of children.

Merits Of Basic Education

• The scheme is financially sound and acceptable in a poor country like India, where
about half of the total illiterate people of the world reside. It is helpful for rapid
expansion of elementary education with fewer burdens on public exchequer.
• It is also economically productive as it is based on the principle of work. Work
occupies the central place in basic education. The system is production oriented
and helps in the programme of national economic reconstruction.
• The system was able to remove class and caste distinction. It helps to bring social
solidarity and national integration.
• It also removes the barriers between the educated and the non-educated, between
manual work and intellectual work, between the rich and the poor and village and
the town.
• Basic education is activity-centred education. The child is not a passive learner but
an active participant in the learning process. It fosters learning by doing. Thus,
instruction is not passive, and the child learns through a productive and useful
craft.
• Basic education is child-centric. The child is the centre of activity. It primarily
considered the constructive and creative instincts of children.
• Basic education is based on sound educational principle of correlation, where all
educational activities are correlated to a basic craft. Correlation also takes place
between physical environment, social environment and craft work.
• The system is based upon the cultural and social heritage of the land. As such, it
inculcates social and moral values in the minds of the students.
• It is truly an education for the whole man. It aims at a harmonious development of
the body, mind and soul.
• Basic education system recognises the dignity of labour.
• It recognises the importance of mother-tongue as the medium of instruction at the

39
 elementary stage.
• It inculcates democratic values like co-operation, responsibility, fellow-feeling in
the minds of the students, which are essential for proper functioning of a democratic
social order.

Demerits or Causes of Failure of Basic Education

Ø The self supporting aspect of Basic Education received severe criticism in the
academic circle. Teachers, social leaders and educational administrators had shown
an indifferent attitude towards it. It was argued that the scheme turns a school into
a centre of small scale industry. Moreover, teachers had to depend upon the earnings
of the students. This had a demoralising effect on teacher-pupil relationship.
Ø Too much emphasis on craft had led the neglect of liberal education. Very often
the craft is not properly selected from the point of view of education and social
significance and teaching through craft had become just a slogan.
Ø Another criticism leveled against Basic Education was that a single craft can and
should not be the basis of the entire educational process. It may not help in the
development of liberal education and thus would create an imbalance in the
educational system between vocational and intellectual education.
Ø The method of correlation as technique of instruction was not stressed and sincerely
followed. Correlation is no doubt a sound principle of education but correlation of
the subjects through craft may appear to be sometimes unusual and time consuming.
Ø Basic Education is often regarded as inferior type of education meant for the poor
villagers. It has nothing to do with the urban people, who usually sent their children
to modern type of schools. The general public had no confidence in basic schools
because of the degraded social value accorded to it. Thus Basic education failed to
become an integral part of our national system of education.
Ø Basic Education can in no way help in the progress of modern scientific and
technological development of the society, which was the need of the day. Rapid
changes and modernisation of our society can only be possible through the
application of modern science and technology in the fields and factories.
Ø Lack of finance and the absence of sound administrative policy were also responsible
for the failure of Basic Education. Practically there was no coordination between
the official and non-official agencies engaged in the organisation and development
of Basic education.

40
Ø Teacher occupies the central position in Basic Education. Lack of adequate supply
of efficient, trained and sincere teachers was one the most important cause for the
failure of this scheme of education. Suitable orientation and training of teachers
of basic schools was highly needed, which was rare. The majority of the teachers
had no faith in this system.
It is quite justified to say that the fundamental principles of basic education are still
valid and fruitful in the context of our present educational reform. They are relevant to
be used as guiding principles of modern education. In fact, it needs to be reformed on
modern lines then it may serve as one of the most interesting and fruitful techniques of
instruction at elementary stage.

Jiddu Krishnamurti’s Educational Philosophy

Jiddu Krishnamurti (1895 - 1986): born on 11 May, 1895, at Madanapalle, a small
village in South India, Jiddu Krishnamurti was brought to England by Annie Besant
(President of the Theosophist Society) and educated by her. She proclaimed him the
Messiah and set up an organization (The Order of the Star in the East) to promote his
teaching. In 1929, after experiencing considerable doubts about the role allotted to
him, Jiddu Krishnamurti disbanded the organisation saying:
Truth is a pathless land, and you cannot approach it by any path whatsoever, by any
religion, by any sect. Truth, being limitless, unconditioned, unapproachable by any
path whatsoever, cannot be organized; nor should any organisation be formed to lead
or to coerce people along any particular path. (From The Krishnamurti Foundation
Trust)
From then until his death in February 1986, he travelled round the world speaking as a
private person, teaching - giving talks and having discussions.
Jiddu Krishnamurti is basically a philosopher who is also deeply concerned with
education. To him, there is no difference between philosophy and education. The aims
of both are same - to bring about a fundamental and instantaneous change in man and
society by setting human mind absolutely and unconditionally free.

Krishnamurti as an Educational Philosopher

As a philosopher, Krishnamurti, it appears, has not engaged the attention of academia,
in India or in the West. Possible reasons for the apathy of universities towards
Krishnamurti’s teachings could be their basically theoretical and intellectual orientation,
or the uncritical celebration of thought that is characteristic of our times. But it can

41
hardly be denied that Krishnamurti is essentially a philosopher of education. His
teachings with their core concern of education make him that.
First, the educational issues raised by Krishnamurti—place of knowledge in education,
freedom and discipline, learning from nature, role of sensory experience and observation,
comparison and competition—are of such abiding concern that they have been discussed
by several educational thinkers in the past. The greatness of Krishnamurti lies in the
fact that he dealt with them not as educational problems per se but in relation to their
deeper philosophical implications.
Secondly, the educational concerns of Krishnamurti being at once topical and
contemporaneous are capable of supplying the needed grist to the philosopher’s mill.
This intellectual activity, it appears, is presently confined to a rather limited circle. But
the issues raised are anything but sectarian; they are the general concerns of each and
every person with a stake in the education of their children and the well-being of society.
Apart from Krishnamurti’s own writings, his teachings have begun to spawn publication
of a variety of educational writings of a philosophical kind. These are in the form of
reflections based on field experience and scholarly analyses of issues on various aspects
of education, schooling, teaching and learning, emerging thus far mostly from the
educational centres established by Krishnamurti himself.
In the final analysis, Krishnamurti stands out as an educational philosopher not so
much for his ‘pure’ metaphysical beliefs, as for the veritable mine of precious insights
he has left behind on schooling, teaching and learning. At a time when genuine
educational values are being overrun by concerns of the market place, Krishnamurti’s
teachings today acquire an added relevance and urgency.

Right Education
Right education should enable children to perceive truth, to keep their minds empty. It
should empty the student’s mind of its fictitious content of ideas, beliefs, opinions,
hopes, and regrets, fears which are, in fact, the manifestation of thought entering the
realm of truth or freedom. Cultivating thought beyond a certain limit creates imbalance
in life. Right education should not allow thought to dominate to whole of the mind and
life. It may condition the mind with information to the extent necessary but it cannot
neglect the vast field of one’s being and life.

The Purpose of Education

Krishnamurti sees education not with the eyes of a reformer, as a means to serve this or

42
that end, but as an intrinsic, self-fulfilling experience requiring no further justification.
The function of education, he said, is “to bring about a mind that will not only act in the
immediate but go beyond...a mind that is extraordinarily alive, not with knowledge,
not with experience, but alive”.”More important than making the child technologically
proficient is the creation of the right climate in the school for the child to
develop fully as a complete human being”. This means giving him “the opportunity to
flower in goodness, so that he is rightly related to people, things and ideas, to the
whole of life” (On Education).

The physical nature of the places of education

Krishnamurti felt that the physical nature of educational centres was very important.
He maintained that we are affected or informed by and therefore educated by far more
than we suspect, and this is especially true of young impressionable minds. Three
elements that Krishnamurti spoke of most concerning the physicality of educational
centres -
1.) The aesthetics, which includes order,
2.) Special areas that Jiddu Krishnamurti felt should exist in the centres he founded,
and by extension we can assume he would feel should exist in all schools, and
3.) The atmosphere he felt should prevail and which he usually spoke of as part of the
physical nature of the centres, though one can argue that they are material only in
a very special sense.

The participants in education

There are, generally speaking, two kinds of participants in educational centres: staff
and students. Jiddu Krishnamurti felt that any adult that was regularly in one of the
centres was a staff member (regardless of function) and because of their regular contact
with at least the educational environment if not the students, then they were in the
position of educators. Everyone, staff and students, had something religious about their
natures just by virtue of being human, but they had something more than that by virtue
of their being in education. Krishnamurti didn’t speak of them as religious figures
(such as priests or accolades) but one thing that distinguishes participants in education
from participants in some other social organizations (i.e. police officers, nurses, bankers,
etc.) is that people in education must have religiousness central to their overall intention
and central to the nature of the life they lived on a daily basis. As this is equally necessary
to both staff and students, there can be no real hierarchy between them. There are, of

43
course, differences between staff and students in their responsibilities and experience;
but in all that is most important in education the staff and students are really in the
same boat. Staff members may know more about academic subjects, or gardening, or
administration and therefore have a certain authority in those areas, but these are not
the central concerns of education. In the central concerns of education, which is to do
with inner liberation, both the students and the teachers are learners and therefore equal,
and this is untouched by functional authority.
In thus helping the student towards freedom, the educator is changing his own values
also; he too is beginning to be rid of the “me” and the “mine”, he too is flowering in
love and goodness. This process of mutual education creates an altogether different
relationship between the teacher and the student. Jiddu Krishnamurti felt that the over-
riding quality of an educator should be religiosity. Because he is devoted solely to the
freedom and integration of the individual, the right kind of educator is deeply and truly
religious. He does not belong to any sect, to any organized religion; is free of beliefs
and rituals.

Insights into teaching and learning

In his words-
The Point of Education: Education is essentially the art of learning, not only from
books, but from the whole movement of life-learning about the nature of the intellect,
its dominance, its activities, its vast capacities and its destructive power; learning it not
from a book but from the observation of the world about you-without theories, prejudices
and values .
Principle of Method: If one really has something to say, the very saying of it creates its
own style; but learning a style without inward experiencing can only lead to
superficiality...Likewise, people who are experiencing, and therefore teaching, are the
only real teachers, and they too will create their own technique.
Schooling without Competition and Comparison: When A is compared to B, who is
clever, bright, assertive, that very comparison destroys A. This destruction takes the
form of competition, of imitation and conformity to the patterns set by B. This breeds
antagonism, jealousy, anxiety and even fear; and this becomes the condition in which
A lives for the rest of his life, always measuring, always comparing psychologically
and physically. Goodness cannot flower where there is any kind of competitiveness.
Learning through Observation: Learning is pure observation - observation which is
not continuous and which then becomes memory, but observation from moment to

44
moment - not only of the things outside you but also of that which is happening inwardly;
to observe without the observer. Look not with your mind but with your eyes. Then you
find out that the outside is the inside...that the observer is the observed.
Freedom and Order...\f you want to be free...you have to find out for yourself what it is
to be orderly, what it is to be punctual, kind, generous, unafraid. The discovery of all
that is discipline... Freedom is not from something or avoidance of constraint. It has no
opposite; it is of itself, per se. Clarity of perception is freedom from the self. Flowering
of goodness in all our relationship is possible only in.
Krishnamurti stands out as an educational philosopher not so much for his ‘pure’
metaphysical beliefs, as for the veritable mine of precious insights he has left behind
on schooling, teaching and learning. At a time when genuine educational values are
being overrun by concerns of the market place, Krishnamurti’s teachings today acquire
an added relevance and urgency.

Rabindranath Tagore’s Philosophy of Education

Rabindranath was a philosopher, poet, dramatist, teacher, essayist and painter of
outstanding repute. His philosophy of life was based on the ideals of dedication,
patriotism and naturalism. Although he was an ideal philosopher, but the thoughts of
naturalism, pragmatism and individualism are also reflected in his philosophy. The
values which contributed a lot towards enrichment of his life are discussed as follow:

(1) Idealist:
Tagore believes that man should realize the “ultimate truth” which will liberate him
from the worldly bondage. Experience according to him is within the world of illusion
(Maya). He thoughts the world is the place of both truth and illusion (Maya).
In Tagore’s view man is born with enormous surplus force which is excess of his physical
need. This surplus is the limitless potentiality of human personality and creativity. In
this lies the infinite future of man. The surplus potentiality manifests itself in man’s
religious spiritual and moral activities. As an idealist he was an ardent supporter of
truth, virtues and values. According to Tagore, “By art man can experience the wholeness
of life. The fine arts were nothing but intellectual and spiritual discipline. He said
Bhakti can spiritualize Kama.

(2) Humanist:
Tagore said nature and man are created by supreme power. There is a strong link between

45
man and nature. So man should act naturally to feel the presence of superpower within
him. Love fellowmen in a natural way. Realization of self is the essence to realize the
Godhood.

(3) Naturalist:
Tagore said nature is the great teacher which is not hostile to man. Nature is kind,
generous and benevolent like mother. In his view, “Education diverted from nature has
brought untold harm to young children.” Man should develop his relation with the
nature as his fellowmen.

(4) Patriotism:
Tagore was a great poet and patriot. His writings were filled with patriotic values. He
had joined in freedom movement to make the country free from foreign yoke. Sense of
national service, patriotic feeling, dedication etc. was fostered through his writings.
“Jana Gana Mana Adlii Nayak Jai Hai” is the famous National song which elicited a
strong sense of integration.

(5) Internationalist:
Rabindranath Tagore was in favour of one world creation of unit amidst cultural, colour
and religious diversities are the need of the time for peaceful co-existence in the globe.
Forgetting selfishness one we should work to establish world culture based on love,
affection fellow feeling and mutual understanding. Cosmopolitan feelings are explicit
in his writings and paintings. Tagore’s internationalist thought and attempt for making
united world is appreciated all over the world.

(6) Vedantist:
Tagore’s philosophy reveals that he was a Vedantist in true sense of terms. He had faith
in one Supreme Being that is the Brahma. He finds unity in diversities in the world and
a spiritual unity between man and man, man and nature. The relationship between god
and man must be like the relationship between love and joy. He believes both the presence
of God in all manifestation of matter and spirit.

Shantiniketan and Visva Bharati

Rabindranath Tagore established an educational institution in Bolepur, on December
22, 1901. It is Shantiniketan. This school had Ashram sanctity like the Gurukula of
ancient India.
46
Visva-Bharati indicates a place of Universal knowledge and world culture. In 1951 the
University raised to the status of Central University by an Act especially enacted in the
Parliament.
Visva-Bharati is an ideal place of learning amidst homely natural and spiritual
atmosphere. This University has several departments like Vidya-Bhawan or a School
of research Siksha- Bhawan or a college of education, Cheena Bhawan school of Sino-
lndian studies, Kala-Bhawan or a School of fine arts, Sangeet Bhawan or a School of
music and dancing, Sri Niketan or an institution of rural construction.
Slipa-Bhawan or a School of Industries, Binoy Bhawan or a Teacher training college,
Path Bhawan or a School etc. However many classes were held in open air, under the
trees in the lap of nature.

Aims of Education
The aims of education as reflected in educational institution founded by Rabindranath
Tagore in Shantiniketan are as follows:

(1) Self Realization:

Spiritualism is the essence of humanism; this concept has been reflected in Tagore’s
educational philosophy. Self-realization is an important aim of education. Manifestation
of personality depends upon the self-realization and spiritual knowledge of individual.
(2) Intellectual Development:
Tagore also greatly emphasized the intellectual development of the child. By intellectual
development he means development of imagination, creative free thinking, constant
curiosity and alertness of the mind. Child should be free to adopt his own way learning
which will lead to all round development.
(3) Physical Development:
Tagore’s educational philosophy also aims at the physical development of the child.
He gave much importance to sound and healthy physique. There were different kinds
of exercises. Yoga, games & sports prescribed in Santiniketan as an integral part of the
education system.
(4) Love for humanity:
Tagore held that the entire universe is one family. Education can teach people to realize
oneness of the globe. Education for international understanding and universal

47
brotherhood is another important aim of his educational philosophy. The feeling of
oneness can be developed through the concepts like fatherhood of God and brotherhood
of man all creatures are equal on this earth.
(5) Establishment of relationship between man & God:
Man bears the diverse qualities and potentialities offered by God. These qualities are
inborn and innate. The relationship between man and God is strong and permanent.
However the dedication to spiritualism and sacredness will lead to the harmonious
relationship with man, nature and God.
(6) Freedom:
Freedom is considered as an integral aspect of human development. Education is a
man-making process, it explores the innate power exists within the man. It is not an
imposition rather a liberal process which provides utmost freedom to the individual for
his all-round development. He says, Education has leaning only when it is imparted
through the path of freedom”.
(7) Co-relation of Objects:
Co-relation exists with God, man and nature. A peaceful world is only possible when
correlation between man and nature will be established.
(8) Mother tongue as the medium of Instruction:
Language is the true vehicle of self-expression. Man can freely express his thought in
his mother-tongue. Tagore has emphasized mother tongue as the medium of instruction
for the child’s education.
(9) Moral and Spiritual Development:
Tagore emphasized moral and spiritual training in his educational thought. Moral and
spiritual education is more important than bookish knowledge for an integral
development of human personality. There must be an adequate provision for the
development of selfless activities, co-operation and love fellow feeling and sharing
among the students in educational institutions.
(10) Social Development:
According to Tagore, “Brahma” the supreme soul manifests himself through men and
other creatures. Since He is the source of all human-beings and creatures, all are equal.
Rabindranath Tagore therefore said, “service to man is service to god”. All should
develop social relationship and fellow-feeling from the beginnings of one’s life.
Education aims at developing the individual personality as well as social characters
48
which enables him to live as a worthy being. Curriculum
Subjects:
Literature and Mother tongue, other Indian Languages and other foreign languages
Natural sciences such as Botany, Zoology, Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry, General
science, Health education
Social Sciences like Geography, History, Civics, Economics, and Sociology
Arts, Music, Dance etc. Agriculture and Technical Subjects
Philosophy, Pscycology and Religion Games and Music, Dramatics, Dancing Gardening,
Excursions, Drawing and Painting Sports, Social Service Actual living and Laboratory
work Regional Study, Community Service
Method of Teaching
(1) Teaching through Tours and Trips:
Tagore believed that the subjects like history, geography, economics and other social
sciences can be effectively taught through excursions and tours to important spots. By
this students will get an opportunity to observe numerous facts and gain firsthand
knowledge through direct experience.
(2) Learning by activities:
Rabindranath Tagore said that for the development of child’s body and mind, learning
through activity is essential. Therefore he included activities like climbing tree, drama,
jumping, plucking fruits, dancing etc. in his educational programmes.
(3) Narration-cum-discussion and debate method:
Narration-cum-discussion and debating activities were organized Tagore’s education
centre to develop oratory abilities of the students. Students were encouraged to solve
problems of various areas through rational debate and thorough discussion.
(4) Heuristic Method
Rabindranath Tagore introduced Heuristic method as an important method of teaching
in his educational institution. In this method first, the students, are asked questions to
clarify their doubts on topics and teachers try to satisfy them by their correct answers.
Then the teacher asks the questions to students to evaluate how far the students are able
to comprehend the topic discussed in the class.

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Medium of Education
The medium of education discourse also became an important point pertaining to
Tagore’s idea. The use of English in education prevented assimilation of what was
taught and made education confined only to urban areas and the upper classes rather
than rural areas. Therefore, if the vast rural masses were to benefit, it was absolutely
essential to switch over to the use of Bengali in the context of Bengal at all level of
education. Tagore believed that without knowledge pattern of rural living and an effort
by the
school to revitalize rural life, academic learning would be incomplete. And this is the
reason behind the establishment of his own university, popularly known as Visva Bharati.
He argued that to educate India’s entire population and restoring the flow of culture
from the educated classes to the rural population would not come about unless the
mother-tongue was adopted as the medium of teaching.
Role of Teacher
Ø Tagore gave an important place to teachers and asked them to carry out the following
activities -
Ø Believing in purity and in his/her own experiences, innocence of child, the teacher
should behave with the pupil with great love, affection and sympathy.
Ø Instead of emphasizing on book learning, the teacher should provide conducive
environment to the child so that he/she engages himself/herself in useful and
constructive activities and learn by his/her own experiences.
Ø The teacher should always be busy with motivating the creative capacities of the
children do that they remain busy with constructive activities and experiences.

Discipline in Tagore’s view

Tagore was a lover of children and an advocate of free discipline. He wanted to provide
the child an opportunity for the discovery of his innate potentialities in liberty. The
education of the child should be carried on naturally in natural environment.

Conclusion
Rabindranath Tagore, a true philosopher developed an ideal experimental education
institution in Santiniketan. Tagore was a great advocate of spiritual education and also
stressed on harmonious development of the child with equal emphasis on mental, social
and emotional growth. Tagore was the greatest prophet of modern Indian renaissance
who sought to bring change through education.

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Unit : 1.5 ❐ Contemporary Indian Perspective

Introduction
Indian thinkers like Swami Vivekananda, Aurobindo, Dayananda, M.K.Gandhi, and
Rabindranath Tagore followed the traditional Indian educational thought modifying
and adjusting it to contemporary situations. Among the contemporary Indian
philosophers of education Jawaharlal Nehru, M.N.Roy and Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan
strike a different note giving importance to scientific temper, rationalism. Their ideas
also must be given due importance in the scheme of Indian educational policy. These
thinkers represent the spirit of contemporary Indian Philosophy of Education. In
contemporary Indian Philosophy of Education we find mostly the following trends,
they are Revivalism, Rationalism, Humanism, Neo Vedanta, Integralism, Positivism,
Nationalism, Cosmopolitanism, Eclecticism, Idealism, Realism and Pragmatism.
Objectives
After going through this sub-unit, you will be able to:
Ø Understand the nature of contemporary Philosophy of Education
Ø Describe the fundamental tenets of each school.
Ø Understand the educational thoughts of Jawaharlal Nehru, M.N.Roy and
Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan

Revivalism
In 19th century, we find a sort of Revivalism in India. Everything that is old and traditional
has some good and it should be revived. Revivalism is the trend which shows a
reawakening, a reinterpretation in the light of the ancient wisdom. When Revivalism is
also ready to accept new concepts and trends there is nothing wrong in it. Such revivalist
attitude and spirit is found in the philosophies of Vivekananda, Dayananda, M.K.Gandhi,
Sri Aurobindo, Rabindranath and Radhakrishnan. All these thinkers have basically
accepted the ancient Indian ideal of education as that which liberates the human soul
out of the bondage. Thus the aim of education is to set free the Educand from all
shackles of bondage.
All of them wanted that contemporary Indian Education should follow the ancient
Ideals, values and models of social relationships, curricula, and teacher taught
relationship, methods of teaching etc., they also wanted the modern means of

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communication, Audio- Visual instruments should be used for more effective teaching.
Thus Revivalism is for ancient noble values and the medium is modern means of teaching
and communication.
Rationalism
Rationalism is a philosophy, which means it is a way of thinking and an approach to
life. Rationalists believe that there is a plain, methodical, factual way to arrive at a
conclusion. They deal with issues of truth and validity. There is only one Truth in life.
All human beings are equal and can strive to be perfect. Everyone can improve
themselves. They do not deny that God is powerful but they do not believe he is ALL
powerful. Humans have control over their life. A person’s goal in life was to improve
themselves and make the world a better place.
The influence of western thinking upon contemporary Indian thinkers is more explicit
in the trend towards rationalism. The importance of reason is accepted as valid source
of knowledge by all modern thinkers.
Jawaharlal Nehru and M.N.Roy considered that only Rationalism is the best method in
knowing things. Dayananda, Sri Aurobindo, Vivekananda, Rabindranath Tagore and
Radhakrishnan follow the ancient tradition according to which while aims and ideals
goals and values are intuited, the means are supplied by reason.
Neo-Vedanta
Neo-Vedanta is a modern interpretation of Vedanta, with a liberal attitude toward the
Vedas. It reconciles dualism and non-dualism, and rejects the “universal illusionism”
of Shankara, despite its reference for classical Advaita Vedanta.
Ramakrishna, Swami Vivekananda, M.K. Gandhi and Aurobindo have been labeled
“Neo-Vedantists,” a philosophy that rejects the Advaitins’ claim that the world is illusory.
Aurobindo, in his The Life Divine, declares that he has moved from Sankara’s “universal
illusionism” to his own “universal realism” defined as metaphysical realism in the
European philosophical sense of the term.
M.K. Gandhi endorsed the Jain concept of Anekantavada, the notion that truth and
reality are perceived differently from diverse points of view, and that no single point of
view is the complete truth. This concept embraces the perspectives of both Vedanta
which, according to Jainism, “recognizes substances but not process”, and Buddhism,
which “recognizes process but not substance”. Jainism, on the other hand, pays equal
attention to both substance (dravya) and process (paryaya).
Neo-Vedanta developed in the 19th century, in interaction with and response to

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colonialism. With the onset of the British rule, the colonialisation of India by the British,
there also started a Hindu renaissance in the 19th century, which profoundly changed
the understanding of Hinduism in both India and the west. Western orientalist searched
for the “essence” of the Indian religions, discerning this in the Vedas and meanwhile
creating the notion of “Hinduism” as a unified body of religious praxis and the popular
picture of ‘mystical India’.

Integralism
Contemporary philosophers of education, Sri Aurobindo, Vivekananda, Rabindranath,
Gandhi and Dayananda depict an integral approach in philosophy. Aurobindo said “the
work of philosophy is to arrange the data given by the various means of knowledge,
excluding none and put them into a synthetic relation to one truth, the one supreme and
universal reality”. These philosophers believe in a monistic, idealistic and integral
philosophy. There is one spirit underlying matter, life and mind in the world. This
spirit is the reality and man, nature and God are its triple manifestations. Radhakrishnan
observes “It is the basis and backbone of our being, the universality that cannot be
reduced to this or that formula”.

Positivism
Positivism rejects any information that cannot be formally measured. It “limits knowledge
to statements of observable fact based on sense perceptions and the investigation of
objective reality”. It is the teachers’ job to make sure directions are clear and students
understand what and how they will be learning. Through repetition and practice with
different media, students are expected to have a clear understanding of the topic studied.
Heavy focus is placed on testing students to ensure that all criteria have been met.
Positivist educationists Sri Aurobindo, Rabindranath, Vivekananda and Gandhi have
realized the value of technical educational and the place of science in curriculum. They
at the same time insisted that the education of science and technology must be supported
by education in humanities, art morality and religion.

Nationalism
The spirit of nationalism was hovering in the Indian air when J. Krishnamurti was born
in 1895. Slowly, it took hold in the consciousness of the people. By the turn of the new
century, Britain had consolidated her hold over the Indian territories and had laid the
foundations for a centralized state. All parts of British India were then bound into a
single unit by a strong bureaucracy, a standing army, communication networks and a

53
newly articulated educational system. Influential British historians argued that India
was a British creation - without a common language and religion, that India was not
and could not be a nation. According to John Stuart Mill, the roots of nationalism are
nurtured by people who share a common identity in the form of historical memories,
‘pride, humiliation, pleasure and regret’, attached to common incidents of the past.
India’s past, he implied, would not provide any such cohesive ideology to command
the loyalty of all the peoples of India.
For contemporary Indians, whose defining experience was of religion, language, family
and caste, the new ideology presented a many-faceted challenge. Deeply influenced by
the foreign presence, by the degradation of Indian society that they had learned to live
with, men as different as Raja Ram Mohan Roy and Dayanand Saraswati evolved an
idea of an Indian past to meet the British challenge. By the second decade of this
century, when the imperial government began introducing reforms that would eventually
lead to representative democracy in India, a new dynamic had entered the situation.
The search for a cohesive ideology gradually produced an identity attractive enough to
inspire the majority of Indians to challenge alien rule. In forging a national Indian
identity, the powerful force of religion began to dominate the vocabulary of politics.
Gopal Krishna Gokhale, a moderate who was convinced that political freedom had to
be won through the gradual education of the public, wrote of the complexities of the
problem:
The number of men who conform a sound political judgment in the country is not
large, but you can find a number of thinking men, filled with an honest but vague
longing for the emancipation of the country, ready to follow any plausible leader, whom,
in their heart of hearts, they believe to be wholly against the foreigner.

Cosmopolitanism
Cosmopolitanism is the main approach of the educational philosophies of Rabindranath
Tagore, Jawaharlal Nehru and M.N.Roy, the founding of Viswabharathi by Rabindranath
was mainly to fulfill his dream of universal India. Jawaharlal Nehru University represents
the spirit of Nehru. M.N. Roy stood for cosmopolitanism and hoped to make his radical
humanist movement a world movement. In a way Vivekananda Vedantist movement,
Dayananda’s Aryasamaj colleges, Sri Aurobindo’s Aurovilli, Radhakrishnan’s
Internationalism represent the same universal spirit, though their approaches are different.

Eclecticism
Eclecticism has been derived from the verb root “elect”. To elect means to choose and

54
pick up. The good ideas, concept and principles from various schools of thought have
been chosen, picked up and blended together to make a complete philosophy. Thus
eclecticism is a philosophy of choice. Eclecticism is nothing but fusion of knowledge
from all sources. It is a peculiar type of educational philosophy which combines all
good ideas and principles from various philosophies. Eclecticism is a conceptual
approach that does not hold rigidly to a single paradigm or set of assumptions, but
instead draws upon multiple theories, styles, or ideas to gain complementary insights
into a subject, or applies different theories in particular cases. It can sometimes seem
inelegant or lacking in simplicity, and eclectics are sometimes criticized for lack of
consistency in their thinking. It is, however, common in many fields of study.
It is the nature of man that he likes change. He wants new and novel ways in every field
of work. The same is the case with learning process. Learners always like something
new and exciting. This approach is broad and may include every kind of learning activity
and saves learner from monotony. It is more appropriate for Pre School learning but
not less beneficial in the class rooms. It is helpful in all kinds of skills in stimulating a
creative environment and gives confidence to the learners. In this approach children
discovers and instil good ways of learning. Above all this approach gives a chance to
our common sense to mould and shape our method according to the circumstances and
available materials of teaching aids.
The contemporary Indian philosophers of education have looked on human personality
from an eclectic perspective to discover the inner nature of man, which is generally not
given due importance in the present day social sciences. Contemporary Indian
philosophers excluding Nehru and M.N.Roy emphasized the spiritual aspect of man as
an integrating principle which alone can boost his future evolution. These thinkers also
advocated a scheme of education which includes physical, moral and religious education
which is in tune with the spirit of Indian culture. Sri Aurobindo, representing the spirit
said “the aim and principles of a true education is not certainly to ignore modern truths
and knowledge but to take our foundations on our belief, our mind and our own spirit”.
Thus we find, contemporary Indian philosophy of Education has been characterized by
eclecticism. It is because of the fact that these thinkers had wide and deep knowledge
of western science, art, literature and culture. Some of them spent many years studying
in western educational institutions and they also had wide understanding of Indian
culture and ethos. Their ideas are a happy blend of Indian values and western principles
and concepts like Idealism, realism, nationalism, internationalism, individualism,
socialism and myriad other ideas. These thinkers wanted to reconcile modern activities
with renunciation. Thus in all branches of knowledge- like Metaphysics, epistemology,

55
psychology, ethics, religion, education, social and political sciences they wanted a blend
of the East and the West.

Realism
For the realist, the world is as it is, and the job of schools would be to teach students
about the world. Goodness, for the realist, would be found in the laws of nature and the
order of the physical world. Truth would be the simple correspondences of observation.
The realist would favour a school dominated by subjects of the here-and-now world,
such as math and science. Students would be taught
factual information for mastery. The teacher would impart knowledge of this reality to
students or display such reality for observation and study. Classrooms would be highly
ordered and disciplined, like nature, and the students would be passive participants in
the study of things. Changes in school would be perceived as a natural evolution toward
a perfection of order.
In contemporary Indian philosophy of education however one finds a meeting of the
extremes of idealism and realism. This extreme may be found in the educational
philosophy of Vivekananda, Dayananda, Sri Aurobindo, Rabindranath Tagore, Gandhi
and Radhakrishnan. In their aims and ideals of education they were idealists, while
their detailed plans of education were based upon realism and pragmatism.

Educational Thoughts of Jawaharlal Nehru

Jawaharlal Nehru was a prolific writer, a great visionary, a charismatic leader, a successful
statesman and he wrote a number of books like ‘The Discovery of India’, ‘Glimpses of
World History’, his autobiography, ‘Towards Freedom’ (1936) ran nine editions in the
first year alone.
Jawaharlal Nehru was a passionate advocate of education for India’s children and youth,
believing it essential for India’s future progress. His government oversaw the
establishment of many institutions of higher learning, including the All India Institute
of Medical Sciences, the Indian Institutes of Technology, the Indian Institutes of
Management and the National Institutes of Technology. Nehru also outlined a
commitment in his five-year plans to guarantee free and compulsory primary education
to all of India’s children. For this purpose, Nehru oversaw the creation of mass village
enrollment programmes and the construction of thousands of schools. Nehru also
launched initiatives such as the provision of free rnilk and meals to children in order to
fight malnutrition. Adult education centres, vocational and technical schools were also

56
organized for adults, especially in the rural areas.
A system of reservations in government services and educational institutions was created
to eradicate the social inequalities and disadvantages faced by peoples of the scheduled
castes and scheduled tribes. Nehru also championed secularism and religious harmony,
increasing the representation of minorities in government.
Nehru’s views on the aims of education bear resemblance to Tagore’s ideas, because
both of them are firm internationalists and humanists. In his address to the students of
Allahabad University he said “a university stands for humanism, for tolerance, for
reason, for the adventure of ideas and for the search for truth”. Nehru too like other
contemporary thinkers, stressed the spiritual aspect of social development, He said
“without that spiritual element, probably the disintegration of society will proceed in
spite of all material advance”. Nehru was basically a socialist in his ideas. He says,
“When we consider the whole subject of Education, we have to think in terms of the
state and the society we are aiming at; We have to train our people to that end; we have
to decide what our citizens should be like
and what their occupations should be.....We have to produce harmony and equilibrium
in their private
and social and public life”. Nehru liked the Russian approach and aims of education
and its social concerns. He says, “The object aimed at is to produce a desire to serve the
community as a whole and to apply the Knowledge gained not only for personal but for
public welfare”.
Jawaharlal Nehru’s farsighted vision and admirable leadership is responsible for
developing modern science in our country. He played a major role in establishing a
modern scientific and technological infrastructure and strove to promote scientific temper.
Pandit Nehru laid the brick and mortar of science in newly independent India. Nehru’s
enormous contributions to the establishment of the NTs, of the large network of research
laboratories of the CSIR and DRDO and of the atomic energy establishment are all
well known. To accomplish his dream of making these institutions world class centres
of research and learning, Pandit Nehru invited and encouraged a number of renowned
scientists and academicians like Horn! Bhaba, J.B.S. Haldane, Sir C.V. Raman, Satish
Dhavan, Nalini Ranjan Sarkar, J.C. Ghosh, Humayun Kabir and many others. It was
Nehru’s sustained and spontaneous political support that translated the idea into a reality.
Over 45 Central laboratories in different fields of science were launched during his
time. He was also responsible for initiating the first steps to launch India into the
electronics and space era.

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But more than the brick and mortar—the hardware or establishment of physical facilities
as it were— Nehru was preoccupied with what he at different times called the “scientific
method”, the “scientific approach”, the “scientific outlook” and the “scientific temper”—
the soft-ware. Inaugurating the 34th session of the Indian Science Congress, which
met in Delhi in January 1947, Pandit Nehru expressed the hope that as “India was on
the verge of independence and science in India too was coming of age, it would try to
solve the problems of new India by rapid planned development in all sectors and try to
make her more and more scientific minded”.
He said: “Science was not merely an individual’s search for truth; it was something
infinitely more than that if it worked for the community.” He explained: “For a hungry
man or hungry woman, truth has little meaning. He wants food. For a hungry man God
has no meaning. And India is starving and to talk of truth and God and many of the
finer things is mockery. We have to find food for them, clothing, housing, education
and health are absolute necessities that every person should possess. When we have
done that we can philosophise and think of God. So, science must think in those terms
and work along those lines on the wider scale of coordinated planning.”
To Nehru, scientific temper was something to be inculcated in society at large. Pandit
Nehru believed that with the spread of education and with economic development itself,
the values which animate scientific temper would get embedded in our lives.

Educational Thoughts of M.N Roy

M.N. Roy, one of the eminent thinkers of modern India, has propounded a philosophy,
which is distinct from other traditional schools of Indian thought. He called it as Radical
Humanism. Radical Humanism is neither materialism, nor idealism, but a scientific
philosophy, insisting upon the freedom of the individual. According to M.N. Roy, the
function of philosophy “is to explain existence as a whole”. M.N Roy considered that
science and philosophy have different functions. Roy said “The function of Science is
to describe and that of philosophy is to explain. Therefore, philosophy is called the
science of sciences”. Thus Philosophy, according to Roy, should be based upon scientific
foundation. According to him “Modern Scientific Philosophy is decidedly opposed to
any dualist doctrine”. He said “Mysticism results from ignorance”. He is against all
types of Mysticism, whether it is metaphysical, logical or spiritual. He considers that
general laws of science have philosophical validity. Science gradually explains
philosophical problems. Scientific knowledge is the outcome of application of scientific
method. This method utilizes experience and reason. He also considered that both being
and becoming are important and says “Becoming is the essence of being”.

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The world according to Roy is dynamic. Therefore it is becoming change and evolution.
Criticizing absolute idealism, Roy said, Absolute idealism is a double - edged sword. It
throws matter out of the front-door, only to let it by the back-door.
According to first Rule of Radical Humanism “Man is the archetype of society,
cooperative social relationships contribute to-develop individual potentialities. But the
development of the individual is the measure of social progress”. Explaining social
progress, Roy laid down the second principle. “Quest for freedom and search for truth
constitute the basic urge of human progress”. Making liberty of Man the basic search
in progress, Roy said “The purpose of all rational human Endeavour, individual as well
as collective, is attainment of freedom, in ever increasing measure. Man has a peculiar
trait called Rationality. Man can make the world better with the help of his rationality
and science. Real revolution requires full freedom of the individual. The quest for
freedom distinguishes man from animal. Truth is a matter of human experience.
According to Roy “the search for truth, therefore, is intimately associated with the
quest of freedom as the essence of human nature”. This is the fundamental principle in
the educational philosophy of M.N. Roy. According to the third principle of radical
humanism the only purpose of the collectivity and the state is the liberty of the individual,
according to radical humanist ethics, The Man’s freedom is the highest moral standard.
Means of Education- Manabendra Nath Roy in his work ‘politics, power and parties,
elaborated his educational thought. Like Plato, he insists that no ideal republic can be
established in the absence of educated persons. Unless People are able to distinguish
between right and wrong no good society can be established. According to Roy it is
scientific Knowledge that every human being possesses reason and Rational thought, a
characteristic of intelligence a trait of human nature. Therefore what is required is to
encourage reason in man. This is possible only through education. According to Roy
those who want to put democracy in practice should feel that democracy is impossible
without education. Manabendra is against compulsory Primary Education. Any
compulsion is against liberty. An education which seeks to maintain status quo is not
suitable for making the community conscious of its inherent powers. Education should
help man and women to think rationally and to decide themselves about the problems
to be solved. Roy lamented that no government provides such an education. The state
governed education teaches the masses to sing songs of patriotism to salute the National
Flag.
Types of Education: Roy says that there are important types of education. They are-
(1) Education of citizenship.
(2) Political education.

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(3) Education of freedoms
(4) Education for different sections of society in brief.
Education of Citizenship- Roy considered education, as the foundation for democracy.
It is only through education, rational individuals can be created. Once the process of
education is started, other steps may be taken, for the establishment of democratic
structure. He considered that the education of citizens and the gradual building up of a
political organization from below is the only guarantee against the dangers of party
system. Roy considered that scientific education will make people self dependent, rational
and distinctive, and they cannot be misled by any self interested groups or parties. He
thought a good education will give faith to a new institutional organization, which will
be a guarantee against exploitation by an individual or a group of individuals.
Political Education-The expansion of education will make the citizen oppose are sorts
of exploitation by an individual or a group. In the present situation victory in elections
does not mean that the winning party is liked by the people. It also may mean that the
candidate of the winning party has money, to spend or muscle power to coax the voters.
Educated voters, once they realize that a particular candidate is more after his self
interest than the community welfare, will not get him elected again-thus the humanist
political system gives importance to education of the citizens.
Education of Freedom- According to M.N Roy, so long as the moral and cultural
level of the people does not rise, the aim of education is not realized. The education
provided in so called parliamentary democracies is not the education of freedom, but
an education of slavery. These states provide compulsory fee primary education to
create citizens supporting the state and not free individuals. According to new humanism,
it is not in the interest of the government or the state to curb the citizen’s freedom to
grow their capacities, because ultimately a welfare state aims at making its citizens
more and freer. The aim of education is not merely to provide three R’ s but to create
among the people a consciousness towards humanity, consciousness towards its right
to be human beings and consciousness of its excellence and dignity. The purpose of
education is to help them in utilizing their reason in this type of thinking. It is only
such an education may create true democracies, in the world, thus strengthening freedom.
But, he, feels, such education can be provided by the enlightened and free individuals
and institutions and not by the state owned-educational institutions.
Education for different Sections of Society- Roy feels that in the modern political
and administrative structures there is no Freedom for the individual. Social Justice and
equity requires that all individuals must be free and equal. Roy thinks man political

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democracy is not sufficient. There should be economic and social democracy, which
are also equally important and necessary. This democratization of intuitions social,
political and economic is possible only through proper education, which gives importance
to these values. Such education should be universally available accessible and affordable
to all sections of society. Roy condemns the ancient Indian distinction between male
and female, Brahmin and Sudra regarding the facility of education. He condemns all
types of distinctions between different sections of society based upon political, economic
or social considerations. Roy thinks that the aims and ideas of education can be achieved
only by realization of human values and the establishment of a humanist society. The
sole aim of the state is to help in the achievement of this aim. Therefore, the state must
arrange for the education of different sections of society. Along with most of his
contemporary, Indian philosophers of education Roy raised his voice against this
inequality.
Radical Humanism conveys that real education makes human being free. The new
society of free individuals will not be limited to space and time. It will be realized only
when it is realized everywhere. Thus a real social revolution will be a world revolution
leading to a new humane, rational, and social order and for such a transformation
education is the means.

Educational Thoughts of Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan

Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan was a great Indian philosopher, a renowned diplomat
and a teacher. He was the first Vice President of India and the second President of
India. As a tribute to this great teacher his birthday 5th September is commemorated as
Teachers Day throughout the country. When his students requested him to allow them
to celebrate his birthday, he asked them to celebrate the day as Teachers Day, honoring
the contribution of the teachers towards the community. His respect for the teaching
profession and his contribution towards the Indian education system is memorable
across the country.
The educational thoughts of Dr. Radhakrishnan are not merely idealistic but also very
much Pragmatic.
Dr. Radhakrishnan is an Idealistic philosopher but his educational thoughts are influenced
by the Pragmatic philosophy also. Dr. Radhakrishnan defines education as the instrument
for social, economic and cultural change.
He suggested Yoga, Religion, Morality, Geography, General Science, Agriculture,
Political Science, Ethics, Literature, Philosophy, Poetry, Art, Mathematics must be

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taught.
He wanted that student should corne closer to their teachers. It should provide adequate
opportunities to the students for conversation, debate, discussion and exchange of
opinions and thoughts with their teachers.
According to him intuition is the source of knowledge, Self knowledge is the source of
knowledge, and Reasoning is source of knowledge. Method of teaching cannot be lecture,
cannot be demonstration. It can be question-answer and discussion.
He stresses that the students should be trained to approach life’s problems with fortitude,
self-control and a sense of balance which the new conditions demand. He believed in
discipline that only would lead to self-realization.
He said “A teacher who has attained the goal may help the aspiring soul. Truth was not
only to be demonstrated but also communicated. It is relatively easy to demonstrate, a
trust but it can be communicated only by one who has thought, willed and felt the truth.
Only a teacher can give it with his concrete quality. He that has must be a proper
teacher who embodies truth & tradition, only those who have the flame in then can stir
the fire in others”.

His aims of education are-

1. Humanism in Education - No nation in this world can hold its place of primacy
in perpetuity. What counts is the moral contribution we make to human welfare
No education can be regarded as complete if it neglects the heart and the spirit.
2. Education for scientific sprit - Science is to be used for productive work. We
should develop spirit for inquiry and dedication in the pursuit of science and
scholarship.
3. Education for democracy - Education must be develop democratic attitude.
Educational institutions should train people for freedom, unity, and not localism,
for democracy, not for dictatorship.
4. Education and Spiritual values - Education is the means by which we can tide
up our minds, acquire information, as well as a sense of values. A true democracy
is a community of citizens differing from one another but all bound to a common
goal.
5. Education and Human value - There is a great deal of intellectual and technical
skill but the ethical and spiritual vitality is at low ebb. Man’s completeness results
from the pursuit of truth and its application to improve human life, the influence

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 of what is beautiful in nature, man and art, and spiritual development and its
embodiment in ethical principles.
6. The spirit of enquiry - We should develop the spirit of enquiry & dedication to the
pursuit of science & scholarship.
He said -Women are human-beings and have as much right to full development as men
have. In regard to opportunities for intellectual and spiritual development, we should
not emphasize the sex of women even as we do no emphasize sex of men. In all human
beings, irrespective of their sex, the same drama of the flesh and the spirit, of finitude
and transcendence takes place. He stressed the following methods of teaching such as:
> Observation
> Experiments
> Discussion
> Learning by meditation
> Text book method
> Seminar
> Tutorial system: Radhakrishnan introduced a tutorial system in Universities
under his administration. This system brings teacher and taught closer to understand
each other. The relationship of nature and society.
The Relevance of Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan’s educational thoughts in Today’s India:
Dr. Radhakrishnan’s contribution to education has been exclusive and exceptional. He
has made a solid and splendid contribution to the modern India and world. The present
education in India suffers from the crisis in character and loss of moral values. In this
regard, Radhakrishnan educational thought is very pertinent in order to develop character
and moral values. The report of the University Education Commission under
Radhakrishnan’s Chairmanship was, perhaps, his greatest contribution to education in
free India. It covered a wide range of subjects, like falling academic standards, status
and salaries of teachers, de-linking of jobs from degrees, religious education, medium
of instruction, reservation of seats for the backward, among other things. Radhakrishnan
educational thoughts are the combination of idealistic, realistic, humanistic, and
existentialistic philosophy. It will fulfill the modern aim of education i.e., all-round
development of child. Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan strongly advocated for free and
compulsory education for all the children of the country irrespective of caste, creed,
gender and socio-economic status. All Committees and Commissions in India have

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accepted this educational ideal in the country. Radhakrishnan supported the idea of
equal rights and opportunity for both men and women in the field of education. India is
a multi-racial, multi-lingual, multi-political and multi-cultural country which stands in
Unity in Diversity. So he anticipated dynamic models of education in this milieu. It
will help in solving various problems arise in recent time. India being a developing
country has made progress in many areas like agriculture, industry, transport, sciences
and technology including the technology for space travel. The logical and inevitable
requirement for the country’s progress therefore, is that no child whether poorest or
lowliest should be deprived of the opportunities of proper education. Radhakrishnan
advocated for inclusive education with special emphasis on changing the fates of women
and the deprived sections of society through education. The ideology of Radhakrishnan
about the education for democracy is very germane. Radhakrishnan’s thought of Self-
development, Man making, Self- expression respectively are the three important
educational attempts for individual and national development. The educational thoughts
of Dr. Radhakrishnan throw immense values in modern times. Dr. Radhakrishnan opined
that only the right kind of education could solve many problems of the society and the
country. Dr. Radhakrishnan’s thoughts have unquestionably brought out deep cognitive
significance of the intuitional process and relevance in modern thought, both in India
and the West. The universities must focus on teaching democratic principles like liberty
fraternity, equality and social justice, and explained in detail as to how understanding
on each of these principles impact society. He argued against the demarcation of
universities on lines of discipline streams as any education is incomplete without the
knowledge of all the three streams (1) Science and Technology (2) Social studies
including History (3) Humanities including language and literature, fine arts, ethics,
philosophy and religion. Modern age is the age of science and technology. Students are
very much interested to use it in various spheres of life. As a result the human qualities
day by day discouraged. Without development of human qualities in children, education
is meaningless. Radhakrishnan was of the opinion that, science helps us to build up our
outer life, but another discipline is necessary to strengthen and refine the living spirit.
Though we have made enormous progress in knowledge and scientific inventions, we
are not above the level of past generations in ethical and spiritual life. Radhakrishnan
emphasized spiritual education in India. Education in India should aim at fostering
spiritual values, faith in God, good manners, honesty and fellow-feeling. This has great
relevance for modern times particularly in this age of science and technology
.Radhakrishnan laid emphasis on the development of vocational efficiency in the students.
He suggested for introduction of agriculture as a subject in rural schools, opening of
agriculture colleges and Rural Universities in the rural areas. Like Gandhi, he opined

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for vocational education along with general education. The present education system
is unable to develop new enterprises and employment for the youth. In this context,
Radhakrishnan’s thought on vocational education is quite relevant and useful. According
to Radhakrishnan national integration is an important aim of education. It is also one
of the basic needs of India. Religious education, mass education programmes like social
services, community living, and study of social services were emphasized for the
development of nationalism. Radhakrishnan considered International Understanding
as an important objective of education. He advocated for the creation of new world
order, growth of world community and world citizenship. He emphasized education as
a means for creating International understanding and mutual cohesion among the people
across the border. It is essential to fight against various problems like terrorism,
environmental pollution, poverty, unemployment and diseases from the world. He viewed
that culture is international and science is cosmopolitan. He also viewed that education
as an important means of creating a sense of fellow-feeling, cohesion and attitude of
sharing among the students. In this regard, his recommendations are quite praiseworthy
and noteworthy. Radhakrishnan’s educational thought on teacher and student relationship
is very significant. He believed that education is possible through close and cordial
teacher-taught relationship. Without which no education is possible. Education for high
ideals of life with good teacher- taught relationship like that of ancient order can be a
panacea for many social ills, evils, troubles and diseases. In the present scientific and
practice oriented society, people demand that education should be child centered, activity
oriented, job oriented, life centered and community based. All these views are supported
by Radhakrishnan. Methods of teaching like Observation, Experiments, Discussion,
Learning by meditation, Text book method, Seminar, Tutorial system, The relationship
of nature and society, Real and Living examples, Imitation method, Yoga and Meditation,
Internal knowledge for experience in different subjects, Intuition, Question-answer and
Discussion, closer to society and nature and creative methods etc. are quite useful for
Indian educational institutions. India is a democratic country. Education is a powerful
factor of democracy. The success of democracy very much depends upon education. It
is a country of the people, for the people and by the people. In India multi parties play
a vital role. Now-a-days we see the political parties in India are working for their own
benefits not for all human beings. Narrow politics hampers the development of the
nation. In this backdrop, Radhakrishnan’s ideas on democracy and politics are very
much significant. He wanted to establish a classless society where there is no exploitation,
ill-feeling, corruption, inequality etc. Politics is a branch of ethics. It should promote
human welfare and happiness. Radhakrishnan could advocate only democracy, though
it is on ideal to him. The success of democracy depends upon its leaders, the

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representatives who should be integrated personalities. He wishes for world democracy.
It is exclusively depend upon education.

Check your progress -1.5

1. Who have been labeled “Neo-Vedantists”?
................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
2. What do you mean by Eclecticism?
................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
3. Write two methods of teaching according to Radhakrishnan.
................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
4. What are M.N Roy’s types of education?
................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
Let Us Sum Up
Ø In contemporary Indian Philosophy of Education we find mostly the following
trends, they are Revivalism, Rationalism, Humanism, Neo Vedanta, Integralism,
Positivism, Nationalism, Cosmopolitanism, Eclecticism, Idealism, Realism and
Pragmatism and thinkers like J.N Nehru, M.N Roy, S. Radhakrishnan.
Ø Revivalism is the trend which shows a reawakening, a reinterpretation in the light
of the ancient wisdom. When Revivalism is also ready to accept new concepts and
trends there is nothing wrong in it. Such revivalist attitude and spirit is found in
the philosophies of Vivekananda, Dayananda, M.K.Gandhi, Sri Aurobindo,
Rabindranath and Radhakrishnan.
Ø Rationalism is a philosophy, which means it is a way of thinking and an approach
to life. Rationalists believe that there is a plain, methodical, factual way to arrive
at a conclusion. The influence of western thinking upon contemporary Indian
thinkers is more explicit in the trend towards rationalism. The importance of reason
is accepted as valid source of knowledge by all modern thinkers. Jawaharlal Nehru

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 and M.N.Roy considered that only Rationalism is the best method in knowing
things. Dayananda, Sri Aurobindo, Vivekananda, Rabindranath Tagore and
Radhakrishnan follow the ancient tradition according to which while aims and
ideals goals and values are intuited, the means are supplied by reason.
Ø Neo-Vedanta is a modern interpretation of Vedanta, with a liberal attitude toward
the Vedas. It reconciles dualism and non-dualism, and rejects the “universal
illusionism” of Shankara, despite its reference for classical Advaita Vedanta.
Ramakrishna, Swami Vivekananda, M.K. Gandhi and Aurobindo have been labeled
“Neo-Vedantists.
Ø Contemporary philosophers of education, Sri Aurobindo, Vivekananda,
Rabindranath, Gandhi and Dayananda depict an integral approach in philosophy.
Ø Positivism rejects any information that cannot be formally measured. It “limits
knowledge to statements of observable fact based on sense perceptions and the
investigation of objective reality”. Positivist educationists Sri Aurobindo,
Rabindranath, Vivekananda and Gandhi have realized the value of technical
educational and the place of science in curriculum.
Ø The spirit of nationalism was hovering in the Indian air when J. Krishnamurti was
born in 1895. Slowly, it took hold in the consciousness of the people.
Ø Cosmopolitanism is the main approach of the educational philosophies of
Rabindranath Tagore, Jawaharlai Nehru and M.N.Roy, the founding of
Viswabharathi by Rabindranath was mainly to fulfill his dream of universal India.
Ø The contemporary Indian philosophers of education have looked on human
personality from an eclectic perspective to discover the inner nature of man, which
is generally not given due importance in the present day social sciences.
Ø In contemporary Indian philosophy of education however one finds a meeting of
the extremes of idealism and realism. This extreme may be found in the educational
philosophy of Vivekananda, Dayananda, Sri Aurobindo, Rabindranath
Tagore, Gandhi and Radhakrishnan. In their aims and ideals of education they
were idealists, while their detailed plans of education were based upon realism
and pragmatism. Jawaharla! Nehru was a prolific writer, a great visionary, a
charismatic leader, a successful statesman. Jawaharlal Nehru was a passionate
advocate of education for India’s children and youth, believing it essential for
India’s future progress. Jawaharlal Nehru’s farsighted vision and admirable
leadership is responsible for developing modern science in our country. He played

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 a major role in establishing a modern scientific and technological infrastructure
and strove to promote scientific temper.
Ø M.N. Roy, one of the eminent thinkers of modern India, has propounded a
philosophy, which is distinct from other traditional schools of Indian thought. He
called it as Radical Humanism. Radical Humanism is neither materialism,
nor idealism, but a scientific philosophy, insisting upon the freedom of the
individual.
Ø Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan was a great Indian philosopher, a renowned diplomat
and a teacher His respect for the teaching profession and his contribution towards
the Indian education system is memorable across the country. The educational
thoughts of Dr. Radhakrishnan are not merely idealistic but also very much
pragmatic. Dr. Radhakrishnan is an Idealistic philosopher but his educational
thoughts are influenced by the Pragmatic philosophy also. Dr. Radhakrishnan
defines education as the instrument for social, economic and cultural change.
Answers to check your progress
1. Ramakrishna, Swami Vivekananda, M.K. Gandhi and Aurobindo have been labeled
“Neo-Vedantists.
2. Eclecticism is nothing but fusion of knowledge from all sources. It is a peculiar
type of educational philosophy which combines all good ideas and principles from
various philosophies.
3. Two methods of teaching according to Radhakrishnan are -
Ø Observation
Ø Experiments

4. M. N Roy’s types of education are -

(1) Education of citizenship.
(2) Political education.
(3) Education of freedoms
(4) Education for different sections of society in brief.

Sub-unit End Exercises

1. Write the salient features of Rationalist Philosophy of Education.

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2. Explain briefly the educational ideas of Radhakrishnan.
3. Explain the concept of Integral Education.
4. Write important features of Revivalism.

References
1. Bhatia and Bhatia - Theories and Principles of Education.
2. V.R Taneja - Educational Thought and Practice
3. http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/8687/16/16 chapter%209.pdf
4. http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/8687/15/15 chapter%208.pdf
5. http://www.iep.utm.edu/roy mn/
6. http://chinchukr21.blogspot.in/2013/06/dr-s-radhakrishnans-educational-ideas.html

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 A - 2 : Contemporary India and Education

Unit - 2 p Understanding Diversity

2.1 Concept of Diversity
Structure
2.1.1 Introduction
2.1.2 Objectives
2.1.3 Concept of Diversity
2.1.4 Dimensions of Diversity
2.1.5 Diversity Consciousness
2.1.6 Diversity Education
2.1.7 Check Your Progress

2.1.1 Introduction
We live in a world which is plural in its manifestation. In every field and in every place
find just diverse ways that people lead their life. The plants, the animals and the human
all have their varieties. As if the unseen factor of nature tells that the only singular
thing of his world is plurality. Things have been such because to help each other in
their existential process. Plants and animals do understand this law of universe though
they have lessor existential capacity. But man, being the supreme entity, fails to decipher
it. Insteac celebrating diversity, s/he now puts a question mark on it.
In this unit you will know different types of human diversities and how they contribute
man’s wellbeing. Our discussion of diversity would include only of human diversity
establishing Disability as an important element of diversity.

2.1.2 Objectives
After going through the unit content, you would be able to:
l Know the concept of diversity
l Understand different dimensions of diversity

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l Conceptualize diversity consciousness and diversity education
l develop a holistic view on diversity

2.1.3. Concept of Diversity

Diversity refers to all of the ways in which people are different. It means understanding
the uniqueness of each individual, and recognizing individual difference as a part of
the social system. It encompasses acceptance of and respect to differences which are
genuine to humanity. The difference can be in the dimensions of race, ethnicity, gender,
sexual orientation, socio-economic status, age, physical abilities, religious beliefs,
political beliefs, or other ideologies. It is the exploration of these differences in a safe,
positive, and nurturing environment. Diversity is about understanding each other and
moving beyond simple tolerance to embracing and celebrating the rich dimensions of
variety contained within each individual. Wellner (2000) conceptualized diversity as
representing a multitude of individual differences and similarities that exist among
people. Diversity can encompass many different human characteristics such as race,
age, creed, national origin, religion, ethnicity, sexual orientation.
“Diversity” is more than just acknowledging and/or tolerating difference. Diversity is a
set of conscious practices that involve:
● Understanding and appreciating interdependence of humanity, cultures, and the
natural environment.
● Practicing mutual respect for qualities and experiences that are different from
our own.
● Understanding that diversity includes not only ways of being but also ways of
knowing;
● Recognizing that personal, cultural and institutionalized discrimination creates
and sustains privileges for some while creating and sustaining disadvantages
for others;
● Building alliances across differences so that we can work together to eradicate
all forms of discrimination.
Diversity includes, therefore, knowing how to relate to those qualities and conditions
that are different from our own and outside the groups to which we belong, yet are
present in other individuals and groups. Some common areas of diversity include age,
ethnicity, class, gender, physical abilities/qualities, race, and sexual orientation. Besides
religious status, gender expression, educational background, geographical location,
income, marital status, parental status, and work experiences are widely accepted as

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issues of diversity. Finally, we acknowledge that categories of difference are not always
fixed but also can be fluid, we respect individual rights to self-identification, and we
recognize that no one culture is intrinsically superior to another.

2.1.4 Dimensions of Diversity

Gardenswartz & Rowe (1994) described diversity as being like an onion, possessing
layers that once peeled away reveals the core. According to Gardenswartz & Rowe
(1994) the four layers of diversity are organizational dimensions, external dimensions,
internal dimensions, and personality.
The organizational dimensions represents the outer most layer and consists of characters
such as management status, union affiliation, work location, seniority, divisional
department, work content/field, and functional level classification. The characteristics
of diversity associated with this layer are items under the control of the organization in
which one works. The people can influence this layer in a limited capacity, because
control rests with the organization in which a person works.
The external dimension represents those characteristics that deal with the life choices
of an individual. The individual exercises a higher level of control over these characteristic
than in the organization dimension. The characteristics in this layer are personal habits,
recreational habits, religion, educational background, work experience, appearance,
status, marital status, geographic location, and income. Meanwhile, the layer where an
individual exercises the least amount of control is the internal dimensions.
In the internal dimension of diversity an individual has no control over these
characteristics. These characteristics are assigned at birth, such as age, race, ethnicity,
gender, and physical ability. Often these characteristics are the sources of prejudice
and discrimination.
At the core of the Four Layers of Diversity Model is personality. Personality is described
as traits and stable characteristics of an individual that are viewed as determining
particular consistencies in the manner in which that person behaves in any given situation
and over time (Winstanley, 2006). The personality of an individual is influenced by the
other three levels of the model. The other layers help shape the individual’s perception,
disposition and actions, as the individual interacts with the world around them.
Recently, in the field of special education, another kind of diversity is gaining its colour.
It is neuro-diversity. The term, which was coined by Australian autism-activist Judy
Singer and American journalist Harvey Blume in the late 1990s, suggests that what
we’ve called in the past “disabilities” ought to be described instead as “differences” or

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“diversities.” Proponents of neuro-diversity encourage us to apply the same attitudes
that we have about biodiversity and cultural diversity to an understanding of how different
brains are wired. We should celebrate the differences in students who have been labeled
“learning disabled,” “autistic,”
“ADD/ADHD,” “intellectually disabled,” “emotionally and behaviorally disordered,”
or who have been given other neuroiogically based diagnoses. We ought to appreciate
these kids for whom they really are and not dwell upon who they have failed to become.
(Armstrong, 2013).
Diversity can be natural (nature’s plural manifestation) and can also be human. At
human level, diversity is a reality created by individuals and groups from a broad
spectrum of demographic and philosophical differences. It is extremely important to
support and protect diversity because it gives value to individuals and groups and help
them free from prejudice. It also fosters the climate where equity and mutual respects
are intrinsic.

2.1.5 Diversity Consciousness

Our ability to recognize, understand, and adapt to the differences is called Diversity
Consciousness. The definition of consciousness in the dictionary is ‘being fully aware
or sensitive to something’. Another way of defining it is the full activity of the mind or
senses. Diversity consciousness includes understanding, awareness, and skills in the
area of diversity. To have a better understanding, let us discuss the following points.
1. It is not a simple common sense—Common sense is not sufficient. We need to
educate ourselves and each other.
2. Only good intention is not enough—we have heard people say, “If my heart is in
the right place, that is enough.” Trying extra hard to be fair and respectful of others
or having the best of intentions is a good start, but only a start. It is possible to
show insensitivity and ignorance even though you mean well. People who talk to
adults with disabilities in a childlike manner may think that they are being kind.
People who tell you to forget our differences and just “be human” may think they
are offering helpful advice. But this is not enough.
3. Not important for just some of us but for All—all of us need to be culturally literate
and responsive to survive and succeed in the twenty-first century. it is improper to
think that someone else’s problems or struggles do not affect me. “All of our
ancestors came to this country in different boats. But we’re all in the same boat
now. And if part of the boat sinks, eventually the rest of it goes down too.

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4. It is not some “feel-good” activity—Diversity consciousness is not a matter of
merely feeling good about ourselves and others. It goes deeper. Superficial
acceptance is replaced by a deeper and more critical understanding.
In the field of special education diversity consciousness is quite important. In our country
children who are differently able are not only neglected, but also lack this consciousness.
Even parents and community members have not sufficient knowledge about this.

2.1.6 Diversity Education

It refers to all the strategies that enable us to develop diversity consciousness. Through
diversity education, we develop awareness, understanding, and a variety of skills in the
area of diversity. These skills are referred to as diversity skills. Among these are flexible
thinking, communication, teamwork, and leadership skills, as well as the ability to
overcome personal and social barriers. Diversity education takes many forms. It is
something we can initiate and control, such as reading a book, volunteering to help
others in need, attending a workshop, and exchanging ideas about diversity issues with
thousands of people over the Internet.

2.1.7 Check Your Progress - 1

1. Define diversity.
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2. Mention the four major levels of diversity.
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3. What is diversity consciousness?
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2.2 p Types of Diversity

Structure
2.2.1. Introduction
2.2.2 Objectives
2.2.3 Cultural Diversity
2.2.3.1 Dimensions of Cultural Diversity
2.2.3.2 Disability and Cultural Diversity
2.2.4 Gender Diversity
2.2.4.1 Gender Diversity and Disability
2.2.5. Linguistic Diversity
2.2.5.1 Linguistic diversity and Disability
2.2.6. Socio-Economic Diversity
2.2.6.1 Socio-Economic Diversity and Disability
2.2.7. Diversity and Disability
2.2.7.1 Types of Disability
2.2.7.2 Dealing Disability through Education
2.2.8 Check Your Progress

2.2.1 Introduction
When we want to classify diversity, specifically at human level, there are different
ways to do it. The most acceptable of all is classifying them as: cultural diversity,
gender diversity, linguistic diversity and socio-economic diversity. In fact, at human
level these are the major diversity verities which affect human system.
The present unit deals with how different diversities shape human personality and bring
changes in our life styles. The unit also shows some light on disability as related to
diversity.

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2.2.2 Objectives
After going through the unit content, you would be able to:
l Know different kinds of diversities and their dimensions
l Understand how they shape and affect human personality
l Conceptualize the role of education in diversity

2.2.3 Cultural Diversity

Culture encompasses the learned traditions and aspects of lifestyle that are shared by
members of a society, including their habitual ways of thinking, feeling and behaving.
(Frederickson & Cline, 2002). It is that part of life which is learned, shared, and
transmitted from one generation to the next. Although culture endures over time, it is
not static. Language, values, rules, beliefs, and even the material things we create are
all part of one’s culture.
Culture’s influence on us is profound. As we internalize culture throughout our lives, it
influences who we are, what we think, how we behave, and how we evaluate our
surroundings. For example, culture shapes the way we communicate, view work, interpret
conflict, define and solve problems, and resolve dilemmas. Culture, which Hofstede
describes as a collective programming of the rnind that reveals itself in symbols, values,
and rituals, is often so embedded in us that we may be unaware of its influence.
Cultural Diversity or Cultural Pluralism is a process through which cultural differences
are acknowledged and preserved. For example, the advocates of multicultural education
argue that the study of history should be more pluralistic. History should reflect the
distinctive cultural experiences of all people. According to this perspective, courses in
history often ignore the experiences, perspectives, and contributions of women or people
of color or of a particular caste or class. Those who share this opinion argue that history
courses are to be truly inclusive.

2.2.3.1 Dimensions of Cultural Diversity

Dimension refers to specific traits which distinguishes one person or group from another.
Race, gender, ethnicity, social class, and demography are some of the common
dimensions. Race: Race refers to a category of people who are perceived as physically
distinctive on the basis of certain traits, such as skin color, hair texture, and facial

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features. Notice that what makes this group distinctive is our perception of differences.
Ethnicity: Ethnicity is a label that reflects perceived membership of, and a sense of
belonging to, a distinctive social group. The crucial distinguishing features of an ethnic
group vary between different contexts and change over time. They may include physical
appearance, first language, religious beliefs and practices, national allegiance, family
structure and occupation. A person’s ethnic identity may be defined by their own
categorization of themselves or by how others see them. Whereas race relates to physical
differences, ethnicity focuses on cultural distinctiveness. Ethnicity is defined as the
consciousness of a cultural heritage shared with other people. In India, for example,
the tribals have a distinctive cultural identity.
Gender. It has to do with the cultural differences that distinguish males from females.
For instance, in any given culture, people raise males and females, to act in certain
ways. This is called gender role. A girl in India is trained to know the culinary skills
and manage household work as a gender role prescribed by the society. Do not confuse
the term gender with sex. Sex refers to biological differences, such as hormones and
anatomy.
Social class: Another important dimension of cultural diversity is Social class which
refers to one’s status in society. This is usually determined by a variety of social and
economic criteria, including wealth, power, and prestige. Even though social class
influences where we work, live, and go to school, its importance is addressed infrequently.
It is because the concept of social class is fuzzy and inconsistent. For example, how
would we classify the students in our class? Lower, middle, and upper class mean
different things to different people.
Languages’. Languages transmit and preserve culture. Of the estimated 7,000 languages
spoken throughout the world, one becomes extinct every two weeks. This shows that
one language or a group of languages dominate other languages. In India English
language dominates the whole of sub-continent. With it, in a subtle way, the language
initiates Indians into the native culture from which it came.
Work/Life Issues; Work schedules are becoming more flexible as mothers and fathers
look to balance their careers with child-raising responsibilities. The previous equation
of mother as care taker and father as money giver does not hold true for today’s generation.
This has added variety to the cultural scenario.
Use of Technology: Technology has divided the population of the whole- world into
two categories-digital natives and digital immigrants. Digital natives, young people
who are “native speakers” of the language of computers, video games, and Internet, are

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learning to adapt to new technologies at a faster rate than those of us who are digital
immigrants; people who were not born into the digital world but learned the language
and the new technology later on in life. Cyber-segregation or the digital divide, the
gap between people with regard to their ability to access and use information and
communication technologies
(ICTs), threatens to widen the gap between the “haves” and “have-nots”. This has also
brought change in cultural sphere.
Surnames: Data from different sources show that the most common surnames in India
have changed in recent times. The age old tradition of inhering husband’s surname is
first changing, Women are either upholding their parental surnames or adding their
husbands’ surname with it without erasing it. This has created a new way of identity for
the girls.
Demographic changes: With the development of communication and transport system
man has become hyper mobile. In search of jobs and settlement there is constant changing
of stay-house. This demands, very often, an adaptation to new culture, new language,
new living pattern and many more things. For example, the cultural diversity of Kolkata
is due to its capacity to provide bread and blanket to a large number of people, of which
a significant portion is from outside Bengal. This has created a unique culture for
Kolkata.
Globalization: Globalization, the growing interdependence of people and cultures, has
accelerated in the twenty-first century. Globalization is impacting individuals of every
conceivable color and culture. To use Friedman’s terminology, the world is being flattened
in all kinds of ways. Factors such as immigration, the speed and ease of modern
transportation, outsourcing, environmental changes, and the globalization of markets
and technology contribute to this trend.

2.2.3.2 Disability and Cultural Diversity

Disabled children and perception about them greatly differ across cultures. The following
reactions are experienced by families with disabled children across all societies and
cultures, but may be more strongly embedded and reinforced in some cultural groups:
l Commonly there is an initial period of denial by the family that the disability
exists, sometimes resulting in negative implications for the immediate care needs
of the child. This result is reinforced by community expectations that the family
will function in the same way as before the child with disability was born and also
by the absence of community care structures to assist the family.
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l The second theme of blame or ‘cause attribution1 is based on the belief that
someone or something has ‘caused’ the disability. This view can commonly focus
on the actions of the mother during pregnancy who is blamed for giving birth to a
child who has a ‘defect’. Thus, it can be seen as an attempt to explain the presence
of the disability due to some form of fault attributed to the mother, or a physical
event during pregnancy or early childhood. This feature is also commonly used to
provide explanations for somewhat common ‘imperfections’ in children, such as
birthmarks etc. In some cases, the birth of a disabled child may be considered as a
‘punishment from God’ that the family ‘deserved’.
l Some families are ashamed of their children with disabilities who they hide away
in their homes. In some countries, it is not unusual to hear of cases of disabled
children who have been abandoned. Social services in these places are often non-
existent and education and health systems do not cater for children with disabilities.
In other cases, children with intellectual disabilities and hearing or visual
impairments do not attend school because they would be mocked and humiliated
I ated by other students.
l In the longer term, both children with disabilities and their family carers can experience
isolation and marginalization from other families within their community.
Eventually, these factors may result in marital breakdown, with the mother
commonly staying with the disabled child in reduced economic circumstances.
The result for the mothers and children is further social alienation and loneliness.
l Stigma attached to disability can sometimes mean that the social status and marriage
prospects of other children in the family are also reduced. In some societies, this
stigma can also jeopardize the marriage prospects of the sisters of a woman with a
disabled child.
l In other situations, family members may overprotect disabled children, and have
low expectations for their development, with the result that disabled children
remain overly dependent on others. Even for children from loving homes, a lack
of knowledge and belief in the capacities of disabled people, combined with
guilt and lack of external support structures can result in restricted outcomes for
children with disabilities.

2.2.4 Gender Diversity

Gender diversity is a term referring to how people from different gender are represented
in their relevant setting. Primarily, this term is often used to refer to the distribution of

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females and males in social, educational and work life. Now-a-days it also includes
those who fall into non-binary categories of gender, for example, the LGBTs. Gender
diversity is a part of cultural diversity, but-due to its individual significance this is dealt
separately.
Gender Diversity is the variety in the representation of different sexes of people in
different social setting. Some works or activities are predominantly performed by one
category which results in the over representation of that category and under representation
of the other. For example, in Indian context, we can say, the women are underrepresented
in outside works. But we find their over representation in household work. There are
exceptions also. In Karnataka, we find women being engaged in large numbers in public
transport systems like, bus and truck. This is not found elsewhere in India. Similarly, in
engineering section there is less involvement of women till now. Works of mines and
defense, which require hazards and adversity, are abandoned by the women.
While some societies have better defined gender roles, others have fluidity in their
gender roles. The GLOBE study of national culture describes this as gender
egalitarianism, defined as ‘the degree to which an organization or society minimizes
gender role differences while promoting gender equality’ (House, Hanges, Javidan,
Dorfman, Gupta, 2004, p. 12). Countries typically ranking high on gender egalitarianism
are Hungary, Russia and Poland, while those lowest on this scale are South Korea,
Kuwait and Egypt (House et al., 2004, p. 365). It is expected that more gender egalitarian
societies will have similar opportunities in the workplace for both men and women, as
gender is not a substantial element in considering a person’s capabilities or suitability
(Farndale, Biron, Briscoe and Raghuram, 2015 p.680). Roles in the home and at work
are also more equally divided between the sexes in these societies, enabling more equal
workplace participation (Aycan, 2008). A similar argument is relevant to understanding
the implications of gender empowerment: a specific measure of gender egalitarianism
referring to the extent to which, in a given society, both women and men are able to
participate in decision-making regarding economic and political life (Klasen, 2006).
Gender egalitarianism does not always mean inclusion of women in the mainstream
workforce. Now-a-days we find male persons being engaged in cooking which is
traditionally
a job of the females. It also demands men to perform those activities which were
traditionally done by women.

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Excepting some developed countries we find gender stereotyping and gender bias in
many countries of the world. People have still the feeling that women are biologically
inferior to that of men. This tells the fact that women can do simple and smooth-going
works and are not fit for the so called ‘tight-works’.

2.2.4.1 Gender Diversity and Disability

If spoken in terms of disability we would find great difference in gender variance.
Disabled males are taken care of but disabled females remain neglected. As far as
gender identity in disability is concerned women are more likely to describe themselves
in terms of gender than men and this particularly true amongst women from minority
ethnic groups.
Sexuality formed a key component of personal identity for lesbian and gay people,
with only a few exceptions.
Varied childhood experiences cause great difference in gender disability. Studies found
that ‘over protectiveness’ caused greater harm to the gender roles of children, particularly
among females. The South Asian females are worst affected by this.

2.2.5 Linguistic Diversity

Linguistic diversity is concerned with the availability and practice of multiple languages
in public and private life. The countries where people of different languages inhabit
and can speak their language freely is said to have linguistic diversity. India is such a
country where a large number of languages (nearly 350) are practiced. Some languages
are constitutionally accepted and some more are spoken by large number of people,
though they do not have official acceptability. Besides, there are many dialects which
do not have written script but are transacted orally. So to have a common platform for
communication both Hindi and English are accepted as lingua franca (the language of
communication for all). Both of these languages are accepted as language of
administration, legislation and English as the language of judiciary.
Language is one of the most interesting affirmations of our diversity. An Indian young
boy in Delhi used to speak Malayalam to his mother, English to his father, Hindi to the
driver, Bengali to the domestic help and Sanskrit to God. The Indian Rupee has 18
languages in it.
The Constitution of India recognizes 23 languages today, but in fact there are 35 Indian
languages that are each spoken by more than a million people - and these are languages

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with their own scripts, grammatical structures and cultural assumptions, not just dialects
(and if we’re to count dialects, there are more than 22,000).
There are five language families in India-Andamanese, Austro-asiatic, Dravidian, Indo-
Aryan and Tibeto-Burman. The majority of Indian languages belong to Indo-Aryan
and Dravidian families. The former is spoken by 70% of people and the later by 22%.
The rest are Austro-Asian and Tibeto-Burman.

2.2.5.1 Linguistic Diversity and Disability

Five percent of all school-age children have a learning disability. Over half of all students
with a learning disability have a language-based learning disability, many with challenges
in reading errors or limited skills in vocabulary, skills are delayed in comparison to
peers from the same language group who have been learning for the same length of
time. Their communication is impaired in interactions with family members and others
who speak the same language. The language they speak will have limited, inappropriate,
or confused in content, form, or use. Sometimes it may so happen that the child will be
unable to discriminate between language acquisition and language disorder.
The following findings may be given for better understanding about the status of language
development among disabled children:
l The child has difficulty in developing literacy skills in the native language (assuming
adequate instruction in the native language).
l There is a family history of reading difficulties in parents, siblings, or other close
relatives (again, assuming adequate opportunity to learn to read).
l The child has specific language weaknesses, such as poor phonemic awareness, in
the native language as well as in other languages. (However, these difficulties may
manifest somewhat differently in different languages, depending on the nature of
the written language; for example, Spanish is a more transparent language than
English, so children with phonological weaknesses may decode words more
accurately in Spanish than in English.)
l The child when exposed to research-based, high-quality reading intervention does
not make adequate progress relative to other.

2.2.6. Socio-economic Diversity

Socio-Economic diversity includes a wide range of variables that create difference in a

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society or between societies. These are: age, race, sex, economic background, geography,
religion, philosophy, personal and professional background etc. Diversity of experiences,
viewpoints, Ideas and thoughts also comes under this. For example, diversity in a school
includes a group of pupils from different backgrounds (this can be many things not just
racial, but students with different skills and career interests and hobbies and of different
political views). We can have the following features for socio-economic diversity:
l In a particular geographic area, mainly four kinds of diversity are considered-age,
gender, ethnicity and background
l The presence of, participation by, and respect for differing viewpoints, opinions,
cultures, contexts, and approaches
l Wide array of people that come from different backgrounds, lifestyles, social
experiences, races, and religions
l The immersion and comprehensive integration of various cultures, experiences,
and people
l Having people of different ideologies, genders, economic backgrounds, races,
ethnicities, age, and professional/academic background
l It has variations in background factors: ethnic, culture, education, interests.
l Heterogeneity in human qualities among a group
l The inclusion of people from all different types of backgrounds and co-existence
of people of different color, religion, culture, language, etc
l Different people, different views on life, different life experiences and backgrounds
both ethnic and personal that help shape who a person is

2.2.6.1 Socio-Economic Diversity and Disability

Socio Economic Status, i.e., SES affects overall human functioning, including our
physical and mental health. Low SES and its correlates, such as lower education, poverty
and poor health, ultimately affect our society as a whole. Inequities in wealth distribution,
resource distribution and quality of life are increasing globally. Lower levels of SES
have consistently been correlated with poor health and lower quality of life. The existence
of a disability can be the source of emotional maladjustment for individuals and the
families responsible for their care. Individuals with a disability and their families are at
increased risk for poor health and quality-of-life outcomes when their disability status
affects their socioeconomic standing.

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Research on disability and health care suggests that individuals with a disability
experience increased barriers to obtaining health care as a result of accessibility concerns,
such as transportation, problems with communication, and insurance.
Persons with a disability are likely to have limited opportunities to earn income and
often have increased medical expenses. Disabilities among children and adults may
affect the socioeconomic standing of entire families. Research suggests that there exists
causal relationship between low SES and the development of disability. These barriers
contribute to discrepancies in wealth and socioeconomic opportunities for persons with
a disability and their families.
Studies have found that children with disability have less percentage of higher educational
status. Many do not pass high school examinations. Only an average of 5% goes for
college education.

2.2.7. Diversity and Disability

The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) of 1990 defines a disability as a physical
or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more major life activities. A
disability is a condition or function judged to be significantly impaired relative to the
usual standard of an individual or group. The term is used to refer to individual
functioning, including physical impairment, sensory impairment, cognitive impairment,
intellectual impairment mental illness, and various types of chronic disease.
Disability is conceptualized as being a multidimensional experience for the person
involved. There may be effects on organs or body parts and there may be effects on a
person’s participation in areas of life. Correspondingly, three dimensions of disability
are recognized: body structure and function (and impairment thereof), activity (and
activity restrictions) and participation (and participation restrictions). The classification
also recognizes the role of physical and social environmental factors in affecting disability
outcomes.

2.2.7.1 Types of Disability

We can find the following kinds of disability now-a-days:
a) Mobility and Physical Impairments
This category of disability includes people with varying types of physical disabilities
including:

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l Upper limb(s) disability
l Lower limb(s) disability
l Manual dexterity
l Disability in co-ordination with different organs of the body
Disability in mobility can be either an in-born or acquired with age problem. It could
also be the effect of a disease. People who have a broken bone also fall into this category
of disability.
b) Spinal Cord Disability:
Spinal cord injury (SCI) can sometimes lead to lifelong disabilities. This kind of injury
mostly occurs due to severe accidents. The injury can be either complete or incomplete.
In an incomplete injury the messages conveyed by the spinal cord is not completely
lost. But a complete injury results in a total dys-functioning of the sensory organs. In
some cases spinal cord disability can be a birth defect.
c) Head Injuries - Brain Disability
A disability in the brain occurs due to a brain injury. The magnitude of the brain injury
can range from mild to moderate and severe. There are two types of brain injuries:
l Acquired Brain Injury (ABI)
l Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI)
ABI is not a hereditary type defect but is the degeneration that occurs after birth.The
causes of such cases of injury are many and are mainly because of external forces
applied to the body parts. TBI results in emotional dysfunctioning and behavioral
disturbance.
d) Vision Disability
There are hundreds of thousands of people who suffer from minor to various serious
vision disability or impairments. These injuries can also result into some serious problems
or diseases like blindness and ocular trauma, to name a few. Some of the common
vision impairment includes scratched cornea, scratches on the sclera, diabetes related
eye conditions, dry eyes and corneal graft.
e) Hearing Disability
Hearing disabilities includes people that are completely or partially deaf, (Deaf is the
politically correct term for a person with hearing impairment).

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People who are partially deaf can often use hearing aids to assist their hearing. Deafness
can be evident at birth or occur later in life from several biologic causes, for example
Meningitis can damage the auditory nerve or the cochlea.
Deaf people use sign language as a means of communication. Hundreds of sign languages
are in use around the world. In linguistic terms, sign languages are as rich and complex
as any oral language, despite the common misconception that they are not “real
languages”.
f) Psychological Disorders
1. Affective Disorders: Disorders of mood or feeling states either short or long term.
2. Mental Health Impairment is the term used to describe people who have experienced
psychiatric problems or illness such as;
l Personality Disorders - Defined as deeply inadequate patterns of behavior and
thought of sufficient severity to cause significant impairment to day-to-day activities.
l Schizophrenia: A mental disorder characterized by disturbances of thinking, mood,
and behavior.
g) Learning Disability
A learning disability can be caused by brain injury or medical condition. Children who
suffer from a specific learning disability may find it difficult to read and write. Solving
simple arithmetic problems can also difficult for a child with any of the types of learning
disabilities that exist. Studies and research show that almost 30 percent of the general
population suffers from one kind of learning disability or another. Let’s look at the five
most common types of learning disabilities.
1) Dysgraphia
Children with dysgraphia may be unable to differentiate between words so writing can
be difficult. In most of the cases, the child also finds it difficult to understand different
sounds and words which are spoken. Some of the common symptoms of dysgraphia
are:
l Even if the child is provided with high quality education, he or she finds difficulty
in writing words and numbers when they have this specific learning disability.
l Some children affected with dysgraphia find it difficult to process the language.
l The handwriting of dysgraphia-affected children is also very difficult to interpret.
l Typically, dysgraphia-affected children have problems with spelling and they mix
up the alphabet.
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2) Nonverbal Learning Disability
It may be hard to identify children who are affected by nonverbal learning disability
or NLD at an early age. It is only when they enter higher grades that they begin to
face problems, especially in social matters. Symptoms of this include:
l Degraded abstract reasoning.
l The nonverbal learning disability affected child develops a fear of facing
new situations.
l The affected child also lacks good common sense.
l Subjects like math and English are the most difficult subjects for the child who is
affected with nonverbal learning disability.
l The nonverbal learning disability affected child has very low self-esteem
which consequently creates social problems.
l The ability to think clearly and the reasoning power of the child declines.
3) Dyscalculia
Dyscalculia is a specific learning disability which causes difficulties in
understanding basic math principles and solving simple problems. The dyscalculia-
affected child finds it hard to interpret mathematical symbols and numbers. Even
simple arithmetic problems are difficult for him or her to solve.
Some Common Symptoms of Dyscalculia are-
l The dyscalculia-affected child finds it difficult to judge time and distance.
l The dyscalculia-affected child also finds it difficult to differentiate between
directions. Mental visualizations are hard for the child.
l Simple calculations in the mind are hard to render for a dyscalculia-affected child.
4) Memory Disabilities
People who are affected by memory disabilities may find it really difficult to memorize
things. Memory disabilities are just some of the types of learning disabilities that affect
memorization. For instance, the person with a particular mental disability may forget a
sentence spoken by someone two minutes ago. Those who suffer from this disability
show
l Difficulty in remembering even simple things like the name of the person whom
he/she just met.

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l Difficulty in solving those types of math problems which require memorizing
formulas.

2.2.7.2 Dealing Disability through Education

Schools can assist students with disabilities and their families by working together to
change attitudes and reduce the stigma associated with disability. Time, care, respect,
patience and persistence are required to change long held attitudes and beliefs.
For most families, accepting and corning to terms with disability is a long and difficult
process. Frequently, the first difficulty staff in schools encounter is overcoming parental
denial of their child’s disability. It is not unusual for parents to be reluctant to give
their permission for their child to have a psychological assessment. Likewise, there is
often a reluctance to accept the findings of psychology reports. The following are some
of the ways that schools can help:
l First and foremost, listen to the parents, understand their concerns and build a
partnership based on trust. It may take time and continued contact to build a
trusting relationship.
l Help the members in providing support services needed for the child.
l Work with relevant experts and interpreters to explain the results in a way that is
sensitive to the specific cultural community’s beliefs and values.
l Conduct staff professional development sessions on attitudes and perceptions of
disability for relevant cultural communities at your school.
Parental attitudes and perceptions of blame and shame can be modified by support
and education. Parents need to be provided with accurate information in a way that is
appropriate for their needs. This may include:
l Meeting with the parents of the individual child in a multi-disciplinary team (eg
Disability Coordinator, Psychologist, Teacher, Support Worker, Interpreter etc) to
listen to the parents’ concerns and to provide information about the child’s disability,
the Negotiated Education Plan (NEP), support options and the future.
l Provision of written materials translated into a language in which they are literate.
Please note that some parents of newly arrived families have not had the opportunity
to learn to read, so providing them with written materials in their first language
may be of no help.
l Invitations for parents to attend school and / or regional workshops or support
groups. Appropriate support structures will need to be in place for some parents to

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 be able to attend such sessions and for the information to be interpreted or explained
if necessary.
l Invitations to include a relative or community member to attend meetings with the
parent to support them.
Teachers can also make a difference by:
l Building close and supportive relationships with children and their families.
l Teaching all students about disability and sensitively providing students with
accurate information and celebrating diversity and ability.
l Providing a safe and supportive learning environment that is free from harassment
and responsive to the needs of students with disabilities.
l Modeling respect and valuing diversity through positive attitudes and inclusive
language.
l Seeking advice and support from colleagues and experts in the field.
l Challenging discrimination and negative attitudes.
l Including the lives and achievements of exceptional people with disabilities in
the curriculum e.g., Stephen Hawking, Sudha Chandran, Stevie Wonder, Ludwig
Van Beethoven, Franklin D. Roosevelt, Helen Keller, Paralympic athletes, local
heroes etc.
l Providing experiences that promote understanding, for example, hosting a
wheelchair sporting event, organizing a Royal Society for the Blind Guide Dog
visit, or inviting a Paralympic athlete as a guest speaker.
Each and every student with a disability has the right to access a broad and balanced
curriculum so that they can reach their full potential and achieve at the highest level
possible. Learning programs that are inclusive and supportive will enable students with
disabilities to maximize their achievements. In order for students to achieve their full
potential, it is important for teachers to work in partnership with parents and families
to build on the strengths of students with disabilities.

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2.2.8 Check Your Progress-2

1. Give an example of gender stereo-typing.

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2. What is the basic difference between race and ethnicity?
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3. What is digital divide?
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4. What is Lingua Franca?
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5. What is schizophrenia?
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6. Mention two symptoms of dyscalculia,
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2.3. p Diversity in Learning and Play
Structure
2.3.1 Introduction
2.3.2 Objectives
2.3.3 Diversity in Learning
2.3.3.1 Teachers’ Role in Determining Students’ Learning Style
2.3.4 Diversity in Play
2.3.5 Check Your Progress

2.3.1 Introduction
Diversity is not an affair of matured person. Among children we find it in their preference
for playing a particular game or sport and a kind of learning style they prefer to. This is
inherent in all societies and among all students. This really makes the learning so
comprehensive and play so enjoyable. Let us discuss it in detail.

2.3.2 Objectives
After going through the unit content, you would be able to:
Ø Know different kinds of learners and the learning style they prefer to
Ø Understand how diversity is found in play preferences

2.3.3 Diversity in Learning

Diversity is a basic composition in the learning style and play habit of students. Children
show ample variety in their learning style and play preferences. Let’s discuss these
briefly.
Diversity in learning indicates difference in style of learning. Learning style is the
typical way of conceptualizing a content matter as a learner goes through the curriculum.
Learning styles are most often divided into three basic groups. There are the auditory
learners, visual learners and kinesthetic or tactile learners. In addition to these basic
groups, some educational theorists also recognize verbal, logical, social and solitary as

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additional styles. Here is a systematic breakdown of each learning style and the ways
to address these styles in the classroom.
1. Auditory Learners
Auditory learners learn best through hearing the message. Students who are auditory
learners respond well to lectures and verbal instructions. They may also be interested
in books on tape or listening to review material. Some auditory learners have greater
success with oral exams due to the fact that they are able to process verbally, hear the
questions, and hear their own responses. Teaching auditory learners requires the teacher
to use rhythmic memory aids such as acronyms, short songs, or rhymes. For studying,
auditory learners do best when they are able to read their material aloud. Flip cards
which can be read aloud may also be useful.
2. Visual Learners
Visual learners process information according to what they see and the images they
have created in their mind. When teaching visual learners, their seating position should
be in the front of the room to help them avoid external visual distractions. Illustrations,
diagrams, and charts are very helpful when working with visual learners. Students who
are visual learners are often the best note-takers because they need to see the information
being presented. Flip cards can be very helpful for visual learners as it isolates an
image of the material they are studying.
3. Kinesthetic Learners
Kinesthetic, or tactile, learners learn best through touching, feeling and doing. Teachers
trying to reach kinesthetic learners should incorporate hands-on projects, multi-media
assignments, skits, movement, and physical artifacts as examples. Assigning a diorama
or skit is a great example of how to reach a kinesthetic learner. These students also
respond well to object lessons if they are able to touch the object involved.
Hands-on experiments are another great tool for teaching kinesthetic learners. This is
easily done with science material, but can also be incorporated into social studies and
even language and arts. Information about geography, customs, and food can often be
reworked into a hands-on experience. Examples of this include mummifying a chicken
in association with a social studies unit on ancient Egypt or preparing an ethnic food in
conjunction with a culture-based language arts story. These sorts of ideas attract and
engage the kinesthetic learners in the classroom.
4. Logical, Social or Solitary Learners
Logical learners are those students who most enjoy problem solving, logic games and

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reasoning. These students love riddles, word problems, and problem solving games or
worksheets, so provide many when teaching them. The categories of social and solitary
describe how the students prefer to study, either in groups or individually.

2.3.3.1 Teachers’ Role in Determining Students’ Learning Style

Teachers should consider ways they can determine the learning styles of their students.
This can be a very different process for various age groups. For older students, teachers
can use curriculum for teaching learning styles and then offer personality tests specifically
designed to help identify their-students’ styles. With middle school students, teachers
should incorporate a variety of learning styles in an effort to reach all students as testing
this age group can be particularly difficult due to shyness, reading readiness and social
pressures. For kindergarten and early elementary teachers, the use of an object lesson,
such as an unusual pet or particularly old item, can help identify the students’ primary
learning styles. Young students who are kinesthetic learners are generally the first ones
to ask “Can I hold it?” while visual learners are the ones who sit right in front, but may
not want to touch what is being shown. Auditory learners are the ones who talk about
the lesson the whole rest of the day. To observe students, it is best to have the object
lesson taught by a co-worker or have a co-worker observe the students.
Teachers should be trained to take into consideration a variety of learning styles and
make efforts to teach in ways that make true learning available to all students. Once
teachers are familiar with these learning styles, classroom activities and study habits
can be adjusted to accommodate the styles of any group of students.

2.3.4 Diversity in Play

Students are found to be different in their play style. This is in the sense that they prefer
different types or varieties of game and sport for their release of energy. Some prefer
indoor games and some outdoor ones; some prefer adventure sports while some prefer
simple ones. Even their play time and play style are different for the same game/sport.
Some students prefer simulated games while some other prefers to enjoy the games/
sports rather to play the same.
An examination of the relationship of play and diversity is important for at least three
reasons.
Ø First, a rapidly growing population of young children from culturally diverse
backgrounds is entering schools.

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Ø Second, play is a way for children to learn about the world around them and to
learn cultural values. They not only learn about themselves but also about differences
in other people.
Ø And finally, early education programs must work to enhance a positive awareness
of individual differences and cultural diversity as a whole. Play experiences may
serve as an excellent way to help teach children about the differences in other
people and that these differences are not bad.
Play is something which is greatly influenced by the culture and its elements. Cliff
(1990) examined the relationship between games, religion, myths, and ceremonies in
the Navajo culture. She noted an interrelationship between play and other aspects of
Navajo culture. Many games and the use of toys in play activities, for example, are
interconnected with or founded in religious beliefs. She also discusses that cheating in
games is not viewed negatively. It is seen in the same way as Euro Americans view
pranks on April fool’s Day. However, individuals caught cheating may face reprimands.
Cliff also indicates that exposure to Euro American culture has changed the play of
Navajo children somewhat, but that in many instances they have modified the activity
to fit their own gaming practices.
Play is also a way for young children to practice the roles and skills they will need as
adults and these specific play behaviors may vary from culture to culture. For example,
Fortes (1976) discussed play by children of the Tallensi people of North Africa and
found that the play of children in that society tended to reflect the culture as a whole.
Since farming and hunting were important parts of the culture, boys tended to play
hunting games and practiced bow and arrow skills as a way of mastering the skills
needed as adults. However, he noted that some play behaviors were observed which
could occur anywhere.
Fraser (1966) describes how toys and playthings reflect the culture in which children
live. She notes that the toys and playthings available for children sometimes have religious
significance, may often be related to the materials or skills of the people, and will
reflect the time period in which children live. For example, she notes that Eskimos
made ivory toys because ivory was readily available; those peoples who lived near
water often made toy boats, and astronaut toys in the United States were not available
until the late 1950s with the advent of space travel. Some play materials such as toy
animals or balls appear to be common among children everywhere.
Children are also aware of their gender differences in play. Fagot and Leinbach (1989)
found that boys and girls could correctly perform a gender labeling task starting from

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28 months of age. Honig (1983) indicated that gender identity is achieved before three
years of age even though some toddlers between 18 months and two years can label
other children correctly by sex.
Young children are aware of differences in other children, and this awareness seems to
follow a pattern from an awareness of gender, to racial differences, to disabilities.
Consistent across this literature are indications that children tend to play with peers
who are similar to them.

2.3.5 Check Your Progress-3

l. Define learning style.

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2. Who are logical learners?
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3. Briefly explain how children’s plays are influenced by time and place?
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4. How can a teacher identify the learning styles of different age groups?
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5. What factors affect play during childhood?
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2.4. p Addressing Diverse Learning Needs in the
Classroom

Structure
2.4.1 Introduction
2.4.2 Objectives
2.4.3 Addressing Diverse Learning Needs in the Classroom
2.4.4 Check Your Progress

2.4.1 Introduction
In today’s classroom we find students from different background and culture. Some
are normal, some have single disability and some have multiple disabilities. It has been
a constant threat for the teacher of how to deal them. Let’s read the unit and find out
how a teacher can deal with the students of different disability.

2.4.2 Objectives
After going through the unit content, you would be able to:
l Know how a teacher can deal students of different disabilities
l Understand the pedagogic methods and approaches needed for dealing diversity

2.4.3 Addressing Diverse Learning Needs in the Classroom

When a teacher enters into the classroom s/he finds a diverse group of students in the
class. These students have different physique, psychological makeup and cultural
background. So for the teacher it is needful to know how s/he can transact the class in
the best possible way. He are some ways-
1. Get a sense of how students feel about the cultural climate in your classroom. Let
students know that you want to hear from them if any aspect of the course is making
them uncomfortable. During the term, invite them to write you a note (signed or unsigned)
or ask on mid-semester course evaluation forms one or more of the following questions

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(adapted from Cones, Janha, and Noonan, 1983):
• Does the course instructor treat students equally and even handedly?
• How comfortable do you feel participating in this class? What makes it easy or
difficult for you?
• In what ways, if any, does your ethnicity, race, or gender affect your interactions
with the teacher in this class? With fellow students?
2. Introduce discussions of diversity at department meetings. Concerned faculty can
ask that the agenda of department meetings include topics such as classroom climate,
course content and course requirements, graduation and placement rates,
extracurricular activities, orientation for new students, and liaison with the English
as a second language (ESL) program.
3. Become more informed about the history and culture of groups other than your
own. Avoid offending out of ignorance. Strive for some measure of “cultural
competence” knows what is appropriate and inappropriate behavior and speech in
cultures different from your own. Beyond professional books and articles, read
fiction or nonfiction works by authors from different ethnic groups. Attend lectures,
take courses, or teams teach with specialists in Ethnic Studies or Women’s Studies.
Sponsor mono- or multicultural student organizations. Attend campus-wide
activities celebrating diversity or events important to various ethnic and cultural
groups. If you are unfamiliar with your own culture, you may want to learn more
about its history as weil. Shortcomings in ciass, and give your students an
opportunity to discuss them.
4. Aim for an inclusive curriculum. Ideally, a curriculum should reflect the perspectives
and experiences of a pluralistic society. At a minimum, creating an inclusive
curriculum involves using texts and readings that reflect new scholarship and
research about previously underrepresented groups, discussing the contributions
made to your field by women or by various ethnic groups, examining the obstacles
these pioneering contributors had to overcome, and describing how recent
scholarship about gender, race, and class is modifying your field of study. This
minimum, however, tends to place women, people of color, minority (both religious
and linguistic) in right place.
5. Emphasize the importance of considering different approaches and viewpoints.
One of the primary goals of education is to show students different points of view
and encourage them to evaluate their own beliefs. Help students begin to appreciate
the number of situations that can be understood only by comparing several

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 interpretations, and help them appreciate how one’s premises, observations, and
interpretations are influenced by social identity and background.
6. Reevaluate your pedagogical methods for teaching in a diverse setting. In a class
various categories of students are found as far as their learning style and
assumption about teaching and teachers. A teacher must be dynamic enough
to deal various students effectively with different approaches congenial to them.
7. Speak up promptly- if a student makes a distasteful remark even jokingly. Don’t
let disparaging comments pass unnoticed. Explain why a comment is offensive or
insensitive. Let your students know that racist, sexist, and other types of
discriminatory remarks are unacceptable in class. For example, “What you said
made me feel uncomfortable.
8. Avoid singling out students as spokespersons. It is unfair to ask X student to speak
for his or her entire race, culture, or nationality. To do so not only ignores the wide
differences in viewpoints among members of any group but also reinforces the
mistaken notion that every member of a minority group is an ad hoc authority on
his or her group (Pemberton, 1988). Relatedly, do not assume all students are
familiar with their ancestors’ language, traditions, culture, or history.
9. Advise students to explore perspectives outside their own experiences. For example,
encourage students to take courses that will introduce them to the literature, history,
and culture of other ethnic groups.
10. Involve students in your research and scholarly activities. Whenever you allow
students to see or contribute to your own work, you are not only teaching them
about your field’s methodology and procedures but also helping them understand
the dimensions of faculty life and helping them feel more a part of the college
community (Blackwell, 1987).
11. Recognize any biases or stereotypes you may have absorbed. Do you interact with
students in ways that manifest double standards? For example, do you discourage
women students from undertaking projects that require quantitative work? Do
you undervalue comments made by speakers whose English is accented differently
than your own?
12. Treat each student as an individual, and respect each student for who he or she is.
Each of us has some characteristics in common with others of our gender, race,
place of origin, and socio-cultural group, but these are outweighed by the
many differences among members of any group. We tend to recognize this point

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 about groups we belong to (“Don’t put rne in the same category as all those other
Biharis/Odias/Bengalis you know”) but sometimes fail to recognize it about others.
However, any group label subsumes a wide variety of individuals-people of different
social and economic backgrounds, historical and generational experience, and levels
of consciousness. Try not to project your experiences with, feelings about, or
expectations of an entire group onto any one student. Keep in mind, though, that
group identity can be very important for some students. School/College may be
their first opportunity to experience affirmation of their national, ethnic, racial, or
cultural identity, and they feel both empowered and enhanced by joining mono-
ethnic organizations or groups.
13. Rectify any language patterns or case examples that exclude or demean any groups.
Do you
l Use terms of equal weight when referring to parallel groups: men and women
rather than men and ladies?
l Use both ‘he’ and ‘she’ during lectures, discussions, and in writing, and encourage
your students to do the same?
l Recognize that your students may come from diverse socioeconomic backgrounds?
l Refrain from remarks that make assumptions about your students’ experiences,
such as, “Now, when your parents were in college . . . “?
l Refrain from remarks that make assumptions about the nature of your students’
families, such as, “Are you going to visit your parents over spring break?”
l Try to draw case studies, examples, and anecdotes from a variety of cultural and
social contexts?
14. Do your best to be sensitive to terminology. Terminology changes over time, as
ethnic and cultural groups continue to define their identity, their history, and their
relationship to the dominant culture. To find out what terms are used and accepted
on your campus, you could raise the question with your students, consult the listing
of campus wide student groups, or speak with your faculty.
15. Convey the same level of respect and confidence in the abilities of all your students.
Research studies show that many instructors unconsciously base their expectations
of student performance on such factors as gender, language proficiency,
socioeconomic status, race, ethnicity, prior achievement, and appearance (Green,
1989). Research has also shown that an instructor’s expectations can become self-
fulfilling prophecies: students who sense that more is expected of them tend to

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 outperform students who believe that less is expected of them - regardless of the
students’ actual abilities (Green, 1989; Pernberton, 1988). Tell all your students
that you expect them to work hard in class, that you want them to be challenged by
the material, and that you hold high standards for their academic achievement.
And then practice what you have said: expect your students to work hard, be
challenged, and achieve high standards. (Green, 1989; Pemberton, 1988).
16. Don’t try to “protect” any group of students. Don’t refrain from criticizing the
performance of individual students in your class on account’of their ethnicity or
gender. If you attempt to favor or protect a given group of students by demanding
less of them, you are likely to produce the opposite effect: such treatment undermines
students’ self-esteem and their view of their abilities and competence (Hall and
Sandier, 1982). For example, one faculty member mistakenly believed she was
being considerate to the students of color in her class by giving them extra time to
complete assignments. She failed to realize that this action would cause hurt feelings
on all sides: the students she was hoping to help felt patronized and the rest of the
class resented the preferential treatment.
17. Be evenhanded in how you acknowledge students’ good work. Let students know
that their work is meritorious and praise their accomplishments. But be sure to
recognize the achievements of all students. For example, one student complained
about her professor repeatedly singling out her papers as exemplary, although
other students in the class were also doing well. The professor’s lavish public
praise, though well intended, made this student feel both uncomfortable and
anxious about maintaining her high level of achievement.
18. Make it clear that you value all comments. Students need to feel free to voice an
opinion and empowered to defend it. Try not to allow your own difference of
opinion prevent communication and debate. Step in if some students seem to be
ignoring the viewpoints of others. For example, if male students tend to ignore
comments made by female students, reintroduce the overlooked comments into
the discussion (Hall and Sandier, 1982).
19. Encourage all students to participate in class discussion. During the first weeks of
the term, you can prevent any one group of students from monopolizing the
discussion by your active solicitation of alternate viewpoints. Encourage
students to listen to and value comments made from perspectives other than
their own. You may want to have students work in small groups early in the term
so that all students can participate in nonthreatening circumstances. This may
make it easier for students to speak up in a larger setting. See “Collaborative
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 Learning: Group Work and Study Teams,” “Leading a Discussion,” and
“Encouraging Student Participation in Discussion.” healing belief systems. A
faculty member in the social sciences gave students an assignment asking them to
compare female-only, male-only, and male-female work groups.
20. Meet with students informally. Frequent and rewarding informal contact with faculty
members is the single strongest predictor of whether or not a student willvoluntarily
withdraw from a college (Tinto, 1989). Ongoing contact outside the classroom
also provides strong motivation for students to perform well in your class and to
participate in the broad social and intellectual life of the institution. In addition to
inviting groups of your students for coffee or lunch, consider becoming involved
in your campus orientation and academic advising programs or volunteering to
speak informally to students living in residence halls or to other student groups.
21. Provide opportunities for all students to get to know each other. The teacher must
create and initiate opportunities for students for various kind of interactions-
academic and non-academic. This would generate positive vibration among students.
22. Dealing students of different learning styles. The teacher may take the following
facts into considerations while dealing students of diverse learning styles-
l Appreciating the individuality of each student is important. While generalizations
sensitize us to important differences between groups, each individual student has
unique values, perspectives, experiences and needs.
l Articulate early in the course that you are committed to meeting the needs of ail
students and that you are open to conversations about how to help them learn.
l As teachers, it is important that we recognize our own learning styles and cultural
assumptions, because these styles and assumptions influence how we teach and
what we expect from our students. Being aware of them allows us to develop a
more inclusive teaching style.
l As you plan your course, and each class, prepare multiple examples to illustrate
your points. Try to have these examples reflect different cultures, experiences,
sexual orientations, genders, etc., to include all students in learning.
l Help students move between abstract, theoretical knowledge and concrete, specific
experiences, to expand everyone’s learning.
l Use different teaching methods (lectures, small groups, discussions, collaborative
learning) to meet the variety of learning needs.

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23. Dealing students of Special needs. Below are suggestions to consider when a teacher
works with students with special needs:
24. Monitor your own behavior in responding to students. Research studies show
that teachers tend to interact differently with men and women students (Hail and
Sandier, 1982; Sadker and Sadker, 1990) and with students who are - or whom the
instructor perceives to be - high or low achievers (Green, 1989). More often than
not, these patterns of behavior are unconscious, but they can and do demoralize
students, making them feel intellectually inadequate or alienated.and unwelcome
at the institution.
As you teach, then, try to be evenhanded in the following matters:
l Recognizing students who raise their hands or volunteer to participate in class
(avoid calling on or hearing from only males or only members of one ethnic group)
l Listening attentively and responding directly to students’ comments and questions
l Addressing students by name (and with the correct pronunciation)
l Prompting students to provide a fuller answer or an explanation
l Giving students time to answer a question before moving on
l Interrupting students or allowing them to be interrupted by their peers
• Crediting student comments during your summary (“As Akim said. , . “)
• Giving feedback and balancing criticism and praise
• Making eye contact
25. Assign group work and collaborative learning activities. Students report having
had their best encounters and achieved their greatest understandings of diversity
as “side effects” of naturally occurring meaningful educational or community service
experiences, Consider increasing students’ opportunities for group projects in
which three to five students complete a specific task, for small group work
during class, or for collaborative research efforts among two or three students to
develop instructional materials or carry out a piece of a research study. Collaborative
learning can be as simple as randomly grouping (by counting off) two or three
students in class to solve a particular problem or to answer a specific question.
26. Give assignments that recognize students’ diverse backgrounds and special interests.
As appropriate to your field, you can develop paper topics or term projects that

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 encourage students to explore the roles, status, contributions, and experiences of
groups traditionally underrepresented in scholarly research studies or in academia
(Jenkins, Gappa, and Pearce, 1983). For example, a faculty member teaching a
course on medical and health training offered students a variety of topics for their
term papers, including one on alternative
l Even though two students may have the same disability, their needs for
accommodation may be quite different. Treat each student as an individual.
l Keep in mind that disabilities are not always visible to us, You are not required to
assess a student’s health; you should accept authorized documentation concerning
an individual student’s needs.
l Using many modes (written, verbal, video/slide, etc.) to present information is
one way to help some learners with special needs learn more effectively.

2.4.4 Check Your Progress - 4

l. What language caution a teacher must use in a classroom?

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2. Write two suggestions about how a teacher can deal with students of special need.
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3. What is inclusive curriculum?
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2.5 p Diversity : A Global Perspective

Structure
2.5.1 Introduction
2.5.2 Objectives
2.5.3 Global Perspective of Diversity
2.5.3.1 Teacher
2.5.3.2 Curriculum
2.5.3.3 Teaching Context
2.5.3.4 Instructional Strategies
2.5.4 Check Your Progress
2.6.0 Let Us Sum Up
2.7.0 Answer to ‘Check Your Progress’
2.8.0 Unit End Exercises
2.9.0 References
2.10.0 Webliography

2.5.1 Introduction
Diversity is a term which has got a momentum these days. People from different parts
of the world feel its very nature now-a-days than never before. In this context how is
education going to deal with it is a vital question. Let us read this unit to know more
about it.

2.5.2 Objectives
After going through the unit content, you would be able to:
Ø Know the perspective of diversity at a global level
Ø Comprehend how the scholastic process need to accommodate as per the demand
of diversity

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2.5.3 Global Perspective of Diversity
Diversity has been accepted globally as a celebrative force. With the emergence of
global consciousness and humanitarian concern, it has received new vigor and perception.
It is now considered as strength to the existing population. A multicultural perspective
to life and living is what we now call diversity,
Globally when we perceive diversity we find its proximity with multiculturalism. Because
culture is an umbrella term that includes language, ethnicity, religion and even
nationalism.
Indian culture is known as indology. It includes the all-comprehensive aspects of Indian
society including its Diaspora. That is why in the present unit our concentration is on
multiculturalism as a global feature that denotes diversity in its full perspective.
Multiculturalism is the process of interpreting things and concepts from broader and
comprehensive perspectives. It strives to integrate multi-ethnic and multi-dimensional
perspectives, both present and past, into the traditional curriculum that is primarily
mono-ethnic. It is an idea, a process, a reform movement, and a commitment. The
process is one in which a person becomes multi-cultural and develops competencies in
multiple ways of perceiving, evaluating, believing, and doing. It means that one has to
focus on developing the ability to negotiate cultural diversity. Developing a multicultural
perspective requires dialogue between people with different points of view,
acknowledgment of different experiences, and respect for diverse opinions. It creates
space for alternative voices, not just on the periphery but in the center.
Education is one of the basic areas that facilitate diversity. Researchers have found that
a multicultural atmosphere facilitates students’ best growth. Herrera, Murry, and Morales
Cabral (2007) provide a review of current researches and note the following findings:
l Ethnic identity is the strongest predictor of overall wellness for CLD [culturally
and linguistically diverse] students (Dixon, Rayle, & Myers, 2004),
l Higher levels of positive socio-emotional development are consistent with a
student’s positive identification with both his/her own and the majority group’s
culture (Shrake &Rhee, 2004).
l Low levels of ethnic identity, characterized by negative attitudes toward one’s
own group, can result in psychological distress, including feelings of marginality,
low self-esteem, and depression (Phinney, 1993).

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The findings above say that multiculturalism is the right perspective of education. The
need has been more fully felt because of transport and communication revolution which
greatly helped hybridization of population in different places of the world.
The following changes are noticed in teaching learning process with respect to diversity.
The popular term which has been used is multi-culturalism.

2.5.3.1 Teacher
Multiculturalism requires all the teachers to examine themselves to identify their biases
and ethno-centrisrn and developing behaviors to transcend them. This is especially
crucial for teachers if they want to be effective with students from diverse backgrounds.
A multicultural classroom, then, is one that features positive teacher expectations for
all students, a learning environment that supports positive interracial contact, and a
curriculum that is multicultural in content and varied in pedagogy,
For educators there are some critical questions that deserve serious reflection. Among
these are those raised by Valerie Ooka Pang. Pang says that teachers need to answer the
following questions for them.
l Who am I? Am I prejudiced?
l What do I think about culturally diverse communities?
l What does multicultural education look like in a classroom?
In answering these, the first question should be framed from the idea that each teacher
is a cultural being, one who has undoubtedly been socialized to see certain world views
as valid and valuable. Educators learning about their own cultural orientation should
recognize that others—their colleagues, students, parents—have also been socialized
in these ways. Diverse populations mean that these others might have been socialized
to see opposite views, values, and traditions as valuable and valid. It then becomes a
duty of all engaged in the teaching and learning process to understand the importance
of negotiation in creating a classroom environment comfortable for all.
Many of us as educators have been taught to think that education is neutral and apolitical.
As Bennett reminds us, education is neither neutral nor apolitical. Every educational
decision that is made at any level of education reflects someone’s socialized world
view and cultural orientation. If we are then to create classrooms and schools that are
truly multi-culturally sensitive, all elements and traditions that are a part of the schooling
process must be examined and restructured.

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Educators committed to multiculturalism should concentrate on the following:
l A curriculum that is anti-racist and anti-sexist
l The promotion of critical consciousness in students and a curricular focus on social
justice issues
l A multicultural curriculum that represents basic education for all students since
they will all need this knowledge for success in their adult lives
l Multiculturalism as an ongoing process that crosses all content areas and all other
aspects of schooling
Teachers embracing multiculturalism demonstrate that the democratic ideals on which
the country was founded apply to their school life and to their personal lives.

2.5.3.2 Curriculum
Considering the content, an educator’s primary concern should be that of enabling
students to develop an understanding of collective history—the places in time and
space where people’s lives intersect but also the lives of groups of people prior to and
after such intersections. Such an approach will allow students to fully understand the
roles and contributions of various groups of people to human civilization and culture.
Curriculum must include such experiences that allow students to explore events, concepts,
issues, and themes from multiple perspectives. These perspectives over time should be
broad so that students don’t end up inadvertently creating new stereotypes of different
groups. Primary sources in the voices of the people they represent should be used as
frequently as possible. Such an approach will help students to understand that one
issue or event can be viewed in different ways by different people.
A second important aspect of the curriculum is that it should be relevant to the lives of
students and should reflect their images as well as their natural experiences. The content,
therefore, should reflect everyday aspects of living and the daily experiences of students.
This will sometimes create a necessity for teachers to select illustrations, create analogies,
or relate allegories that will connect new information to the experiences of the students.
To do an effective job in this area, teachers will need to develop their knowledge about
the socio-cultural backgrounds of their students.
It is also important to give depth and meaning to information. This is especially true
when looking at historical figures. Students should be given an accurate well-rounded
view of people. For example when talking about Mahatma Gandhi he is portrayed as a
freedom fighter, a peacemaker, but he should also be portrayed as a champion of

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Sarvodaya, as a family man, and so on. It is also important that historical figures and
their accomplishments be shared with students in regard to their historical time period
and the social, economic, political, and geographical conditions in existence at that
place and time. The dress, eating habits, and other customs of a people can be appreciated
when viewed from these perspectives. The significance of an invention or discovery
can also be more appreciated by students in today’s technological society when viewed
in this way.
Finally, a multicultural curriculum focuses on the integration of content across disciplines.
Students are made understand that all things in life are interconnected, that they use
science and math, for example, in many activities in their daily lives. When we teach
content as separate entities, many students come to believe that one discipline has
nothing to do with any other.

2.5.3.3 Teaching Context

The classroom environment demonstrates students about the values of diversity. With
the increased hybridization of classroom all over the world the instructional design,
activities, interaction patterns, behaviors, and expectations need to be fair and equitable
for all. In a pluralistic society, educators need to be keenly aware that many of the
traditional school patterns accommodate some students and work consistently against
others. One example is interaction patterns. Some students’ learned communication
style is more indirect than direct; some students require thinking time before responding
to a question; some students answer questions indirectly and give extraneous information
in the process. Other elements that need examination include student mobility in the
classroom, classroom organization, promotion of relationships (between students and
between students and teachers), use of tone (hopefully a positive one), and use of
nonverbal communication, which frequently conveys more than verbal communication.
Overall, in the area of classroom climate, the classroom needs to be inviting, its
decorations should reflect images of all the students, and the focus should be on active
involvement of the students. We as educators, to be successful in this and other areas
with diverse student populations, must examine our assumptions of what schools and
classrooms.are supposed to be and do.

2.5.3.4 Instructional Strategies

A final area that requires changes when trying to design a multi-culturally sensitive
classroom is that of instructional methodology. It is known from classroom research
that especially people learn and process information in different ways. This knowledge

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creates a necessity for teacher usage of a variety of teaching strategies or techniques. In
multicultural classrooms, teachers hold high expectations for al! students, and the use
of a variety of pedagogy and learning activities reflects the teacher’s commitment to
providing equitable access for all students to the opportunity to achieve socially,
vocationally, and academically.
What, then, would be some of the pedagogy and learning activities in a classroom
structured for the academic success of alf students? Obviously there are many techniques
that could be used with students over a period of time or within one instructional block.
Additionally, different strategies make sense for different kinds of activities and
knowledge-building opportunities, and the appropriateness of a given strategy to the
content being taught is just as important as the use of a variety of methodologies. Some
of the instructional strategies and activities that an educator would want to master and
use effectively and appropriately would include the following: whole class and small
group discussion, cooperative learning strategies, direct instruction or lecture, peer
teaching or tutoring, student questioning, role play and simulations, interactive lectures,
critical thinking or problem solving activities, panel discussions, inquiry-based activities,
the use of rnanipulatives and learning centers, and activities geared to teaching students
study, memorization, listening, coping, and test-taking strategies and skills.
Equity pedagogy is an approach which is popular now-a-days. This is the process of
modifying the materials and learning strategies appropriate to both boys and girls and
to various ethnic groups. It includes culturally relevant teaching methods and issue-
centric education that best suits to diverse group of learners.
Obviously the use of these types of instructional strategies and activities requires the
arrangement of a suitabe physical environment and thoughtful instructional sequencing,
Related to instruction and other areas requiring reflection are the teacher’s view of
knowledge construction, the socialized communication patterns of both students and
teacher, teacher planning, and assessment. People construct knowledge for themselves,
usually based on the prior experience and prior knowledge they have relative’to a subject.
In this regard, educators need to come to view themselves as facilitators of learning
rather than as information givers. Students also come from cultural backgrounds that
sometimes have produced in them greater facilitation with some types of communication
strategies than with others. Thus, instruction needs to be reflective of an appreciation
for this range of communication patterns students are likely to have mastered.
Finally, assessment in a multi-culturally sensitive classroom must be reflective of the
same appreciation of diversity that curriculum, climate, and instructional strategies

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show. It is, therefore, important that assessments are done through a variety of
techniques—in both written and oral forms, but also through portfolio collections,
performance projects, observations, and so on.

2.5.4 Check Your Progress - 5

l. What aspect should a teacher keep in mind while dealing students in a multicultural
classroom?

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2. What criterion we must fix in order to make the curriculum truly multicultural?

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3. What is equity pedagogy?

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2.6.0 Let Us Sum Up

Diversity refers to all of the ways in which people are different. It encompasses
acceptance of and respect to differences which are genuine to humanity, The difference
can be in the dimensions of race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, socio-economic
status, age, physical abilities, religious beliefs, political beliefs, or other ideologies.
Diversity has four dimensions as far as humanity is concerned-organizational, external,
internal and personality dimension.
The common types of diversity are gender diversity, cultural diversity, linguistic diversity
and socio-economic diversity.

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Disability has three dimensions: body structure and function related (and impairment
thereof), activity related (and activity restrictions) and participation related (and
participation restrictions)..
Diversity in learning indicates difference in style of learning. Learning styles are most
often divided into three basic groups. There are the auditory learners, visual learners
and kinesthetic or tactile learners. In addition to these basic groups, some educational
theorists also recognize verbal, logical, social and solitary as additional styles.
Children display diversity in their play with respect to their gender, culture, race, ethnicity
and religion.
All around the world diversity has brought the concept of multi-culturalism. In education
we also find the same. The use of ethno-pedagogy and ethno studies and multiple
techniques to satisfy diverse leaning needs are some of the examples.

2.7.0 Answer to ‘Check Your Progress’

Check Your Progress-1

1. Diversity is the manifestation of plurality in the natural world and of human world
that brings variety in life style.
2. The four major levels of diversity in human being are organizational dimension,
external dimension, internal dimension and personality dimension.
3. Our ability to recognize, understand, and adapt to the differences is called Diversity
Consciousness.

Check Your Progress-2

1. The engagement of women in typical jobs like nursing and cooking is example of
gender stereo-typing.
2. While race relates to physical differences, ethnicity focuses on cultural
distinctiveness.
3. The gap between people with regard to their ability to access and use information
and communication technologies is called digital divide.
4. In a multi-lingual country people need to choose a particular language for
communication and administration. That is called lingua franca.

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5. Schizophrenia is a mental disorder characterized by disturbances of thinking, mood,
and behavior.
6. Mention two symptoms of dyscalculia.
i. Mental visualizations are hard for the child.
ii. Simple calculations in the mind are hard to render for a dyscalculia-affected
child.

Check Your Progress-3

1. Learning style is the typical way of conceptualizing a content matter as a learner
goes through the curriculum
2. Logical learners are those students who most enjoy problem solving, logic games
and reasoning.
3. The children of people living near water prepare play boat (paper boat) is an example
of influence of place over play. And astronaut toys in the United States were not
available until the late 1950s with the advent of space travel; this is an example of
influence of time over play.
4. For older students, teachers can use curriculum for teaching learning styles and
then offer personality tests specifically designed to help identify their students’
styles.
With middle school students, teachers should incorporate a variety of learning
styles in an effort to reach all students as testing this age group can be particularly
difficult due to shyness, reading readiness and social pressures.
For kindergarten and early elementary teachers, the use of an object lesson, such
as an unusual pet or particularly old item, can help identify the students’ primary
learning styles.
5. Religion, myth, ethnicity, race and gender are some of the factors that affect play
in childhood.

Check Your Progress-4

1. The teacher must address students of both genders with equal honor. There must
not be linguistic unfairity to any of these groups.
2. i. Even though two students may have the same disability, their needs for
accommodation may be quite different. Treat each student as an individual.

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 ii. Using many modes (written, verbal, video/slide, etc.) to present information
to cater to the demand of these students.
3. Curriculum that reflects the perspectives and experiences of a pluralistic society is
called inclusive curriculum.

Check Your Progress-5

1. Multiculturalism requires all the teachers to examine themselves to identify their
biases and ethno-centrism, and developing behaviors to transcend the said.
2. Curriculum must include such experiences that allow students to explore events,
concepts, issues, and themes from multiple perspectives.
3. Equity pedagogy is the process of modifying the materials and learning strategies
appropriate to both boys and girls and to various ethnic groups.

2.8.0 Unit End Exercises

1. Give the concept of neuro-diversity.
2. What does diversity education intend?
3. How has globalization affected the diversity culture?
4. What do you understand by socio-economic diversity?
5. What kind of diversity do we find in disability?
6. Briefly describe how as a teacher you can address diverse learners?
7. What is muiti-culturalism?

2.9.0 References
Armstrong-Stassen, M. (2008). Organizational practices and the post retirement
employment experiences of older workers. Human Resource Management Journal,
18(1), 36-53.
Aycan, Z. (2008). Cross-cultural approaches to work-family conflict. In K. Korabik,
D. S.
Lero, & D. L. Whitehead (Eds.), Handbook of work-family integration: Research, theory
and best practices (pp. 353-370). Boston, MA: Academic Press, Elsevier.

113
Blackwell, J. E. “Faculty Issues Affecting Minorities in Education.” In R. C. Richardson
and A.
G. de los Santos (Eds.), From Access to Achievement: Strategies for Urban Institutions.
Ternpe: National Center for Postsecondary Governance and Finance, Arizona State
University, 1987.
Cliff, J. M. (1990). Navajo games. American Indian Culture and Research Journal, 14,
1-81.
Cones, J. H., Janha, D., Noonan, J. F. “Exploring Racial Assumptions With Faculty.”
In J. H.
Cones, J. F. Noonan, and D. Janha (Eds.), Teaching Minority Students. New Directions
for Teaching and Learning, no. 16. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1983.
Davis, B G (1999). Diversity and Complexity in the Classroom: Considerations of
Race, Ethnicity and Gender in Tools of Teaching, University of Califernia, Berkley.
Fagot, B., & Leinbach, M. (1989). The young child’s gender schema -internal
organization.
Child Development, 60(3), 663-672.
Farnandale et al.(2015). A global perspective on diversity and inclusion in work
organizations, The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 2015
Vol. 26, No. 6, 677-687, http://dx.doi.ora/10.1080/09585192.2014.991511
Fortes, M. (1976). Social and psychological aspects of education in Taleland. In Play;
Its role in development and evolution, J. S. Bruner, A. Jolly, & K. Sylva (Eds.), pp.
474-483. New York: Basic Books.
Frederickson, N, and Cline, T. (2002). Special educational needs inclusion and diversity:
a textbook, Philadelphia: Open University Press.
Fraser, A. (1966). History of toys. Delacorte Press.
Green, M.F. (ed.). Minorities on Campus: A Handbook for Enriching Diversity.
Washington,
D. C.: American Council on Education, 1989.
Hall, R. M., and Sandler, B. R. The Classroom Climate: A Chilly One for Women?
Washington, D. C.: Association of American Colleges, 1982.

114
Herrera, S. G., Murry, K. G., & Morales Cabral, R. (2007). Assessment accommodations
for classroom teachers of culturally and linguistically diverse students,
Boston: Pearson Education.
Honig, A. S. (1983). Sex role socialization in early childhood. Young Children, 38, 57-
70.
House, R. J., Ranges, P. J., Javidan, M., Dorfman, P. W., & Gupta, V. (2004). Culture,
leadership, and organizations. The GLOBE study of 62 societies. Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage.
Jenkins, M. L., Gappa, J. M., and Pearce, J. Removing Bias: Guidelines for Student-
Faculty Communication. Annandale, Virg.: Speech Communication Association,
1983.
Klasen, S. (2006). Measuring gender inequality and its impact on human development:
The debate about the GDI and GEM, HD insights (Issue 2). New York, NY: UNDP.
Pemberton, G. On Teaching Minority Students: Problems and Strategies. Brunswick,
Maine: Bowdoin College, 1988.

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27/07/15

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Unit - 4 ❐ Education Commissions and Policy
Structure
4.1 Constitutional provisions on education that reflect National
ideals : Equality, liberty, seeularism, and social justice.
4.2 National Commission and Policies : Education Commission
(1964), NPE and POA (1986,1992), National policy for persons
with Disabilities (2006).
4.3 National acts : RCI act, 1992, PWD act, 1995, NT act, 1999,
RTE act (2009&2012).
4.4 Programmes and Schemes : IEDC (1974, 1983), SSA (2000,
2011), RMSA (2009), IEDSS (2009).
4.5 International Conventions and Policies : Salamanca
Declaration and Framework (1994), UNCRPD (2006), MDG
(2015), INCHEON strategies.

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4.1. Constitutional provisions on education that reflect
National Ideals : Equality, liberty, secularism, and
social justice
Structure
4.1.1 Introduction
4.1.2 Objectives of the sub unit
4.1.3 Constitutional provisions on education
4.1.3.1 Article 45
4.1.3.2 Article 15
4.1.3.3 Article 28
4.1.4 Check your progress (objectives type questions)

4.1.1 Introduction
India attained independence from the British rule in 1947. The preamble of the
constitution of India declares that the purpose of the democratic sovereign republic
nation like India is to secure equality, liberty, secularism and social justice to all its
citizens. The role of education is thus to prepare the individual suited for these democratic
values. Present sub unit will enable the students to recognise the constitutional provision
on education that reflects theses democratic values.

4.1.2 Objectives of the sub unit

After studying this sub unit, students will be able to
i) Identify the constitutional provision on education.
ii) Analyse the democratic goals like equality, liberty, secularism and social justice
to all its citizens as emphasized in these constitutional provision on education.
iii) Understands the role of education in preparing democratic citizens.

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4.1.3 Constitutional provisions on education
The presumable declares that the purpose of the Nation which is a democratic sovereign
republic is to secure justice, liberty, equality and fraternity to all its citizens. The people
of India till the promulgation of the constitution had are freedom and dignity in decide
for themselves what they wanted to do. The rule of education to prepare the individuals
in the society for self direction is of paramount importance. The new nation wanted
education to serve the constitution, in other words the education system is expected to
become subordinate to the goals of the Indian constitution and not to any other agency.
The three major programmes that the nation took up to meet the national objectives
were
a) Democracy as a way of life.
b) Socialistic path to secure the life of the citizens : and
c) Industrialization based upon modern science and technology.
Out of the above, the first two programmes are built into the constitution and the
third emerged out of the deliberations of the political and administrative machinery
that derived authority from the constitution.

4.1.3.1 Article 45
The most important provision is in the from of a “directive principle” to the state policy.
According to Article 45 “the state shall endeavour to provide, within a period of ten
years from the commencement of this Constitution, for free and compulsory education
for all children until they complete the age of 14 years”.
Another significant provision which is given under the directive principal of the state
policy -states that “ the state shall promote with utmost care the educational and economic
interest of the weaker sections of the people, and in particular of the scheduled castes
and scheduled tribes and shall protect them for social injustice and all formal
explanation.”

4.1.3.2 Article 15
Article 15 while prohibits all format of discrimination on the ground of
eligion,race,caste,sex, place of birth provides a clause which empowers the state in
placing any special provision for the advancement of any socially and educationally

121
backward class of citizens or for the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes.
Article 17 abolishes untouchability and forbids its practice in any form. Article 14
guarantees equality law to all citizens and article 16 guarantees equality of opportunity
in respect of public employment. Article 24 prohibits employment of children under
the age of 14 in factories, mines or other hazardous employment.

4.1.3.3 Article 28
Article 28 separates religion from education in the schools maintained by the state
funds. But at the same time in guaranties freedom of religion. Article 29 guarantees
that “ any section of the citizens residing in the territory of India or any part there of
and having a distinct language,scriptor culture of its own,shall have the right to conserve
the same”and further states that “ no citizen shall be denied admission into any
educational institution maintained by the State or receiving aid out of the State funds,on
grounds of eligion,race,caste,languageor any of them.”
The Constitution gave education a very prominent role in the development of modern
India.Firstly,it expected that the education systems would build the valuesembeddedin
the Constitution into the Curriculum.Secondly,the Constitution called upon the State
to make special efforts to promote educational interests of the weaker sections of
educationallyand socially backward classes.As pointed out earlier,the education system
we inheritedfrom the British rule had no sympathy for the backward sections and the
rural population.The education of woman was neglected both by the system and the
society at large. Hence the education system being the means to develop these sections.
Thirdly, the state was called upon to provide resources for education to make primary
education compulsory. In fact the entire functional responsibility of providing primary
education was on the State as the private enterprise in this sector was negligible. Even
the limited private initiative was confirmed to the state capital and big cities.
In other words there was a reciprocal expectation between the Constitution system and
the education system. The education system being a subordinate system was given a
greater responsibility and in turn the constitution ensured state resources by legitimizing
the allocations for educations . Once the constitution was adopted by the representatives
of the people, it was the duty of the state and educational system to respond of the calls
of the constitution.

122
4.1.4 Check your progress (objectives type questions)
Check your progress
Note: i) write your answer in the space given below .
ii) compare your answer with those given at the end of the block
1. What were the three major programmes which the nation underlook to meet the
national objectives?
................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
2. Which article of the Indian constitution
i) Aims to provide free and compulsory education ?
................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
ii) prohibits any form of discrimination
................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................

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4.2 National commission and policies : Education commission
(1964), NPE and POA (1986, 1992), National policy for
persons with Disabilities (2006)

Structure
4.2.1 Introduction
4.2.2 Objectives
4.2.3.1 Recommendation dealing with educational structure
4.2.3.2 The Common School System
4.2.3.3 Recommendation regarding the school curriculum
4.2.3.4 Work experience
4.2.3.5 Vocationalization of education
4.2.4 National Education Policy
4.2.4.1 N.P.E 1968 on structure of education
4.2.4.2 N.P.E 1968 on quality issue
4.2.4.3 N.P.E on equity issue
4.2.5 National education policy 1986
4.2.5.1 N.P.E 1986 on universalisation of elementary education
4.2.5.2 N.P.E 1986 on secondary education
4.2.5.3 N.P.E 1986 on teacher education
4.2.6 Programme of action, P.O.A 1986.1992
4.2.6.1 P.O.A 1986
4.2.6.2 P.O.A 1992
4.2.7 National Policy for Person with Disabilities (2006)
4.2.7.1 Focus of the policy
4.2.8 Check your progress (Objective type Questions)

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4.2.1 Introduction
After independence 1st (1950-55), 2nd (1956-60), and 3rd (1961-66) five year plans
failed to cope up with emerging social and economic needs of independent India in the
field of education as a result of political and social forces which were shaping the
Indian economy. In this light the next plans concentrated on education in a wider
spectrum. The setting up of The Education Commission (1964-66), National Education
Policy (1968 and 1986) and Plan of Action (1992) also indicates this fact. In this section
we shall deal with this commission with a special mentioning of National Policy for
Person with Disabilities (2006).

4.2.2 Objectives
After going through this sub unit, the student teacher will be able to:
● Appraise the implications of the recommendations of the Education Commission
(1964-1966)
● Relate the National Education Policy,1968 to the recommendations of the Education
Commission
● Understands the recommendation of The Education Commission (1964-66).
● Understands the recommendation of National Education Policy (1968 and 1986)
and Plan of Action (1992).
● Understands the recommendation of National Policy for Person with Disabilities
(2006).

4.2.3 The Education Commission (1964-66)

The education commission is considered as one of the significant landmarks in the
history of Indian education because of two reasons. Firstly it adopted a comprehensive
approach in reconstruct education and secondly it developed a blue print for a National
system of education. The genesis of this commission could be traced to the thirty five
year plan which had articulated in clear terms the need for reviewing the prevailing
education system in the country in the context of the failure to fulfil the constitutional
obligation of universalization of elementary education on the one hand and the persistence
of educational disparities on the other. Following this, the Government of India appointed
the education commission in July 1964 by a resolution in advise the Government on
the national pattern of educations and on the general principles and policies for the
development of education at all stages and in all aspects. This is the sixth commission
appointed by the Government of India. However, this is the first ever commission which

125
made a comprehensive review of the Indian education system which resulted in a well
defined national policy on education in 1968.
The commission was hended by professor D.S. Kothari, an eminent educationist and
the members were experts in education drawn from both national and international
scene.
It was believed that this commission, besides helping in the reconstruction of the
Indian education system, would also provide some basic thinking and an analytical
framework for bringing about an educational revolution in the country. The commission
in its exercise addressed three major problems relating to : (i) internal transformation
of the education system so as to relate to the life, needs and aspirations of the nation;
(ii) qualitative improvement of education in order to achieve adequate standards and
(iii) expansion of educational facilities based on manpower needs with an emphasis on
equalisation of educational opportunity.
The commission firmly believed that education is a powerful instrument to bring about
the desired changes in the Indian society more so when the country is challenged with
problems of population explosion, poverty, poor economic growth, unemployment,
social stratification and upheavals, political turmoil besides the mass awakening for
various rights and demands including education. Hence there was a felt need to create
a new social order which would pave the way for achieving equality and social justice.
As there problems are inter-related the commission felt that simultaneous attack on all
of fronts of education should be made through (i) the development of physical resources
and (ii) the development of human resources. The commission recognised that it is the
better which is more crucial for development and hence clearly articulated the need for
a properly organised programme of education which would develop the required
knowledge, skills and attitudes.
The commission set up twelve task forces and seven working group. One of the task
groups dealt exclusively with issues retaining to school education and another dealt
with the issues relating to teacher training and status. The working groups dealt the
education of woman, backward communities and other aspects of the school like
buildings, school community relations and school curriculum. The remaining task forces
deliberated on other levels of education and financing of education which had both
direct and indirect bearing on school education.
It is to the credit of the commission that it rightly recognised the role of education in
the national reconstruction in order to establish a direct link between education, national
development and prosperity, the commission believed that a national system of education.
Which is organised both in terms of quantity and quality is very necessary. The main
proposition of the commission was that the prevalent system of education was meant

126
to serve the needs of imperial administration, and if it had to serve the purpose of
modernising democratic and socialistic society,it required radical changes in objectives,
content, teaching methods, programmes the selection and professional preparation of
teachers and organisation.
After a detailed review of the prevailing education system in the country, the commission
came out with several recommendations some of which attracted wide attention while
others where opposed and rejected read J.P. Naik’s book, education commission and
after, which provides a detailed account of this let us new discuss the role of education
identified by the commission amidst the changes in Indian context in particular and
global context in general
and study some of the salient recommendations of the commission regarding school
education to examine their implications for structural reorganisation, qualitative
improvements and transformation of the education system.

4.2.3.1 Recommendation dealing with educational structure

The commission examined the diverse structure or the pattern of the education as obtained
in different parts of the country in terms of courses, stages and duration the following
table gives an idea about the prevailed in the country during 1965-66

Table 11.1: showing stages and duration of education in different states (1965-66)
State lower pry higher pry secondary pre- univ. Higher sec

Andhra prodesh 5 3 3 1 4

Assum, Nagaland 4 1 5
Bihar, Gujrat, 7* 4 1 - -

And Maharastra
J&k, Punjab, 5 3 2 1 3

Rajasthan,WB
Kerala 4 3 3 2 -

MP 5 3

Madras 5 3 3 1 -
Mysore 4 3 3 1 -

Orissa 5 2 4 1 -

UP 5 3 2 - 2**
* Integrated primary schools ** intermediate colleges
Sourees : Reort of the Education Commission 1964-66

127
It is clear from this table that duration and stages of education differed from since to
state hence the commission wanted to evolve a uniform pattern of education across the
country, although the commission realised that structural changes are difficult to bring
about in view of the high costs and disturbances in terms of teachers and other institutional
facilities, yet it gave serious thought to this problem because of the following reasons.
i) Voluminous representations were received on this issue.
ii) Even the earlier commission and committees had already dealt with this problem
in greater dealt .
iii) There was a strong demand for ending the confusion arising out of the diverse
pattern that prevailed.
iv) There was a widespread belief that a national pattern of schools and colleges was
an essential aspect of the nation system of education.
The above considerations were further sustamiated with a view to introducing certain
changes based on indigenous thinking in the prevailing pattern of education which was
imported.
The commission approached this problem with certain assumptions. It believed that the
standards in any given system of education would essentially depend upon four elements:
(i) The structure of the division of the educational pyramid into different levels or
stages and their inter-relationships.
(ii) The duration or the total period covered by the different stages.
(iii) The extent and quality of essential inputs such as teachers, curricula, methods of
teaching and evaluation, and other infrastructures.
(iv) The utilisation of available facilities.
The commission also recognised the interplay of these elements in contributing of
maintenance of standards. At the same time it realised the most significant role played
by standards. At the same time it realised the most significant role played by the fourth
elements viz., utilisation of available facilities in enhancing standards.
You may recall that the university education commission (1948-49) had categorically
recommended 10+2+3 pattern and after that the secondary education commission (1952)
had favoured 11+3 higher secondary pattern. The education commission, however
favoured 10+2+3 pattern as the higher secondary pattern proposed by the secondary
commission had run into rough weather in terms of its possible repercussions on
unnecessary expansion, increased expenditure and non-availability of teaching facilities.
128
To begin with, the main issue before the commission was to decide whether the demand
for uniform pattern was to be supported or not. The commission itself had divided
opinion on this issue. There was a general consensus that a uniform pattern was desirable
for improvements in the standards. Thus, with considerable flexibility to be permitted
within ten-year school, the commission recommended 10+2+3 pattern of education.
The salient features of this are.
• One to three years of pre-school education.
• A ten year period of general education consisting of 7 to 8 years of primary stage (a
lower primary stage of 4 or 5 years and a higher primary stage of 3 or 2 years) and
lower secondary stage of general education of 3 or 2 years or 1 to 3 years vocational
education.
• Higher secondary stage of 2 years of general education (or 1 to 3 years of vocational
education).
• Higher education stage of 3 years or more for the first degree and followed by
courses of varying duration for the second or research degrees.
As a matter of fact this is one of the important recommendations of the commission
which airned at bringing about transformation in the education system. 10+2+3 implies
that in a national system of education there are only three public examinations at the
end of ten-year schooling, +2 stages and three year degree. It also implies that these
examinations conducted by different regional boards and universities are equivalent
and will have comparable standards for purpose of recruitment and admission to higher
education.
This recommendation attracted wide attention and became controversial as education
was under state control during this period and many states were not willing to adopt this
pattern as it had both organisational and financial implications. However, the 42nd
amendment of the constitution in 1976 shifted education to concurrent list. This enabled
the central government to negotiate for consensus on the uniform pattern. Eventually
the person was accepted by all the states in 1986.

4.2.3.2 The Common School System

One of the crucial steps of the education commission in connection with creating socially
cohesive and egalitarian society is common school system. The major implication of
this recommendation is to abolish exclusive elitist schools. In the context the commission
used two expressions- the common school system of public education and the

129
neighbourhood school. This was not supported by many. Ultimately the national policy
on education, 1968 in order to avoid the controversies on this issue issued a statement
which read “ to promote social cohesion and national integration, the common school
concept as recommended by the education, Commission should be adopted” and that
“efforts should be made to improve the standards of education in general schools”
{sub-para 4(b) of para 4 of the national policy on education 1968}. But there is no
follow up of implementing this policy recommendation since then, however this has
generated serious debate on the subject among the politicians, academics and the public
and it has now assumed political overtones.

4.2.3.3 Recommendation regarding the school curriculum

Regarding the purpose of school education, the commission recommended that the
school should prepare citizens of the democratic society. When we discussed the aims
of education in the colonial at well as in ancient period and it was stated that the formal
education was restricted to ruling classes in the ancient period and it was meant for
preparing the manpower for colonial administration during the British rule. The education
commission emphasised the linkage between the national aspirations as envisaged in
the constitution and the role of education system in fulfilling the same.
The school curriculum broadly entails the total experiences provided in the students in
the light of the objectives delineated by the education system to realise the national goal
and aspiration. Hence , we need to examine the stand taken by the commission in terms
of the objectives of school education, the methods of instruction and the mechanism of
assessing the extent to which the set objectives have been achieved. You should note
that already there were notes of discordance regarding the prevailing school curriculum
as both inadequate and outmoded in terms of equipping the students with required
skills and knowledge. In this context, the commission noted that the prevailing school
curriculum placed heavy importance on bookish knowledge and role learning as it was
dominated by examination without giving due emphasis for the development of the
useful skills which are necessary for successful living to begin with, the commission
gave a fresh thinking to organising the curriculum of the first ten years of general
education into a continuous programme of studies in terms of the knowledge skills and
abilities that are to be adhered in different levels of school education in the light of the
overall objectives of education, in this context the commission recommended that the
child in lower primary education should acquire certain basic skills like reading, writing
and arithmatic through mother tongue. In addition, the child should also acquire habits
of healthy fiving and should be encouraged to adjust to its surroundings through an

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elementary study of the physical and social environment. While at the upper primary
level, it was presumed that the curriculum would build upon the early experiences to
lead the child to acquire the introductory knowledge of mathematics, activity-based
learning of physical, natural sciences, history, geography and civics. The foundation of
healthy living would lead to physical education. At this stage child would be ready for
acquiring a second language beside the mother tongue. At the secondary level the
commission envisaged meeting the adolescent needs with an emphasis on total keeping
the above broad objectives in view the commission recommended a detailed area of
curricular study for each sub-stage of schooling.
Regarding the learning of the languages the commission recommended a modified three
language formula and proposed one language at the lower primary stage two languages
at the highest primary stage and three languages at the secondary stages. The language
to be learnt in the lower primary should be either the mother tongue or the regional
language. At the higher primary stage it should be in addition to mother tongue or
regional language, official or the associate official languages of the union which he had
not elected at the higher primary stage, in non Hindi areas he should study English and
Hindi and in Hindi speaking areas he should study Hindi English and a modern Indian
language.
The debate on the language learning got swamped by the issues of medium of instruction
in political forms. Hence, the states are continued regarding the learning of the language
which more or less coincided with the recommendations.

4.2.3.4 Work experience

in order to relate education to productivity, the commission recommended that work
experience should be introduced as in integral part of education at all stages. The
commission on redefined basic education proposed by Gandhiji as work experience
and suggested programmes at different school stage to suit the age and maturity of
pupils. Since in practice the basic education had largely become frozen amund certain
crafts, the commission related the need to reorient it to the need s of a society which
was to be transformed with the help of science and technology. In other words work
experience must be forward looking in keep with the character of the new social order.
According to the commission work experience would begin right from the lower stage
of primary education in the from of simple handwork, followed by learning of a craft at
the senior primary stage and it would take the form of a workshop training at the
secondary stage. At the higher secondary stage where students are matured, work
experience should be made available in the from of school workshops, and also on
farms and in commercial and industrial establishments.

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The commission also recognised the problems that might come in the way of
implementing this programme. Hence it emphasised the need for training of teachers,
provision of necessary facilities including supply of equipments and progressive
extension of the programmes to all schools.
The recommendation dealing with work experience also ran into controversy because
supporters of basic education did not agree with its emphasis on the use of science and
technology and modern methods of production and wanted continuing of teaching of
craft. However, work experience was introduced in schools which were not following
basic education curriculum in order to avoid in this dichotomy, the Ishwarbhai patel
committee combine the concept, “ socially useful productive work”, Even then, that all
schools in the country accepted this reform in fact a study conducted by the NCERT in
1973 revealed that only 5.27%, 9.38%, 26.61% of the primary, middle and secondary
schools respectively had introduced work experience while the craft continued to be
introduced in 25.10%, 34.88%, 32.02% of the primary, middle and secondary schools
respectively. Thus in all only 7.08% of all schools had work experience while 30.56%
of the schools had craft. The activities done under craft and work experience were
similar, in us the programme have not spread to other areas since then, the main
difficulties being lack of government approval, resources, equipment and trained teachers.

4.2.3.5 Vocationalization of education

The commission emphasised the need to vocationalise higher secondary education and
to expand the vocational courses so as to cover about fifty percent of the student
enrolment at this stage. The commission envistged organising a large variety of terminal
courses of varying duration. The courses proposed included teacher training for pre-
primary and primary education, industrial training institutions, trades, middle levels
personnel in agriculture and industry, para- medical/ health personnel, secretariat and
home science. The recommendations of the commission with regard to vocationlisation
at higher secondary stages are as follows:
1. The higher secondary stage should be extended to cover a period of two years and
should be located exclusively in the schools.
2. Steps should be taker to implement this reform through a phased programme spread
over the next 20 years.
3. As a first step in this direction, the pre-university course, irrespective of its duration,
should be transferred from the colleges to the schools on a high priority basis with
in the next ten years.

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4. Simultaneously, attempts should be made in the fourth five year plan for improving
the utilization of the existing period to the best exient possible, for the preparation
of teachers for the two-year course by expanding and improving the post graduate
stage, and for the working out if pilot projects with two year higher secondary
course in select secondary schools.
In fact the commission also recommended part time non-formal education of general or
vocational type even for such of those boys and girls who drop-out at the end of the
elementary stage.
The commission made a specific recommendation to institute special grants to state
Governments in the centrally- sponsored sectors to develop and sustain vocational
programmes.
The commission’s recommendation with regard to vocationalization at higher secondary
stage has made limited progress. There were divergent views about vocationalization
such as;
The proposals are considered unrealistic and impractieable as there is very little scope
for additional employment for certificate and diploma holders.
As of now there is very little understanding and data base for the manpower requirements
for the developing economy.
There is an underestimation of the problems relating to administrative, personnel, and
financial matters in expanding vocationalization.
The scheme of central grants its recommended by the commission could not be initiated
on an adequate scale.
There seemed to be no linking up of vocationlization with the national pattern of 10+2+3.
As these programmes were provided along with academic stream in higher secondary
schools instead of specialized institutions as visualised by the commission, very few
students opted for these courses. Consequently most of the higher secondary schools
ran only general courses.

4.2.4 National Education Policy

The recommendations of the education commission evoked a widespread debate in the
Parliament. A Parliamentary committee went through the report in detail and endorsed
some of the important recommendations such as the need for a national system of
education, regional language as medium of instruction, improvement of the status of

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teachers and new ten year school system etc, etc. The report was discussed in the Central
Advisory Board of education and in the vice-chancellors conference. This was followed
by the discussion of the report in both the houses of parliament. All these deliberations
lead to the drafting of a National policy which was approved by the cabinet in 1968.
At this point of the history of constitutional rule, education was a subject coming under
the jurisdiction of the State Government. The role of the centre was merely that of a
facilitator or a promoter. Hence the educational policy of 1968 was only a board
framework for the guidance of the state governments in reforming their education
systems.

4.2.4.1 N.P.E 1968 on structure of education

Section 4 para 17 of the National policy on education 1968 dealing with the restructuring
of education reads as follows.
“It will be advantageous to have a broadly uniform educational structure in all parts of
the country. The ultimate objective should be to adopt the 10+2+3 pattern, the higher
secondary stage of two years being located in schools, colleges or both according to
local conditions.”
You may notice that the above policy statement is only recommendatory. This is due to
the fact that the school education then was not under the union or concurrent list.
Therefore it can only be stated in that vein. It also provides flexibility for the states to
deal with higher secondary according to their own needs. The restructuring involves
greater outlay of funds to increase teachers, buildings to the existing structure apart
from the finances required to improve the quality of education which is part of
restructuring. Keeping this in mind the policy declared that:
“The reconstructions of educations on the lines indicated above will need additional
outlay. The aim should be to gradually increase the investments in education so as to
reach level of expenditure of 6 percent of the national income as early as possible”,
(section 5).
The Government of India recognises that the reconstruction of education is no easy
task, not only are the resources scarce but the problems are exceedingly complex.
Considering the key role which education , science and research play in developing the
material and human resources of the country, the Government of India will, in addition
to undertaking programmes in the central sector, assist the State Governments for the
development of programmes of national importance, where co-ordinated action on the
part of the states and the centre is called for, (section 6).

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4.2.4.2 N.P.E 1968 on quality issue
Even through the education commission dealt elaborately on the issues of quality of
education the national policy on education confined itself to equating quality of education
with quality of teachers accordingly it declared:
“Of all the factors which determine the quality of education and its contribution to
national development, the teacher is undoubtedly the most important. It is on his personal
qualities and character, his educational qualification and professional competence that
the success of all educational endeavour must ultimately depend. Teachers must,
therefore, be accorded an honoured place in society. Their emoluments and other service
conditions should be adequate and satisfactory having regard to their qualifications and
responsibilities,”(section 4 para 2a).
“The academic freedom of teachers to pursue and publish independent studies and
researches and to speak and write about significant national and international issues
should be protected” (section 4 para 2b).

4.2.4.3 N.P.E on equity issue

The national policy took note of the issues related to equalization of educational
opportunity. The following paragraphs of the policy document deals with this issue:
Strenous efforts should be made to equalize educational opportunity.
a) Regional imbalances in the provision of educational facilities should be corrected
and good educational facilities should be provided in merit and other backward
areas.
b) To promote social cohesion and national integration the common school system
as recommended by the education commission should be adopted. Efforts should
be made to improve the standards of education in general schools. All special
schools like public schools should be required to admit students on the basis of
merit and also to provide prescribed proportion of the tree-studentships to prevent
segregation of social classes. This will not however, affect the rights of minorities
under article 30 of the constitution.
c) the education of girls should require emphasis, not only on the grounds of social
justice but also because it accelerates social transformation.
d) More intensive efforts are needed to develop education among the backward classes
and especially among tribal people.

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e) Educational facilities for the physically and mentality handicapped children should
be expanded and attempts be made to develop integrated programmes enabling
handicapped children to study in regular schools.

4.2.5 National education policy 1986

In 80’s India was facing severe economic crisis. The need was felt to gear the educational
policy towards the development of economy. This resulted in the National Education
Policy 1986.
The NPE 1986 contended that the role of education is essentially to transform a static
society into a vibrant one with commitment and development and change. The policy
recognised the need for creating not only access to education for all sections but also
getting then involved in the process of continuing education so as to promote a learning
society. Further, the policy also had special emphasis on the rule of education in
adequately equipping the new generation steeping into 21st century with required skills
and competencies.
Following the 42ed amendment of the Indian constitution with the authority to legislate
on education concurrently with the states so far as organisation are structure of education
is concerned, the NPE operationally defined concurrence as a meaningful partnership
between the centre and states and placed clear responsibility on the union government
regarding the national and integrative character of education, quality and standards,
manpower planning, research and advanced study, culture, human resources development
and the international aspects of education.
The NPE 1986 gave an unqualified priority for universalisation of elementary education
and indicated a vital shift from more provision of schooling facilities to improvement
of facilities, universal enrolment and participation and achievement of satisfactory levels
of learning. The policy advocated dual track approach with simultaneous attention or
adult literacy and primary education. While shifting it focus from enrolments as well as
retention and achievement, it also laid down conditionality for success.
The policy conceive universalisation of elementary education as contextual.
Contextuality entails local area planning with dis-aggregated target setting and
decentralised participation, planning and management. The focus shifts from
educationally backward states to educationally backward districts.
NPE 1986 envisaged free and compulsory education of satisfactory quality for all children
up to 14 years of age before the commencement of the 21st century. It also addressed the

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more difficult aspect of access. Hence it advocates large scale and systematic programme
of non-formal education as an integral component of the strategy to achieve
universalisation of elementary education. The policy, however, stresses the need for
having a comparable quality of non-formal education and providing enough flexibility
to learners to proceed at their own—
The ‘policy’ emphasises integration of gender perspective in all aspects of planning.
Hence there is a pronounced shift from mere equalisation of opportunity to education
for women’s equality. The policy further enjoins that the national educational system
should play a positive interventionist role in the empowerment of women, foster the
development of new values through redesigned curriculum, textbooks, training and
orientation of teachers, decision makers and administrators.
The policy shifts its emphasis from sectoral to a multi-sectoral approach with convergence
of all development inputs so as to improve the delivery of services and enhance the
efficiency of resource utilization.
The national policy on education (NPE 1986) perceives education as an essential
requirement for all as it is fundamental o the all-round developmefont of society, both
material and spiritual. The role of education is to sensitize the minds for furthering the
goals of socialism, secularism and democracy. Another important role of education is
to promote and sustain the economic development of the society through fostering
research and development to ensure self-reliance in technology and develop the required
manpower harress it. In a nutshell education is a a unique investment in the present and
the future.
There are some commonaliries between the NPE 1968 and NPE 1986. They refer to the
reiteration of the commitment towards a common school system and the common
educational structure of 10+2+3. The NPE 1986 has gone a step further while re-
emphasizing the place of common core curriculum in the national system of education
by specifying the underlying values. They are India’s common cultural heritage,
egalitarianism, democracy and secularism, equality of sexes, protection of the
environment, removal of social barriers, small family norm and inculcation of the
scientific temper.
The NPE 86 is much more specific in defining the role of education in promotiag equality.
While the earlier policies talked about access, the present policy goes further by
stipulating the provision of the conditions of success to ensure equality of educational
opportunity and also fostering the value of equality for all.

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Another important milestone of the NPE 1986 in its committment to laying down
minimum levels of learning at each stage of education aimed to ensuring the quality of
education and comparability across the nation.
The NPE 1986 declares that the entry into the higher education and technical education
would be based on the requisite merit regardless of the origin of the aspirant.
Another important indication for the promotion of opportunity and creating learning
society is found in the thrust given to open and distance learning in the policy.

4.2.5.1 N.P.E 1986 on universalisation of elementary education

The N.P.E 1986 rest an emphasis on attainment of essential level of learning in achieving
universalisation in elementary education.
The policy proposed a three-pronged strategy to realise the task of universalization of
primary education.
• Firstly, to provide a motivating school environment through child-centered and
activity based learning process at the primary stage. In this context, the policy
emphasized the need for providing supplementary remedial instruction to first
generation learners and allowing them to progress at their own pace. The policy
reiterated its commitment to retain the non-detention policy as recommended by
the earlier commission. The policy also took note of adjusting school timings and
vacations according to the convenience of the children.
• Secondly, to improve the inputs for teaching-learning process by providing essential
facilities in primary schools in terms of classrooms, teachers and other teaching-
learning equipments. The above facilities are to be delivered to all the primary
schools in a phased manner under the scheme called operation Black Board (OBB
scheme).
• Thirdly, by designing alternative stream of systematic non-formal programme to
ensure the coverage of children who dropout from the habitation without schools,
working children and girls who can not attend regular schools to ensure
universalization. In order to ensure the quality of such non-formal education, efforts
will be made to use modern technological aids and the services of talented local
young men and women from local community with training.

4.2.5.2 N.P.E 1986 on secondary education

Regarding secondary education, the policy made a commitment to widen access by

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covering the areas unserved by schools.
With respect to the quality, the policy proposed to formulate curriculum for inculcating
values of healthy work ethos, humane and composite culture.
For the first time in independent India a nationwide programme of special schools
under the name of pace setting schools have been proposed. Such schools are meant for
talented children largely rural, selected with due care bestowed for equity and social
justice consideration. These institutions are residential in nature and education is provided
free of charge. Such schools have already come into existence as NAVODAY SCHOOLS
under the subsequent five year plans all over the country.
The policy proposed that vocational courses cover ten percent of higher secondary
students by 1990 to increase to 25 percent by 1995. The content and nature of
vacationlization proposed differ drastically from the past stereotypes and make the
courses responsive to emergent technological and economic developments. In addition
to the traditional courses of preparing the skilled manpower for primary and secondary
sectors of production, the policy emphasises the courses to train people for tertiary
service sectors like health, marketing and other social services.
Apart from the special courses at the +2 stage, the policy envisages appropriate flexible
non-formal vocational courses for the youth who leave the formal school at the primary
stage, school dropouts and neo-litcrates with special performance to the needs of women.
Provision of tertiary level vocational courses is made for those who complete their
higher secondary education through academic stream and who require such courses.

4.2.5.3 N.P.E 1986 on teacher education

The NPE 1986 was very clear in its proposals for improving the quality of teacher at the
school level. It recognised the need for continuous teacher education process which can
be ensured only through in-service programmes. In order to ensure this, the policy
proposed district institutes of education and training (DIETs) in each of the districts all
over the country for the training of teachers in formal primary schools and personnel
working in non-formal and adult education. A similar institution to provide for the
continuous in-service training for secondary school teacher is proposed through
upgrading selected secondary teacher training colleges. These centres would complement
the State Council of Educational research and training.

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4.2.6 Programme of action, P.O.A 1986.1992
4.2.6.1 P.O.A 1986
For the first time an educational policy was immediately followed by a programme of
action to implement the policy declarations. Thus the POA of 1986 had formulated the
following action
1. In order to active the policy shift regarding UEE from universal enrolment only to
universal enrolment and retention, the programme envisaged micro planning in a
participative mode at the grass root level involving parents and teachers by family
wise and design of action. This action replaced the earlier practice of enrolment
drives.
2. The policy wanted the school environment to be attractive through improvement
of primary schools and provision of support services. The POA conceived operation
black board (OB scheme) to translate the policy intention. This scheme intended
to provide a minimum two teachers and two classrooms in every primary schools
and also provide minimum essential teaching-learning equipments and materials.
All these formed a package. The Union Government was to share the financial
responsibility with the states as education was put on the concurrent list of the
constitution.
3. The policy’s intention of increasing access to girls and working children from poor
socio-economic background through a large-scale and systematic programme of
non-formal education was conceived by POA as an integral strategy to achieve
LIFE.
4. One of the thrust area of the NPE 1986 was to ensure universal attainment of
essential levels of learning. Based on the recommendations of the committee
appointed by the ministry which were endorsed by the CABE, MLL have been laid
down for the primary stage. This is intended to reduce thr curriculum load and to
make it more functional and relevant.
5. The policy focused on the up gradation of the functioning of teacher. Immediately
a centrally sponsored drive to orient all teachers was taken up to improve their
profestional competence. This was called its mass orientation of school teachers
(MOST).
6. The most was followed by the programme in the from of setting up of the district
institutes of education and training (DIETs) as a centrally-sponsored scheme. The

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 main objectives of DIET are to provide quality pre-service and in-service training
of teachers and functionaries of the formal, non-formal and adult education.
7. Similarly, at the secondary level, centres for in-service teachers training were
established by upgrading secondary teacher education (IASE) and strengthening
colleges of teacher education (CTE).
8. The POA also purposed, and action was subsequently taken to implement a scheme
of strengthening of SCERTs by providing one time matching grant of 15 lakh to
each SCERT. The intention was to confer autonomous statues to them to oversee
DIETs, district resource units and elementary teacher training institutions.
9. The POA envisaged the establishment of Navodaya Vidyalayas in each district for
children who are potentially high achievers irrespective of their socio-economic
background. These institutions are intended to provide good quality education
especially for talented rural children with due reservation for SCs and STs.
10. The NPE of 1986 advocated vocational education as a distinct stream to prepare to
students for specified occupations. A substantially funded, centrally sponsored
scheme of vocationalization of secondary education and also at the higher secondary
level was lunched in 1987-88.

4.2.6.2 P.O.A 1992

The changes of Government with the return of the congress in the parliamentary elections
or 1991 saw a review of the policy changes under the previous Government. The
committee appointed to take up this task under the chairmanship of the chief minister
of Andhra Pradesh, Mr. Janardana Reddy came to the conclusion that the National
policy of 1986 did not require any drastic alteration. However the committee felt that
the programme of action may be reviewed in the light of subsequent developments.
Accordingly, the POA of 1986 was reviewed and revised by the CABE. This revised
POA of 1992 reaffirmed most of the action plan in the case of the OB scheme, the POA
1982 amended the programme by specifying a minimum of three teachers and three
classrooms in all schools and extended the scheme to upper primary schools in the field
of adult education, the POA 1992 came up with a novel programme in the from of
district literacy campaigns which had specific targets and participation of the people in
carrying out the activities of adult education in each district. The revised POA envisages
introducing MLL in non-formal education and lay down MLL at the upper primary
level as well.
Consequent to the policy modification in 1992, a concerted effort was made to translate

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the policy declaration into a concrete programme which is commonly known as revised
programme of action 1992 (POA 1992).

4.2.7 National Policy for Person with Disabilities (2006)

The Government of India formulated the National Policy for Persons with Disabilities
in February 2006 which deals with Physical, Educational & Economic Rehabilitation
of persons with disabilities. In addition the policy also focuses upon rehabilitation of
women and children with disabilities, barrier free environment, social security, research
etc. The National Policy recognizes that Persons with Disabilities are valuable human
resource for the country and seeks to create an environment that provides those equal
opportunities, protection of their rights and full participation in society.

4.2.7.1 Focus of the policy

The focus of the policy is on the following
1. Prevention of Disabilities - Since disability, in a large number of cases, is
preventable; the policy lays a strong emphasis on prevention of disabilities. It
calls for programme for prevention of diseases, which result in disability and the
creation of awareness regarding measures to be taken for prevention of disabilities
during the period of pregnancy and thereafter to be intensified and their coverage
expanded.
2. Rehabilitation Measures - Rehabilitation measures can be classified into three
distinct groups:
i. Physical rehabilitation, which includes early detection and intervention,
counselling & medical interventions and provision of aids & appliances. It will
also include the development of rehabilitation professionals.
ii. Educational rehabilitation including vocational education and
iii. Economic rehabilitation for a dignified life in society.

4.2.8 Check your progress (Objective type Questions)

1. What is the implication of a National System of Education?
................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................

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2. How did the commission envisage achieving the educational objectives through
organisation of school curriculam?
................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................

3. What were the recommendations of NPE (1968) for teachers?

................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
4 . What is the strategy adopted in N.P.E 1986
................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
5. What was the main thrust area of P.O.A 1992?
................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................

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4.3 National acts: RCI act-1992, PWD act-1995, NT
act-1999, RTE act (2009 & 2012).

Structure
4.3.1 Introduction
4.3.2 Objectives
4.3.3 R.C.I act 1992
4.3.4 P.W.D Act 1995
4.3.4 N.T Act 1999
4.3.4.1 Objectives of the Act
4.3.5 R.T.E Act 2009, 2012
4.3.5.1 Introduction:
4.3.5.2 History
4.3.5.3 Main Features
4.3.6 Check your progress (Objective type Questions)

4.3.1 Introduction
Persons with disabilities have rights as citizens of the country. They are protected by
the constitution of India and all other laws that are meant for everyone. We here finally
give the important national level policy and legislative frameworks supporting the
inclusion of children and youth with disability in education.

4.3.2 Objectives
After studying this subunit, student teacher will be able to
i. Identify the constitutional provision on education of Persons with disabilities
ii. Understands the role of education in preparing them as citizens and universalization
of inclusive education.

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4.3.3 R.C.I act 1992
The Rehabilitation Council of India (RCI) was set up as a registered society in 1986.
On September, 1992 the RCI Act was enacted by Parliament and it became a Statutory
Body on 22 June 1993. The Act was amended by Parliament in 2000 to make it more
broad based. The mandate given to RCI is to regulate and monitor services given to
persons with disability, to standardise syllabi and to maintain a Central Rehabilitation
Register of all qualified professionals and personnel working in the field of Rehabilitation
and Special Education.

The Rehabilitation Council of India Act-1992 or the RCI Act

The Rehabilitation Council of India Act governs professionals working in the field of
disability and organisations that train professionals. It regulates the training of
rehabilitation professionals. All professionals working in the field of disability have to
register with the RCI. The RCI also recognises institutes and courses for training of
professionals.

Function of R.C.I
1. Recognition of qualifications granted by University etc., in India for Rehabilitation
Professionals.
2. Recognition of qualification by Institutions outside India
3. Rights of persons possessing qualifications included in the schedule to be enrolled
4. Power to require information as to courses of study and examination
5. Inspectors at examinations
6. Visitors examination
7. Withdrawal of recognition
8. Minimum standards of education
9. Registration in Register
10. Privileges of persons who are registered on Register
11. Professional Conduct and removal of names from Register
12. Appeal against Order of removal from Register
13. Register

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14. Information to be furnished by council and publication thereof
15. Cognizance of offences
16. Protection of action taken in good faith
17. Employees of Council to be public servants
18. Power to make rules
19. Power to make regulations
20. Laying of rules and regulations before Parliament.

4.3.4 P.W.D Act 1995

The person with disabilities (equal opportunities, protection of rights and full
participation) act1995; indicate that although Govt. Of India had made several attempts
to implement integrated education programme, there is lack of firm commitment to
promote integration. It states that whenever possible, children with disabilities should
be educated in regular school settings. The PWD act, 1995 also states, “The appropriate
Government and local authorities shall ensure that every child with a disability has
access to free education in an appropriate environment till he attains the age of 18 years
(article); endeavour to promote the integration of students with disabilities in the normal
schools (articles 26b)”.
Persons with disabilities equal opportunities, protection of rights and full
participation act 1995
The Persons with Disabilities Act covers persons with seven disabilities. These are
blindness, low vision, leprosy cured, hearing impairment, locomotor disability, mental
retardation and mental illness. The act incorporates facilities that persons with disabilities
are entitled to and the responsibilities and obligations placed on the government, public
and private sector enterprises. The persons with disabilities act provides for:
● Free education for children with disabilities unto the age of 18.
● 3% reservation in employment in the Government sector for persons with physical
disability, hearing impairment and vision impairment.
● Creation of barrier free environment- social security and unemployment allowance.
● It talks about prevention and early identification of disabilities.

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4.3.4 N.T Act 1999
The National Trust for the welfare of persons with Autism, Cerebral Palsy, Mental
Retardation and Multiple Disabilities Act 1999
The National Trust Act covers persons with four disabilities. These are mental retardation
or intellectual disability, Autism, Cerebral Palsy and Multiple disabilities. The act gives
due importance and recognition to persons with disabilities. It enables and empowers
them to live independently and fully through its various schemes The act focuses on
strengthening facilities and providing support for individuals to live within their own
families. For persons with disabilities who require care-taking facilities, there is a
provision for appointment of a guardian. Both persons with disabilities and their parents
and guardians been invested with decision making powers. They can be a part of the
local level committee that has the power to appoint a guardian. Parents and parent
associations can also be appointed to the board of the National Trust. Registered parent
associations can apply for funding for setting up facilities for persons with disabilities.

4.3.4.1 Objectives of the Act

This Act provides for the constitution of a national body for the Welfare of Persons
with Autism, Cerebral Palsy, Mental Retardation and Multiple Disabilities. Such a
national body will be a trust whose objects shall be as under:
(a) to enable and empower persons with disability to live as independently and as
fully as possible within and as close to the community to which they belong;
(b) to strengthen facilities to provide support to persons with disability to live within
their own families;
(c) to extend support to registered organisation to provide need based services during
the period of crisis in the family of persons with disability;
(d) to deal with problems of persons with disability who do not have family support;
(e) to promote measures for the care and protection of persons with disability in the
event of death of their parent or guardian;
(f) to evolve procedure for the appointment of guardians and trustees for persons with
disability requiring such protection;
(g) to facilitate the realization of equal opportunities, protection of rights and full
participation of persons with disability; and

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(h) to do any other act which is incidental to the aforesaid objects. The Act received
the assent of the President on 30th December, 1999 and extends to the whole of
India.

4.3.5 R.T.E Act 2009, 2012

4.3.5.1 Introduction:
The Right to Education Act, which came into force on 1st April, 2010 after 62 years of
independence, has made free and compulsory education a fundamental right of every
child in the 6 to 14 age group. Now India has joined the group of those countries who
provide for a constitutional guarantee to free and compulsory education. The enforcement
of this Right has made it a joint responsibility of Central and State Governments to
provide free and compulsory education to all children by all means.

4.3.5.2 History
At the time of Independence, India inherited an educational system which was not only
quantitatively small but was also characterized by striking gender and regional disparities.
Only one child out of three had been enrolled in primary school. Thus challenge was to
provide elementary education to all its children within a stipulated period of time.
Accordingly, universal education for all children in the 6-14 age groups became a
constitutional provision by Article 45 of the Constitution. Special care of the economic
and educational interests of the under privileged sections of the population also became
a constitutional obligation. But these constitutional provisions still remain unfulfilled.
Article 21A of the Constitution - Constitution (Eighty - Sixth Amendment) Act, 2002
December 2002
86th Amendment Act (2002) via Article 21A (Part III) seeks to make free and compulsory
education a Fundamental Right for all children in the age group 6-14 years.
October 2003
A first draft of the legislation envisaged in the above Article, viz., Free and Compulsory
Education for Children Bill, 2003, was prepared and posted on this website in October,
2003, inviting comments and suggestions from the public at large.
2004
Subsequently, taking into account the suggestions received on this draft, a revised draft
of the Bill entitled Free and Compulsory Education Bill, 2004

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June 2005
The CABE (Central Advisory Board of Education) committee drafted the ‘Right to
Education’ Bill and submitted to the Ministry of HRD. MHRD sent it to NAC where
Mrs. Sonia Gandhi is the Chairperson. NAC sent the Bill to PM for his observation.
14th July 2006
The finance committee and planning commission rejected the Bill citing the lack of
funds and a Model bill was sent to states for making the necessary arrangements. (Post-
86th amendment, States had already cited lack of funds at State level)
2009
Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Bill, 2008, passed in both Houses
of Parliament in 2009. The law received President’s assent in August 2009.
1 April 2010
Article 21-A and the RTE Act come into effect.

4.3.5.3 Main Features

● Free and compulsory education to all children of India in the 6 to 14 age group.
● No child shall be held back, expelled or required to pass a board examination until
the completion of elementary education.
● If a child above 6 years of age has not been admitted in any school or could not
complete his or her elementary education, then he or she shall be admitted in a
class appropriate to his or her age. However, if a case may be where a child is
directly admitted in the class appropriate to his or her age, then, in order to be at
par with others, he or she shall have a right to receive special training within such
time limits as may be prescribed. Provided further that a child so admitted to
elementary education shall be entitled to free education till the completion of
elementary education even after 14 years.
● Proof of age for admission: For the purpose of admission to elementary education,
the age of a child shall be determined on the basis of the birth certificate issued in
accordance with the Provisions of Birth. Deaths and Marriages Registration Act
1856, or on the basis of such other document as may be prescribed. No child shall
be denied admission in a school for lack of age proof
● A child who completes elementary education shall be awarded a certificate.

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● Call need to be taken for a fixed student–teacher ratio.
● Twenty-five per cent reservations for economically disadvantaged communities in
admission to Class I in all private schools am to be done.
● Improvement in the quality of education is important.
● School teachers will need adequate professional degree within five years or else
will lose job.
● School infrastructure (where there is a problem) need to be improved in every 3
years, else recognition will be cancelled.
● Financial burden will be shared between the state and the central government.

4.3.6 Check your progress (Objective type Questions)

1. What is the full form of RCI?
................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
2. What do you mean by P.W.D?
................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
3. Interpret the main function of N.T?
................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
4. What is the main feature of R.T.E act?
................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................

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4.4 ❐ Programmes and Schemes : IEDC (1974,1983),
SSA (2000, 2011), RMSA, 2009, IEDSS, 2009.

Structure
4.4.1 Introduction
4.4.2 Objectives
4.4.3 IEDC (1974, 1992)
4.4.3.1 Objectives of the IEDC
4.4.3.2 Functions of IEDC
1.3.4 S.S.A (2000, 2011)
4.4.5 R.M.S.A (2009)
4.4.6 IEDSS (2009)
4.4.7 Check your progress (Objective type Questions)

4.4.1 Introduction
This section deals with the programmes and scheme of government that was implemented
to ensure the rights of education of the citizens with special reference to the differently
able person. It also tried to describe the aims and objectives of the each government’s
initiatives.

4.4.2 Objectives
After studying this unit, students will be able to
i. Know the government initiatives on education with special reference to differently
able person
ii. Analyse the goals emphasized in these programmes on education
iii. Understands the aims and objectives of these schemes.

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4.4.3 IEDC (1974, 1992)
In the process of bringing more children with disability under the umbrella of
educational services, integration was projected as the cost effective approach. As a
result, the general education system was sensitized to accept disabled children in general
schools. Integration of children with disabilities is rather reinforcing better educational
practices in the general school system. In order to provide impetus to integration, the
centrally sponsored scheme of integrated education was introduced in 1974 and is being
implemented in various states of the country article 21A of the Indian constitution
every child in the age group of 6-14 years. This scheme was initially launched in 1974
and revised in 1992 for providing educational opportunities to the moderately, disabled
children in the general school system.

4.4.3.1 Objectives of the IEDC

1. To act as an institutional mechanism for providing various services including
information on all aspects of enterprise building to budding S&T entrepreneurs.
2. To create Entrepreneurial culture in the Parent Institution and other institutions in
the region and to promote the objectives of NSTEDB, including programmes related
to women and weaker sections of the society.
3. To inculcate a culture of innovation driven entrepreneurship through student
projects.
4. To catalyse and promote development of S&T knowledge-based enterprises and
promote employment opportunities in the innovative areas.
5. To respond effectively to the emerging challenges and opportunities both at national
and international level relating to SMEs and micro enterprises.

4.4.3.2 Functions of IEDC

§ To organise Entrepreneurship Awareness Camps, Entrepreneurship Development
Programmes, Faculty Development Programmes and Skill Development
Programmes in the college/institution for the benefit of S&T persons.
§ To initiate five innovative student projects each year for new innovative product
development.
§ To organize Business Plan Competitions every year.
§ To guide and assist prospective entrepreneurs on various aspects such as preparing

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 project reports, obtaining project approvals, loans and facilities from agencies of
support system, information on technologies, etc.
§ To arrange interaction with entrepreneurs and create a mentorship scheme for student
entrepreneurs.
§ To facilitate creation of entrepreneur’s club in each college to foster culture of
entrepreneurship amongst students.

4.3.4 S.S.A (2000, 2011)

In 2000, district primary education programme (DPEP) has been extended to the Sarva
Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA). It is a programme with a clear time frame for universalisation
of elementary education through a time bound integrated approach, in partnership with
states. The SSA is to provide useful and relevant elementary education to all children in
the 6 to14 age group by 2010. There is also another goal to bridge, social, regional and
gender gaps, with active participation of the community in the management of schools.
Objectives of SSA :
Ø All children in the school, education guarantee centre, alternative school, back to
school camps by 2003.
Ø All children complete five years of primary schooling by 2007.
Ø All children complete eight years of elementary schooling by 2010.
Ø Focus on elementary education of satisfactory quality with emphasis on ‘education
for life’.
Ø Bring all gender and social category gaps at primary stage by 2007 and at elementary
education level by 2010.
Ø Universal retention by 2010.
Broad aims :- The Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan is to provide useful and relevant
elementary education for all children in the 6 to 14 age group by 2010. There is
also another goal to bridge social, regional and gender gaps, with the active
participation of the community in the management of schools.
Key features of the programme
The main features of SSA are:-
ü A programme with a clear time frame for universal elementary education.

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ü A response to the demand for quality basic education all over the country’
ü An opportunity for promoting social justice through basic education.
ü An effort for effectively involving the Panchayati Raj Institutions, school
management committee, village/ union smallest unit level education committee.
Parent-teacher associations, mother-teacher associations, tribal autonomous council
and other grass root level structure in the management of elementary schools.
ü An expression of political will for universal elementary education across the country.

Main strategies under SSA

1. Institutional reforms
2. Sustainable financing and capacity building
3. Community ownership
4. Improving mainstream educational administration
5. Habitation as unit of planning
6. Priority in education of disadvantaged section of the society
7. Thrust on quality.
Incorporation of children with special need under SSA
The SSA has also taken care of children with special needs. The SSA aims to provide
useful and relevant elementary education to all children including children with
disabilities in the age range of 6-14 years by 2010. The person with disability act (1995)
makes it mandatory on the part of government to provide needed educational facilities
for the disabled. SSA calls for community ownership of school based interventions
through effective decentralization. Under SSA, community based monitoring is to be
done with full transparency to the community. It also envisages cooperation between
teachers, parents and PRIs, as well as accountability and transparency to the community.
It also focuses on the inclusion and participation of children with special needs in the
educational process.
This programme lays a special thrust on making education at the elementary level useful
and relevant for children by improving the curricula, child centered activities and effective
teaching learning strategies. SSA also focuses on the developmental needs of teachers
as it recognises the critical and central role of teacher. It ensures that every child with
special needs, irrespective of the kind category and degree of disability, is provided
education in an appropriate environment. It adopts ‘zero rejection’ policy so that no-
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child is left out of the education system. The trust of SSA is to provide integrated and
inclusive education to all children with special needs in general schools. It also supports
a wide range of approaches, options and strategies for education of children with special
needs which includes education through open learning system and open schools,
wherever necessary, home based education itinerant teacher model, remedial training,
part time classes, community based rehabilitations (CBR) vocational education and
cooperative programme.

SSA offers the following provisions to CWSN:

Up to Rs. 3000/- per child for integrations of disabled children, as per specific proposal,
per year.
District plan for children with special needs will be formulated within the Rs. 3000/-
per child norm.Involvement of resource institutions to be encouraged.

4.4.5 R.M.S.A (2009)

Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA) is a centrally sponsored scheme of
the Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India, for the
development of secondary education in public schools throughout India. It was launched
in March 2009.
Objectives
The objectives of Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan can be summarised as follows
1. To improve quality of education imparted at secondary level through making all
secondary schools conform to prescribed norms.
2. To remove gender, socio-economic and disability barriers.
3. Universal access to secondary level education by 2017, i.e., by the end of the XII
Five Year Plan.
4. Universal retention by 2020
Action plans
RMSA is planned to promote secondary education by establishing in every target school
the following infrastructure
1. Additional class rooms
2. Laboratories

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3. Libraries
4. Art and crafts room
5. Toilet blocks
6. Drinking water provisions
7. Residential hostels for teachers in remote areas In addition it aims to provide
additional teachers to reduce student-teacher to 30:1, focus on science, mathematics
and English education, in-service training of teachers, science laboratories, ICT-
enabled education, curriculum reforms, and teaching-learning reforms.
Thrust areas
1. Quality improvement
2. ICT, information and communication technology
3. Equity and access
Planning for children with special needs (CWSN)
With the enactment of the Persons with Disabilities Act, 1995, the education for the
CWSN received an impetus. This act entrusts certain governments and authorities for
the provision of free access for these children towards education, allotted lands for
certain purposes, non-discrimination in transports, financial incentive for them to
undertake research etc. This scheme has also taken up programmes for the attitudinal
changes and capacity building among teachers for the sake of these children.
Achievements.
The major achievements of RMSA as of 2015-2016 report are:
1. New school11,577 new secondary schools were approved out of which, 10082 are
functional.
2. Strengthening of schools: 337,731 have been approved in terms of infrastructure
development under this scheme. The details are as follows:
_ Additional classroom: Out of 52750 approved, 20,839 were completed and 16,774
are under progress.
_ Science laboratory: Out of 25,948 approved, 10,107 were completed and 8532 are
under progress.
_ Computer room: Out of 21,864 approved, 6920 were completed and 6297 are under
progress.

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_ Library room: Out of 27,428 approved, 10,133 were completed and 8929 are under
progress.
_ Art/Craft room: Out of 31,453 approved, 12,062 were completed and 9686 are
under progress.
_ Drinking water: Out of 12,327 approved, 7096 were completed and 2507 are under
progress.
_ Teacher quarters: Out of 5408 approved, 623 were completed and 509 are under
progress.
_ Major repair: Out of 2975 approved, 1313 were completed and 271 are under
progress.

4.4.6 IEDSS (2009)

The Scheme of Inclusive Education for Disabled at Secondary Stage (IEDSS) was
launched during 2009-10 and replaces the earlier scheme of Integrated Education for
Disabled Children (IEDC). The aim of this scheme is to enable all students with
disabilities to pursue four years of secondary education in an inclusive and enabling
environment, after completing eight years of elementary schooling.
The scheme covers all children studying in classes IX to XII in Government, local body
and Government-aided schools, with one or more disabilities as defined under the Persons
with Disabilities Act (1995) and the National Trust Act (1999). The type of disabilities
range from blindness, low vision, leprosy cured, hearing impairment, locomotor
disability, mental retardation, mental illness, autism and cerebral leprosy, speech
impairment, learning disabilities etc. Girls with disabilities are provided with special
attention to help them gain access to secondary education, information and guidance
for their developing potential. Moreover, the scheme envisages setting up model inclusive
schools in every state.

Aims & Objectives

The Centrally Sponsored IEDSS Scheme aims to:
● Enable all students with disabilities completing eight years of elementary schooling
an opportunity to complete four years of secondary schooling (classes IX to XII) in
an inclusive and enabling environment
● Provide educational opportunities and facilities to students with disabilities in the
general education system at the secondary level (classes IX to XII).

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● Support the training of general school teachers to meet the needs of children with
disabilities at the secondary level.
The objectives of the scheme will be to ensure that:
● Every child with disability will be identified at the secondary level and his
educational need assessed.
● Every student in need of aids and appliances, assistive devices, will be provided
the same
● All architectural barriers in schools are removed so that students with disability
have access to classrooms, laboratories, libraries and toilets in the school.
● Each student with disability will be supplied learning material as per his/ her
requirement
● All general school teachers at the secondary level will be provided basic training
to teach students with disabilities within a period of three to five years.
● Students with disabilities will have access to support services like the appointment
of special educators, establishment of resource rooms in every block.
● Model schools are set up in every state to develop good replicable practices in
inclusive education.
● Components
Assistance is admissible for two major components
● Student-oriented components such as medical and educational assessment, books
and stationery, uniforms, transport allowance, reader allowance, stipend for girls,
support services, assistive devices, boarding and lodging facilities, therapeutic
services, teaching learning materials, etc.
● Other components include appointment of special education teachers, allowances
for general teachers teaching such children, teacher training, orientation of school
administrators, establishment of resource room, providing barrier free environment
etc.
Implementing Agency
The School Education Department of any State Government/Union Territory (UT)
Administration acts as the implementation agency and 100 percent Central assistance
is provided for all items covered in the scheme. The prerogative to involve NGOs having
experience in the field of education of the disabled, in implementing the scheme,

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completely lies with the implementing agency. The State Governments are only required
to make provisions for a scholarship of Rs. 600 per disabled child per annum.

4.4.7 Check your progress (Objective type Questions)

1. What is the main purpose of IEDC?
................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
2. State the broader aim of SSA
................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................

3. Clearly state the main action plan of RAMSA

................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
4. Which are the objectives of IEDSS?
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4.5 ❐ International Conventions and Policies

Structure
4.5.1 Introduction :
4.5.2 Objectives of the sub unit
4.5.2.1 The Salamanca Declaration And Framework For Action 1994
Salamanca statement:
4.5.2.2 The Framework for Action :
4.5.3.3 United Nations Conventions on the Right of Persons with Disabilities,
2006
4.5.3 Millennium Development Goals India Country Report 2015
4.5.4 Incheon Strategies
4.5.4.1 Key principles and policy direction
4.5.4.2 Incheon Goals
4.5.4.3 Check your progress
4.6 Let us sum-up
4.7 Unit end exercises (short answer/essay type questions)
4.8 Answer to check your progress
4.9 Reference

4.5.1 Introduction
Society must adapt its structures to ensure that all children, irrespective of age, gender
and disability, can enjoy the human rights that are inherent to their human dignity without
discrimination of any kind. International human rights standards, including the
Convention on the Rights of the Child, the UN Standard Rules on the Equalization of
Opportunities for Persons with Disabilities and the Convention on the Rights of Persons
with Disabilities, all point the way towards overcoming discrimination and recognizing
the right to full participation of children with disabilities - in the home and community,
in school, health services, recreation activities and in all other aspects of life. Disability
cannot be considered in isolation. It cuts across all aspects of a child's life and can have
very different implications at different stages in a child's life cycle. Many of the initiatives
to promote the rights of children with disabilities overlap with those for other excluded

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groups.The purpose of the conventions, therefore, to encourage actors at all levels -
from the local to the international - to include children with disabilities in all their
programmes and projects and to ensure that no child is left out.

4.5.2 Objectives of the sub unit

After learning the sub unit the student teacher will be able to explain
All relevant legislation and regulations for prohibition of discrimination on grounds of
disability.
Effective remedies which are accessible to all children, families and caregivers.
A nationalplan of action that integrates the relevant provisions of all applicable
international instruments.
A high-level multi sectoral Coordinating Committee which should be empowered to
initiate proposals, suggest policies and monitor progress.
Awareness-raising and educational campaigns for the public, as well as specific groups
of professionals, with the aim of preventing and addressing the defacto discrimination
of children with disabilities.

4.5.3.1 The Salamanca Declaration And Framework For Action 1994 Salamanca
statement:
More than 300 participants representing 92 governments and 25 international
organizations met in Salamanca, Spain in June 1994 to further the aim of Education for
All by considering what basic policy changes are needed to promote inclusive education,
so that schools can serve all children, particularly those with special educational needs.
Organized by the Government of Spain and UNESCO, the Conference adopted the
Salamanca Statement on Principles, Policy and Practice in Special Needs Education
and a Framework for Action. They agreed a dynamic new Statement on the education
of all disabled children, which called for inclusion to be the norm. In addition, the
Conference adopted a new Framework for Action, the guiding principle of which is
that ordinary schools should accommodate all children, regardless of their physical,
intellectual, social, emotional, linguistic or other conditions. All educational policies,
says the Framework, should stipulate that disabled children attend the neighbour hood
school 'that would be attended if the child did not have a disability.'

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The Salamanca Statement says that:
● every child has a basic right to education
● every child has unique characteristics, interests, abilities and learning needs
● education services should take into account these diverse characteristics and needs
● those with special educational needs must have access to regular schools
● regular schools with an inclusive ethos are the most effective way to combat
discriminatory attitudes, create welcoming and inclusive communities and achieve
education for all
● such schools provide effective education to the majority of children, improve
efficiency and cost- effectiveness.
● The Salamanca Statement asks governments to:
● give the highest priority to making education systems inclusive
● adopt the principle of inclusive education as a matter of law or policy
● develop demonstration projects
● encourage exchanges with countries which have experience of inclusion
● set up ways to plan, monitor and evaluate educational provision for children and
adults
● encourage and make easy the participation of parents and organizations of disabled
people
● invest in early identification and intervention strategies
● invest in the vocational aspects of inclusive education
● make sure there are adequate teacher education programs

4.5.3.2 The Framework for Action :

This Frame work for Action on Special Needs Education was adopted by the World
Conference on Special Needs Education organized by the Government of Spain in co-
o p e ration with UNESCO and held in Salamanca from 7 to 10 June 1994. Its purpose
is to inform policy and guide action by government , international organization , national
aid agencies , n o n - governmental organization and other bodies in implementing the
Salamanca Statement on Principles, Policy and Practice in Special Needs Education.
The Framework draws extensively upon the national experience of the participating

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countries as well as upon resolution, recommendations and publication of the United
Nations system and other intergovernmental organization, especially the Standard Rules
on the Equalization of Opportunities for Persons with Disabilities.
The Framework for Action outlines new thinking on special needs education and
guidelines for action at national, regional and international levels .This Framework for
Action comprises the following sections :
I. New thinking in special needs education
II. Guidelines for action at the national level
A. Policy and organization
B. School factors
C. Recruitment and training of educational personnel
D. External support services
E. Priority areas
F. Community perspectives
G. Resource requirements

III. Guidelines for action at the regional and international level .

I. New Thinking In Special Needs Education
1. Inclusion and participation are essential to human dignity and to the enjoyment
and exercise of human rights. Within the field of education, this is reflected in the
development of strategies that seek to bring about a genuine equalization of
opportunity.
2. The fundamental principle of the inclusive school is that all children should learn
together, wherever possible, regardless of any difficulties or differences they may
have. Inclusive schools must recognize and respond to the diverse needs of their
students, accommodating both different styles and rates of learning and ensuring
quality education to all through appropriate curricula, organizational arrangements,
teaching strategies, resource use and partnerships with their communities.
3. Within inclusive schools, children with special educational needs should receive
what ever extra support they may require to ensure their effective education.
Inclusive schooling is the most effective means for building solidarity between
children with special needs and their peers.

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4. The situation regarding special needs education varies enormously from one country
to another. There are, for example, countries that have well established systems of
special schools for those with specific impairments. Such special schools can
represent a valuable resource for the development of inclusive schools. The staff
of these special institutions possess the expertise needed for early screening and
identification of children with disabilities.
5. Countries that have few or no special schools would, in general, be well advised to
concentrate their efforts on the development of inclusive schools and the specialized
services needed to enable them to serve the vast majority of children and youth -
especially provision of teacher training in special needs education and the
establishment of suitably staffed and equipped resource centres to which schools
could turn for support.
6. Educational planning by governments should concentrate on education for all
persons, in all regions of a country and in all economic conditions, through both
public and private schools.
7. Because in the past relatively few children with disabilities have had access to
education , especially in the developing regions of the world, there are millions of
adults with disabilities who lack even the rudiments of a basic education. A
concerted effort is thus required to teach literacy, numeracy and basic skills to
persons with disabilities through adult education programmes .
8. Women and men should have equal influence on the design of educational
programmes and the same opportunities to benefit from them.
9. It evidently cannot take account of the vast variety of situations encountered in the
different regions and countries of the world and must, accordingly, be adapted to
fit local requirements and circumstances. To be effective, it must be complemented
by national, regional and local plans of action inspired by a political and popular
will to achieve education for all.

II Guidelines for Action at The National Level

A. Policy and Organization
Integrated education and community-based rehabilitation represent complementary and
mutually supportive approaches to serving those with special needs. Both are based
upon the principles of inclusion, integration and participation, and represent well-tested
and cost-effective approaches to promoting equality of access for those with special

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educational needs as part of a nationwide strategy aimed at achieving education for all.
Countries are invited to consider the following actions concerning the policy and
organization of their education systems. Legislation should recognize the principle of
equality of opportunity for children , youth and adults with disabilities. Parallel and
complementary legislative measures should be adopted in the fields of health, social
welfare, vocational training and employment in order to support and give full effect to
educational legislation . 4. Educational policies at all levels , from the national to the
local, should stipulate that a child with a disability should attend the neighbourhood
school . The practice of ‘ mainstreaming ’ children with disabilities should be an integral
part of national plans for achieving education for all. Special attention should be paid
to the needs of children and youth with severe or multiple disabilities. Educational
policies should take full account of individual differences and situations. Both policies
and financing arrangements should encourage and facilitate the development of
inclusives

B. School Factors
Developing inclusive schools that cater for a wide range of pupils in both urban and
rural areas re quires : the articulation of a clear and forceful policy on inclusion together
with adequate financial provision-an effective public information effort to combat
prejudice and create informed and positive attitudes-an extensive programme of
orientation and staff training - and the provision of necessary support services. Changes
in all the following aspects of schooling, as well as many others, are necessary to
contribute to the success of inclusive schools : curriculum, buildings, school organization,
pedagogy, assessment, staffing, school ethos and extracurricular activities.

C. Recruitment and Training of Educational Personnel

Appropriate preparation of all educational personnel stands out as a key factor in
promoting progress towards inclusive schools. Furthermore, the importance of recruiting
teachers with disabilities who can serve as role models for children with disabilities is
increasingly recognized.

D. External Support Services

Provision of support services is of paramount importance for the success of inclusive
educational policies. In order to ensure that, at all levels, external services are made
available to children with special needs, educational authorities should consider the
following. Both training institutions and special schools can provide access to specific

165
devices and materials as well as training in instructional strategies that are not provided
in regular class rooms. School clusters have proved a useful strategy in mobilizing
educational resources as well as community involvement. Clusters of schools could be
assigned collective responsibility for meeting the special educational needs of pupils in
their area and given scope for allocating resources as required.

E. Priority Areas
Integration of children and young people with special educational needs would be more
effective and successful if special consideration we are given in educational development
plans to the following target are as : early childhood education to enhance the educability
of all children, girls’ education and the transition from education to adult working
life.
F. Community Perspectives
Realizing the goal of successful education of children with special educational needs is
not the task of the Ministries of Education and schools alone. It requires the co-operation
of families , and the mobilization of the community and voluntary organizations as well
as the support of the public - at - large.

G. Resource Requirements
The development of inclusive schools as the most effective means for achieving education
for all must be recognized as a key government policy and accorded a privileged place
on the nation’s development agenda. It is only in this way that adequate resources can
be obtained. Changes in policies and priorities cannot be effective unless adequate
resource requirements are met.

III. Guide Lines for Action at the Regional and Inter National Level
International co-operation among governmental and nongovernmental, regional and
interregional organizations can play a very important role in supporting the move toward
inclusive schools. One important task for international co-operation is to support the
launching of pilot projects aimed at trying out new approaches and at capacity building
.A priority mission incumbent upon international organizations is to facilitate exchange
of data, information.

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4.5.3 United Nations Conventions on the Right of Persons with
Disabilities, 2006
It is adopted by the General Assembly in December 2006.
Purpose: promote, protect and ensure the full and equal enjoyment of all human rights
and fundamental freedoms by all persons with disabilities and to promote respect for
their inherent dignity.
Record number of signatures on opening day: 81
Came into force in May 2007
Principles
• Respect for inherent dignity, individual autonomy
• Non-discrimination
• Full and effective participation and inclusion in society
• Respect for difference; disability as part of human diversity
• Equality of opportunity
• Accessibility
• Equality between men and women
• Respect for evolving capacity of children
Persons with disabilities
Those who have long-term physical, mental, intellectual or sensory impairments which
in interaction with various barriers may hinder their full and effective participation in
society on an equal basis with others.

Article 5: Equality and nondiscrimination

In order to promote equality and eliminate discrimination, States Parties shall take all
appropriate steps to ensure that reasonable accommodation is provided.
Reasonable accommodation …means any necessary and appropriate modification and
adjustments not imposing a disproportionate or undue burden where needed in a
particular case, to ensure to persons with disabilities the enjoyment or exercise on an
equal basis with others of all human rights and fundamental freedoms (Article 2 —
Definitions)

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Article 24: Education States Parties shall: Ensure an inclusive education system at all
levels and lifelong learning. Ensure that persons with disabilities are able to access
general tertiary education, vocational training, adult education and living learning without
discrimination and on an equal basis with others. To this ended States Parties shall
ensure that reasonable accommodation is provided to persons with disabilities.
Article 27: Work and Employment Right to work…on an equal basis with
others…(in)…work freely chosen or accepted in a labour market and work environment
that is open, inclusive and accessible to persons with disabilities States parties shall
safeguard the …right to work…by taking appropriate steps including legislation to…
Art. 27 Steps and legislation to… Prohibit discrimination Protect rights…including
labour and trade union rights . Ensure access to vocational and guidance services.
Promote work opportunities including self employment. Ensure reasonable
accommodation in the workplace. Promote professional rehabilitation and job retention
and return to work programmes.
Public and private employers are noted as central to implementation of the right to
work
States parties are additionally called upon to:
– Ensure that reasonable accommodation is provided to persons with disabilities in the
workplace;
– Promote vocational and professional rehabilitation, job retention and return-to-work
programmes
Promoting the UNCRPD
Formal interagency support group
Joint statement seeking high level support from heads of agencies
Guidelines for UNDAFs underway

4.5.4 Millennium Development Goals India Country Report 2015

The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) are the eight international development
goals that were established following the millennium summit of the United Nations in
2000, following the adoption of the United Nations Millennium Declaration. All
189 United Nations member states at the time (there are 193 currently), and at least
23 international organizations, committed to help achieve the following Millennium
Development Goals by 2015.

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GOALS
The MDGs were developed out of several commitments set forth in the Millennium
Declaration, signed in September 2000. There are eight goals with 21 targets, and a
series of measarable health indicators and economic indicators for each target.
1. Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger
2. Achieve universal primary education
3. Promote gender equality and empower women
4. Reduce child mortality rates
5. Improve maternal health
6. Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases
7. Ensure environmental sustainability
8. Develop a global partnership for development
MDGs lack strong objectives and indicators for within-country equality, despite
significant disparities in many developing nations. Further critique of the MDGs is that
the mechanism being used is that they seek to introduce local change through external
innovations supported by external financing. The counter proposal being that these
goals are better achieved by community initiative, building from resources of solidarity
and local growth within existing cultural and government structures; iterations of proven
local successes can scale up to address the larger need through human energy and existing
resources using methodologies such as Participatory Rural Appraisal, Asset Based
Community Development, or SEED-SCALE.

4.5.4 Incheon Strategies

Education 2030 : Towards inclusive and equitable quality education and lifelong
learning for all
Ministers, heads and members of delegations, heads of agencies and officials of
multilateral and bilateral organizations, and representatives of civil society, the teaching
profession, youth and the privates sector, have gathered in May 2015 at the invitation of
the Director-General of UNESCO in Incheon, Republic of Korea, for the World
Education Forum 2015 (WEF 2015). UNESCO initiated and led the convening of this
milestone event for Education 2030.

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4.5.4.1 Key principles and policy direction
The Incheon Strategy is based on the principles of the Convention on the Rights of
Persons with Disabilities:
1. Respect for inherent dignity, individual autonomy, including the freedom to make
one’s own choices, and independence of persons;
2. Non-discrimination;
3. Full and effective participation and inclusion in society;
4. Respect for difference and acceptance of persons with disabilities as part of human
diversity and humanity;
5. Equality of opportunity;
6. Accessibility;
7. Equality between men and women;
8. Respect for the evolving capacities of children with disabilities and respect for the
right of children with disabilities to preserve their identities

4.5.4.2 Incheon Goals

The Incheon Strategy is composed of 10 interrelated goals, 27 targets and 62 indicators.
The time frame for achieving the goals and targets is the Asian and Pacific Decade of
Persons with Disabilities, 2013 to 2022.
1 Reduce poverty and enhance work and employment prospects
2 Promote participation in political processes and in decision-making
3 Enhance access to the physical environment, public transportation, knowledge,
information and communication
4 Strengthen social protection
5 Expand early intervention and education of children with disabilities
6 Ensure gender equality and women’s empowerment
7 Ensure disability-inclusive disaster risk reduction and management
8 Improve the reliability and comparability of disability data
9 Accelerate the ratification and implementation of the Convention on the Rights of
Persons with Disabilities and the harmonization of national legislation with the
Convention

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10 Advance subregional, regional and interregional cooperation
The Incheon Strategy will enable the Asian and Pacific region to track progress towards
improving the quality of life, and the fulfilment of the rights, of the region’s 650 million
persons with disabilities, most of whom live in poverty. The ESCAP secretariat is
mandated to report every three years until the end of the Decade in 2022, on progress in
the implementation of the Ministerial Declaration and the Incheon Strategy.

Conclusions
In countries the world over children with disabilities and their families continue to face
discrimination and are not yet fully able to enjoy their basic human rights. The inclusion
of children with disabilities is a matter of social justice and an essential investment in
the future of society. It is not based on charity or goodwill but is an integral element of
the expression and realization of universal human rights. The last two decades have
witnessed a gathering global momentum for change. Many countries have already begun
to reform their laws and structures and to remove barriers to the participation of persons
with disabilities as full members of their communities. The Convention on the Rights
of Persons with Disabilities, building upon the existing provisions of the Convention
on the Rights of the Child, opens a new era in securing the rights of children with
disabilities and their families. Together with the Millennium Agenda and other
international initiatives, these international standards lay the foundation for each country
and community to undertake a fundamental review of the situation of children and
adults with disabilities and to take specific steps to promote their inclusion in society

4.5.4.3 Check your progress

1. How many international organizations met in Salamanca?
i) 23
ii) 25
iii) 37
iv) 39
2. which is not the key principle of the Incheon Strategy ?
i) Equality of opportunity
ii) Full and effective participation and inclusion in society

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 iii) Accessibility
iv) Discrimination
3. How many international goals are incorporated in the Millennium Development
Goals ?
i) 23
ii) 18
iii) 8
iv) 15

4.6 Let us sum-up

In this unit we have attempted to familiarize with you the changes that were brought
about after independence in constitution for modifying the education system of republic
India to ensure equality, liberty, secularism and social justice. We have discussed some
of the implication of recommendation of education commission (1964), NPE, POA
(1968, 1986 and 1992). We here also organized the experiences of the fact that how in
order to develop a democratic nation in true sense our education system incorporated
education for differently able person. In this connection we discussed here the implication
of national policy and IEDSS (2009) and elaborated the national acts like RCI Act
(1992), PWD Act(1995),NT Act(1999),RTE Act(2009). Finally we also discussed the
brief description of world awareness on this matter that reflected in Salamanca declaration
and framework (1994), UNCRPD (2006), MDG (2015) and INCHEON strategies.

4.7 Unit end exercises (short answer/essay type questions)

1. What is the provision on education given in the article 45 of Indian constitution?
2. Do you think the common school system can alleviate social inequality in our
country?
3. How do you think that the incentives given to teachers in NPE 1968 are effective?
4. What is the implication of NPE 1986 and POA 1992?
5. What is the main focus of the nation policy of PWD (2006)?
6. State two main function of RCI?

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7. Write down the 3 main objectives of NT act?
8. What are the main features of RTE Act?
9. Elaborate functions of IEDC?
10. What are the broader aims of SSA?
11. What is the provision under RAMSA regarding CWSN?
12. Who are the main implementing agencies under IEDSS?
13. Discuss the frame of action of Salamanca Declaration.
14. What is the purpose of UNCRPD,2006?
15. State the principles of UNCRPD,2006?
16. What do you mean by the Millenium Development Goals?
17. Write the principles on which INCOHEM strategy is based upon?

4.8 Answer to check your progress

i. Democracy, socialistic path and industrialization
ii. Article 45,
iii. Article 15

4.9
i. Improvement of educational structure
ii. Comprehensive curriculum for developing basic skills, knowledge, language
for preparing democratic individual.
iii. Satisfactory emolument and service condition, academic freedom for teacher,
in-service teachers education.
iv. Provide conducive school environment, improving teaching learning process
and developing a non formal system of education.
v. Universalization of elementary education

4.10
i. Rehabilitation Council of India

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 ii. Persons with disabilities
iii. To enable and empower persons with disability to live as independently and as
fully as possible within and as close to the community to which they belong
iv. Free and compulsory education to all children of India in the 6 to 14 age group.

4.11
i. To act as an institutional mechanism for providing various services including
information on all aspects of enterprise building to budding Small scale
Technological entrepreneurs for disabled person.
ii. Elementary education to all children of 6-14 age groups by the 2010.
iii. Additional class rooms, Laboratories, Libraries, Art and crafts room, Toilet
blocks, Drinking water provisions, Residential hostels for teachers in remote
areas.
iv. Enable all students with disabilities completing eight years of elementary
schooling an opportunity to complete four years of secondary schooling (classes
IX to XII) in an inclusive and enabling environment.

4.12
1. ii) 25
2. iv) Discrimination
3. iv) 8

4.13 Reference
1. Nurullah syed and Naik, J.P.(5th eds); Student History of Educational India,
Macmillan, Calcutta(1971)
2. Report on Education Commission 1964-66, Ministry of Education, Govt. of
India, New Delhi.
3. Naik, J.P, Education Commission and After.
4. The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009 (RTE Act,
2009).

174
 5. Education and National Development, Report of the Education Commission
(1964-66), NCERT, New Delhi, 1971.
6. Challenges of Education–a policy perspective, Ministry of Education, Govt. of
India, New Delhi, August 1985.
7. National Policy on Education – 1986, Ministry of Human Resource
Development, Govt. of India, Dept. of Education, New Delhi, May, 1986.
8. Towards an Enlightened and Humane Society, Report of the Committee for
Review of National Policy on Education 1986, Final Report, 26th Dec. 1990.
9. National Policy on Education–1986 (With Modifications undertaken in 1992),
Ministry of Human Resource Development, Department of Education, New
Delhi, 1992.
10. National Policy on Education 1986, Programme of Action, 1992, Ministry of
Human Resource Development, Department of Education, Govt. of India, 1993.
11. Education for All – The Indian Scene, Department of Education, Ministry of
Human Resource Development, Govt. of India, Dec. 1993.
12. Sixth All India Educational Survey, Selected Statistics, NCERT, New Delhi,
1998.
13. Seventh All India School Education Survey, Provisional Statistics, N.C.E.R.T.,
New Delhi, Sep. 30, 2002.
14. National Curriculum Framework, 2005, N.C.E.R.T., New Delhi.
15. National Curriculum Framework for Teacher Education, N.C.T.E., New Delhi,
2009–10.
16. “District Primary Education Programme, DPEP”. Archived from the original
on 29 October 2013.
17. Jalan, Jyotsna; Glinskaya, Elena. “Improving Primary School Education in India:
An Impact Assessment of
18. “Will RTE fulfil the SSA dream?”. The Times of India. 5 April 2010. Retrieved
26 October 2013.
19. Pandey, Navadha (August 26, 2014). “Smriti Irani launches Padhe Bharat Badhe
Bharat programme”. Business Line. Retrieved 4 December 2014.
20. “Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan”. Ministry of Human Resource Development..

175
21. “Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan”. EdCIL (India) Limited.
22. “Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan”. Indian Yojana. “Rashtriya
Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (RSMA)”. Bihar Madyamik Siksha Parishad.
23. Parveen Kaswan (4 May 2013). “Rashtriya Madhyamik Siksha Abhiyan
(RMSA)”.

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Unit - 5 ❐ Issues & Trends in Education

Structure
5.1 Challenges of Education from pre-school Education to senior secondary
5.1.1 Introduction
5.1.2 Objectives
5.1.3 Challenges of Pre-school Education
5.1.4 Challenges of Primary Education
5.1.5 Challenges of Secondary Education
5.1.6 Challenges of Senior Secondary Education
5.1.7 Check your progress

5.1 Challenges of Education from Pre-school Education to Senior

Secondary
5.1.1 Introduction

5.1.2 Objectives

Upon completion of the submit, the student – teacher will be able to

i. Outline and analyse the challenges & prospect of pre-school Education.
ii. Gain an understanding of the key challenges of Primary Education.
iii. Develop a critical knowledge of the challenging parameters underlying Secondary
Education.
iv. Plan & discuss the key areas of challenges of senior Secondary Education.

5.1.3 Challenges of Pre-school Education

Introduction : It has been seen over the years that pre-school participation has become
more common & as such public support for these has grown drastically. Although policies

177
vary across states as well as across options like private child care, pre-schools, head
start & state pre-K. A big question arises regarding to the significance & value of pre-
school education & financial expenditure on it further extends as whom it should serve
or subsidize & thereby which program design are best in this regard. The following
challenges & recommendations related to pre-school education are -
i) It has been noticed that various pre-school program have shown to yield positive
effects on children learning & development. These effects although vary in size
& persistence by the type of the program.
ii) In order to guarantee a well-designed pre-school education, program provisions
should produce long-term improvements in school success, including better
achievement level, lower rates of grade repetition & higher attainment of
education. The challenge lies among some pre-school programs that are associated
with reduced delinquency & crime in childhood & adulthood.
iii) Numerous evidences suggest that economically deprived children reap long-
term benefits from a good pre-school. It is needless to comment that children
from all other economic background have been found to benefit from such
schools.
iv) The state should recognize the dearth of amenities in pre-school & should aim at
providing financial help in order to promote educationally weak programs.
Children from middle income families have least access & also majority of the
children in poverty also lack pre-school experiences.
v) Increasing public investment in effective pre-school education programs for all
children can yield substantial educational, political, social & economic benefits.
vi) Policy makers should not depart from pre-school education models that have
proven highly effective.
vii) Well-educated teachers with proper training in the concerned area with adequate
pay will lie a boost to the betterment of pre-school education in India.
viii) Teachers in preschool programs should receive intensive supervision & coaching
& they should be involved in a continuous improvement process for teaching
learning.
ix) Pre-school educational programs should be designed in such a way so that it can
produce positive effects on children’s behaviour & later reductions in crime &

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 delinquency.
x) In a broader aspect, pre-school education policy should be developed in the
contest of comprehensive public policies programs to effectively support child
development from birth to age 5 & beyond.

5.1.4 Challenges of Primary Education

In recent decades, India has made significant increase in primary school enrolment.
This success story is largely due to various programs & drives to increase enrolment
even in the remotest areas. Estimation reveals that enrolment reaches about 96%. Since
2009 & girls making upto 56% o new learners between 2007 & 2013. It is however
clear that many problems of access to schooling have been addressed with caution.
Improvements to infrastructure have been always given a top priority in achieving this.
India now has nearly 1.4 million schools & 7.7 million teachers. Statistics also reveals
that 98% of habitation have a primary school (Cl-I-V) within one kilometer radius. The
under mentioned discussion will definitely throw light on the challenges & progress of
primary education in India-
i) Nationally 29% of children drop out before completing 5 years of primary
schooling & nearly 43% before reaching upper primary school. This data puts
India among the top 5 nations for out of school children of primary school age.
ii) Taking into account, the physical barriers, many schools are not equipped to
handle the full population. There is shortage of teachers. Only 53%of the schools
have functional girl’s toilets & 74% have proper access to drinking water.
iii) The key concern however rests on the quality of learning & reports show that
children are not achieving class appropriate learning levels.
iv) According to Pratham’s annual status of education 2013 report, close to 78% of
children in standard III & about 5% of children in standard V cannot yet read std
II texts. Arithmetic is also a cause for concern as only 26% students in standard
V can do a division problem. Hence, improving the quality of learning in schools
is the big challenge for both the state & central Govts.
v) Improving learning will require attention to various issues like teacher
accountability. According to some studies, teacher attendance is just 85% in
primary level & responsibility for student learning also needs improvement.

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 vi) Overall, the public school system also needs a better general management system.
India also faces many challenges that can be tackled through the education system.
In this context, gender issues have come to the forefront due to recent cases of violence
against girls. Changing gender mindsets seems to be imperative & gender studies
education is one way of doing so.

Collaborating efforts of India:

Many of India’s concerns about education are shared by the US : such as ensuring
quality, improving teacher capabilities, effective use of technology & improving
management systems. The U.S. & India can achieve better learning outcomes if they
aggregate their experience & resources in terms of intellectual & economic. These are
possible by -
● Potential leveraging technology.

● Teacher education

● Regular & useful assessment systems

● Gender studies education
● Skills development
● Spending on education to be enhanced

5.1.5 Challenges of Secondary Educations

The provision of responsibility & financing of secondary education is like other aspects
of education – a joint responsibility of union & state governments. In the recent past, it
has been noted that both levels of Govt. had prioritised to the policy development of
financial investment in elementary education. However the recent focus on secondary
education was provided by the 2005 Central Advisory Board of Education (CABE)
Report (2005). Whether through domestic pressures or the indulgence of the Millennium
Development Goals, many countries, including India have devoted time, effort &
resources to elementary education. (World Bank, 2005). Although secondary education
in this context has served to filter out students who would not go on to higher education.
In this context there appears numerous & varied challenges in secondary education.
There are noteworthy points of discussion regarding these national challenges that poses
a tremendous threat to the development and quality of secondary education in India.

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 Access under the premise of challenges in Secondary Education : There are
approximately 50 million children in secondary education in India whose translation
into a Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) of 46.81% in class ix-xii. Most of these 50 million
(approx) children are in lower secondary education – 28.4 million, while the remaining
are in higher secondary education.
In the near future, the no. of children in secondary education is expected to rise due
to both supply & demand factors. Taking into consideration – supply, the GER in primary
education is over 100%. The no. of children completing primary & upper primary
education continues to rise.
If the demand side is looked upon, the returns to education for individuals indicate
that there is still labour market demand for secondary education despite increasing
number of them in the working age population. It has been documented that over the
last decade, returns for lower secondary & higher secondary education have been the
highest returns for any level of education.
See table –
‘Equity’ as a challenge in secondary education :
It is not surprising that there are gaps in enrolment rates for several subpopulations.
Examples can be sited in lower secondary education nearly 51% of children aged between
14-15 attend school in urban area; whereas in rural areas, same aged, 41% children
attend school (Fig 1a, 1b). It is noteworthy that a prominent proportion of children in
both rural & urban areas are over-aged in secondary education. Looking back at SC, ST
and muslim minority students are always under represented, in proportion to their place
in the populations. It is documented that SCs constitute about 20.6% of the general
population of the requisite age but only 17.9% in the school population. It is further
noted that the differences between minority groups & the majority population are
generally less than the rural urban & gender gaps. (fig : 2a, Table 2b)
The gender gap in this context is significant. It is highlighted in the table.
However it is noted that there is an equity factor to the enrolment in different type of
schools. It has been further noticed that private school have significantly lower
proportions of students from the SC & ST categories, in secondary education. Although
the share is very low in private aided schools. This is actually not surprising issue that
these sub-groups are on average poorer & hence they are less likely to be able to afford

181
the fees associated with private schools, that are situated in urban areas.
Quality as a challenge in Secondary Education :
Landmark data on the quality of education is very low. There is no national assessment
of performance in secondary education. It is known that there are about 30 state
examination boards that are entitled to prepare examinations for secondary students.
However the pass rates across states are not comparable as they consistently vary. In
addition to this, pass rates are not comparable across-time within one state. Moreover
pass rated are not comparable across time within one state there are 5 state boards in
which the pass rate fluctuated by more than 5% points between 2007 & 2008 & a
further 6 boards in which the difference was more than 10% points. This is because the
general abilities of students do not vary greatly & they have had very similar educational
experiences over consecutive years.
Some assessments conducted in individual states, using internationally standardised
assessments, suggest student learning is very weak & below standard in India.

Addressing the challenges :

In order to implement any strategy to address these challenges in secondary education
must start from the understanding of institutional landscape in the sector : a scenario
that is very different from that in primary education.
Patterns of school management of secondary education are complex & vary
considerably across the Indian states.
It is further noted that in West Bengal almost all enrolment is in aided schools,
whereas there are none such schools in Manipur or Chhattisgarh. These states have
almost equal numbers of Govt. & private unaided schools. (Figs: 3a, 3b)
Expanding Access will require both public & private investments, given the needs &
the distribution of management types.
Many of the equity gaps will be closed over time merely due to the expansion of
secondary education. There is good experience internationally in conditioning these
transfers on school attendance & achievement, an option which is likely to make a
difference in India too.
In order to improve the quality of secondary education & upgrading the learning

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outcomes of students, it is the joint key challenges for all types of schools throughout
India. A major quality aspect of secondary education includes –
i) Revision of state syllabi & textbooks at secondary stage should be in accordance
with the National Curriculum Framework 2005)
ii) Improvement of classroom processes & management of schools so that the
curricular & pedagogic shift for enhancing participation in learning may be
implemented.
iii) Promotion of continuous & comprehensive evaluation and examination reform
at secondary level.
iv) Quality imperative in teacher preparation should be encouraged.
v) Monitoring & quality improvement in researches need to be intervened.
vi) Information & communication technology to be infused in all areas of concerns.
vii) Establishment of roles of various national, state, district level agencies in this
aspect.
viii) Multi layer strategic guidelines & indicative financial norms to be introduced at
a faster pace.

5.1.6 Challenges of Senior Secondary Educations

India is the largest democracy with remarkable diversity among its population of 1.2
billion that accounts for 17% of the world’s population. Nearly 70% of Indian population
is rural. The adult literacy rate is approx. 60% & is considerably lower in females &
minorities. The following are the challenges posed by higher or senior secondary
education in India.
1) Physical barriers – Inadequate school infrastructures owing to teaching learning
conditions is a primordial factor in this respect. Improper public transportation is also a
determinant factor in excluding students from the education system. Persons living in
poverty are the mostly affected. This require bringing schools closer to communities,
often through improvements in the aforesaid areas. Strategies also include the
establishment of boarding schools.
Threat of violence against girls on the way to & from schools limits their inclination

183
towards education. Within schools, inadequately built classrooms & toilets can also
restrict their use by students with disabilities.
2) Financial barriers – Direct & indirect costs of schooling is a central reason for
children being out of school or dropping out. Tuition fees appear as the most significant
financial obstacle in this respect. Furthermore targeting elimination of child labour in
order to safeguard mandatory education is relevant in this respect. Besides disparities
in the provisions for public education contribute to unequal opportunities for many
students receiving educations in poorly resoirced schools as compared to its contrast
counterparts.
States should shoulder the responsibility to alleviate this financial burden & ensure
that higher secondary education is generally available &accessible to all & also ensure
equal access to higher education on the basis of merit.
Incentives in the form of school meal programmes, in poverty stricken areas to be
implemented in order to ensure income deprivation in particular & poverty in general.
Broadly speaking, state investment in social protection policies & its contribution to
alleviating the burden on families & child poverty plays a pivoted role in the promotion
of education.
As poverty & social exclusion is one of the major barriers in achieving the EFA, the
use of direct financial support. These comprises of fellowship schemes, conditional
cash transfers or social assistance support for school going children).
The right to education establishes the state to take the responsibility of promotional
measures including financial support schemes. Article 13 of the International covenant
on economic, social & cultural rights proposes the establishment of an adequate
fellowship system, among its provision on the right to education.
3) Linguistic & cultural barriers : The lack of education in mother tongue or
native languages in often a source of exclusion. This is applied for minorities & migrants
cases. The united Nations Declaration on the Rights of persons belonging to National
or Ethnic, Religious & Linguistic Minorities, establishes in article 4(3) that states should
take appropriate measures so that wherever possible, persons belonging to minorities
may have adequate opportunities to learn their mother tongue or to have instruction in
their mother tongue the forum on minority issues recommended that states take
appropriate measures, wherever possible, to ensure that persons belonging to minorities
may have adequate opportunities to learn their mother tongue or to have instruction in

184
their mother tongue.
Respecting the richness of linguistic & cultural diversity, education policies in today’s
globalized world should give high consideration to mother-tongue based multilingual
education.
5.1.7 Check your progress -1
1. What is the age limit of pre-school education?
2. What do pre-school program provide for teacher?
3. Mention the nation’s % of dropout in primary education.
4. Write any two physical barriers of primary education.
5. Mention any two collaborating efforts of India in relation to primary education.
6. Write the three premises of challenges in secondary education in India.
7. Give the full form of NCF.
8. What should be the characteristic of evaluation at secdondary stage of education?
9. What is meant by linguistic barriers?
10. Give 2 examples of incentives in the promotion of senior secondary education.

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 Unit - 5 ❐ Issues & Trends in Education

5.1 ❐ Challenges of Education from Pre-school

Education to Senior Secondary
Structure
5.1 Challenges of Education from pre-school Education to senior secondary
5.1.1 Introduction
5.1.2 Objectives
5.1.3 Challenges of Pre-school Education
5.1.4 Challenges of Primary Education
5.1.5 Challenges of Secondary Education
5.1.6 Challenges of Senior Secondary Education
5.1.7 Check your progress

5.1.1 Introduction

5.1.2 Objectives
Upon completion of the submit, the student – teacher will be able to
i. Outline and analyse the challenges & prospect of pre-school Education.
ii. Gain an understanding of the key challenges of Primary Education.
iii. Develop a critical knowledge of the challenging parameters underlying Secondary
Education.
iv. Plan & discuss the key areas of challenges of senior Secondary Education.

5.1.3 Challenges of Pre-school Education

Introduction : It has been seen over the years that pre-school participation has become
more common & as such public support for these has grown drastically. Although policies

186
vary across states as well as across options like private child care, pre-schools, head
start & state pre-K. A big question arises regarding to the significance & value of pre-
school education & financial expenditure on it further extends as whom it should serve
or subsidize & thereby which program design are best in this regard. The following
challenges & recommendations related to pre-school education are -
i) It has been noticed that various pre-school program have shown to yield positive
effects on children learning & development. These effects although vary in size
& persistence by the type of the program.
ii) In order to guarantee a well-designed pre-school education, program provisions
should produce long-term improvements in school success, including better
achievement level, lower rates of grade repetition & higher attainment of
education. The challenge lies among some pre-school programs that are associated
with reduced delinquency & crime in childhood & adulthood.
iii) Numerous evidences suggest that economically deprived children reap long-
term benefits from a good pre-school. It is needless to comment that children
from all other economic background have been found to benefit from such
schools.
iv) The state should recognize the dearth of amenities in pre-school & should aim at
providing financial help in order to promote educationally weak programs.
Children from middle income families have least access & also majority of the
children in poverty also lack pre-school experiences.
v) Increasing public investment in effective pre-school education programs for all
children can yield substantial educational, political, social & economic benefits.
vi) Policy makers should not depart from pre-school education models that have
proven highly effective.
vii) Well-educated teachers with proper training in the concerned area with adequate
pay will lie a boost to the betterment of pre-school education in India.
viii) Teachers in preschool programs should receive intensive supervision & coaching
& they should be involved in a continuous improvement process for teaching
learning.
ix) Pre-school educational programs should be designed in such a way so that it can
produce positive effects on children’s behaviour & later reductions in crime &
delinquency.

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 x) In a broader aspect, pre-school education policy should be developed in the
contest of comprehensive public policies programs to effectively support child
development from birth to age 5 & beyond.

5.1.4 Challenges of Primary Education

In recent decades, India has made significant increase in primary school enrolment.
This success story is largely due to various programs & drives to increase enrolment
even in the remotest areas. Estimation reveals that enrolment reaches about 96%. Since
2009 & girls making upto 56% o new learners between 2007 & 2013. It is however
clear that many problems of access to schooling have been addressed with caution.
Improvements to infrastructure have been always given a top priority in achieving this.
India now has nearly 1.4 million schools & 7.7 million teachers. Statistics also reveals
that 98% of habitation have a primary school (Cl-I-V) within one kilometer radius. The
under mentioned discussion will definitely throw light on the challenges & progress of
primary education in India-
i) Nationally 29% of children drop out before completing 5 years of primary
schooling & nearly 43% before reaching upper primary school. This data puts
India among the top 5 nations for out of school children of primary school age.
ii) Taking into account, the physical barriers, many schools are not equipped to
handle the full population. There is shortage of teachers. Only 53%of the schools
have functional girl’s toilets & 74% have proper access to drinking water.
iii) The key concern however rests on the quality of learning & reports show that
children are not achieving class appropriate learning levels.
iv) According to Pratham’s annual status of education 2013 report, close to 78% of
children in standard III & about 5% of children in standard V cannot yet read std
II texts. Arithmetic is also a cause for concern as only 26% students in standard
V can do a division problem. Hence, improving the quality of learning in schools
is the big challenge for both the state & central Govts.
v) Improving learning will require attention to various issues like teacher
accountability. According to some studies, teacher attendance is just 85% in
primary level & responsibility for student learning also needs improvement.
vi) Overall, the public school system also needs a better general management system.
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 India also faces many challenges that can be tackled through the education system.
In this context, gender issues have come to the forefront due to recent cases of violence
against girls. Changing gender mindsets seems to be imperative & gender studies
education is one way of doing so.

Collaborating efforts of India:

Many of India’s concerns about education are shared by the US : such as ensuring
quality, improving teacher capabilities, effective use of technology & improving
management systems. The U.S. & India can achieve better learning outcomes if they
aggregate their experience & resources in terms of intellectual & economic. These are
possible by -
● Potential leveraging technology.

● Teacher education

● Regular & useful assessment systems

● Gender studies education
● Skills development
● Spending on education to be enhanced

5.1.5 Challenges of Secondary Educations

The provision of responsibility & financing of secondary education is like other aspects
of education – a joint responsibility of union & state governments. In the recent past, it
has been noted that both levels of Govt. had prioritised to the policy development of
financial investment in elementary education. However the recent focus on secondary
education was provided by the 2005 Central Advisory Board of Education (CABE)
Report (2005). Whether through domestic pressures or the indulgence of the Millennium
Development Goals, many countries, including India have devoted time, effort &
resources to elementary education. (World Bank, 2005). Although secondary education
in this context has served to filter out students who would not go on to higher education.
In this context there appears numerous & varied challenges in secondary education.
There are noteworthy points of discussion regarding these national challenges that poses
a tremendous threat to the development and quality of secondary education in India.
Access under the premise of challenges in Secondary Education : There are
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approximately 50 million children in secondary education in India whose translation
into a Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) of 46.81% in class ix-xii. Most of these 50 million
(approx) children are in lower secondary education – 28.4 million, while the remaining
are in higher secondary education.
In the near future, the no. of children in secondary education is expected to rise due
to both supply & demand factors. Taking into consideration – supply, the GER in primary
education is over 100%. The no. of children completing primary & upper primary
education continues to rise.
If the demand side is looked upon, the returns to education for individuals indicate
that there is still labour market demand for secondary education despite increasing
number of them in the working age population. It has been documented that over the
last decade, returns for lower secondary & higher secondary education have been the
highest returns for any level of education.
See table –
‘Equity’ as a challenge in secondary education :
It is not surprising that there are gaps in enrolment rates for several subpopulations.
Examples can be sited in lower secondary education nearly 51% of children aged between
14-15 attend school in urban area; whereas in rural areas, same aged, 41% children
attend school (Fig 1a, 1b). It is noteworthy that a prominent proportion of children in
both rural & urban areas are over-aged in secondary education. Looking back at SC, ST
and muslim minority students are always under represented, in proportion to their place
in the populations. It is documented that SCs constitute about 20.6% of the general
population of the requisite age but only 17.9% in the school population. It is further
noted that the differences between minority groups & the majority population are
generally less than the rural urban & gender gaps. (fig : 2a, Table 2b)
The gender gap in this context is significant. It is highlighted in the table.
However it is noted that there is an equity factor to the enrolment in different type of
schools. It has been further noticed that private school have significantly lower
proportions of students from the SC & ST categories, in secondary education. Although
the share is very low in private aided schools. This is actually not surprising issue that
these sub-groups are on average poorer & hence they are less likely to be able to afford
the fees associated with private schools, that are situated in urban areas.

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Quality as a challenge in Secondary Education :
Landmark data on the quality of education is very low. There is no national assessment
of performance in secondary education. It is known that there are about 30 state
examination boards that are entitled to prepare examinations for secondary students.
However the pass rates across states are not comparable as they consistently vary. In
addition to this, pass rates are not comparable across-time within one state. Moreover
pass rated are not comparable across time within one state there are 5 state boards in
which the pass rate fluctuated by more than 5% points between 2007 & 2008 & a
further 6 boards in which the difference was more than 10% points. This is because the
general abilities of students do not vary greatly & they have had very similar educational
experiences over consecutive years.
Some assessments conducted in individual states, using internationally standardised
assessments, suggest student learning is very weak & below standard in India.

Addressing the challenges :

In order to implement any strategy to address these challenges in secondary education
must start from the understanding of institutional landscape in the sector : a scenario
that is very different from that in primary education.
Patterns of school management of secondary education are complex & vary
considerably across the Indian states.
It is further noted that in West Bengal almost all enrolment is in aided schools,
whereas there are none such schools in Manipur or Chhattisgarh. These states have
almost equal numbers of Govt. & private unaided schools. (Figs: 3a, 3b)
Expanding Access will require both public & private investments, given the needs &
the distribution of management types.
Many of the equity gaps will be closed over time merely due to the expansion of
secondary education. There is good experience internationally in conditioning these
transfers on school attendance & achievement, an option which is likely to make a
difference in India too.
In order to improve the quality of secondary education & upgrading the learning
outcomes of students, it is the joint key challenges for all types of schools throughout
India. A major quality aspect of secondary education includes –

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 i) Revision of state syllabi & textbooks at secondary stage should be in accordance
with the National Curriculum Framework 2005)
ii) Improvement of classroom processes & management of schools so that the
curricular & pedagogic shift for enhancing participation in learning may be
implemented.
iii) Promotion of continuous & comprehensive evaluation and examination reform
at secondary level.
iv) Quality imperative in teacher preparation should be encouraged.
v) Monitoring & quality improvement in researches need to be intervened.
vi) Information & communication technology to be infused in all areas of concerns.
vii) Establishment of roles of various national, state, district level agencies in this
aspect.
viii) Multi layer strategic guidelines & indicative financial norms to be introduced at
a faster pace.

5.1.6 Challenges of Senior Secondary Educations

India is the largest democracy with remarkable diversity among its population of 1.2
billion that accounts for 17% of the world’s population. Nearly 70% of Indian population
is rural. The adult literacy rate is approx. 60% & is considerably lower in females &
minorities. The following are the challenges posed by higher or senior secondary
education in India.
1) Physical barriers – Inadequate school infrastructures owing to teaching learning
conditions is a primordial factor in this respect. Improper public transportation is also a
determinant factor in excluding students from the education system. Persons living in
poverty are the mostly affected. This require bringing schools closer to communities,
often through improvements in the aforesaid areas. Strategies also include the
establishment of boarding schools.
Threat of violence against girls on the way to & from schools limits their inclination
towards education. Within schools, inadequately built classrooms & toilets can also
restrict their use by students with disabilities.
2) Financial barriers – Direct & indirect costs of schooling is a central reason for

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children being out of school or dropping out. Tuition fees appear as the most significant
financial obstacle in this respect. Furthermore targeting elimination of child labour in
order to safeguard mandatory education is relevant in this respect. Besides disparities
in the provisions for public education contribute to unequal opportunities for many
students receiving educations in poorly resoirced schools as compared to its contrast
counterparts.
States should shoulder the responsibility to alleviate this financial burden & ensure
that higher secondary education is generally available &accessible to all & also ensure
equal access to higher education on the basis of merit.
Incentives in the form of school meal programmes, in poverty stricken areas to be
implemented in order to ensure income deprivation in particular & poverty in general.
Broadly speaking, state investment in social protection policies & its contribution to
alleviating the burden on families & child poverty plays a pivoted role in the promotion
of education.
As poverty & social exclusion is one of the major barriers in achieving the EFA, the
use of direct financial support. These comprises of fellowship schemes, conditional
cash transfers or social assistance support for school going children).
The right to education establishes the state to take the responsibility of promotional
measures including financial support schemes. Article 13 of the International covenant
on economic, social & cultural rights proposes the establishment of an adequate
fellowship system, among its provision on the right to education.
3) Linguistic & cultural barriers : The lack of education in mother tongue or
native languages in often a source of exclusion. This is applied for minorities & migrants
cases. The united Nations Declaration on the Rights of persons belonging to National
or Ethnic, Religious & Linguistic Minorities, establishes in article 4(3) that states should
take appropriate measures so that wherever possible, persons belonging to minorities
may have adequate opportunities to learn their mother tongue or to have instruction in
their mother tongue the forum on minority issues recommended that states take
appropriate measures, wherever possible, to ensure that persons belonging to minorities
may have adequate opportunities to learn their mother tongue or to have instruction in
their mother tongue.
Respecting the richness of linguistic & cultural diversity, education policies in today’s
globalized world should give high consideration to mother-tongue based multilingual
education.

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5.1.7 Check your progress -1
1. What is the age limit of pre-school education?
2. What do pre-school program provide for teacher?
3. Mention the nation’s % of dropout in primary education.
4. Write any two physical barriers of primary education.
5. Mention any two collaborating efforts of India in relation to primary education.
6. Write the three premises of challenges in secondary education in India.
7. Give the full form of NCF.
8. What should be the characteristic of evaluation at secdondary stage of education?
9. What is meant by linguistic barriers?
10. Give 2 examples of incentives in the promotion of senior secondary education.

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5.2 : Inclusive Education as a Right Based model

Structure
5.2.1 Introduction
5.2.2 Objectives
5.2.3 Radical changes in the Education System
5.2.4 The Human Rights backdrop for Inclusion
5.2.5 The significant Human Rights standards
5.2.6 Principles underlying a Rights Based Model/Approach to Education
5.2.7 Commitment of the Right to Education in Human Rights Based
approach
5.2.8 Good Governing policies
5.2.9 Check your progress

5.2.1 Introduction :
There are three broad approaches to the Education of children with disabilities :
• Segregation, in which children are classified on the basis of their impairment &
allocated a school accordingly.
• Integration, where children with disabilities are placed in the mainstream system
and
• Inclusion, where there is recognition of a need to transform the cultures, policies
& practices in schools to cater to the needs of students & to remove the barriers that
block the possibility.
It is often documented that inclusive education is not only about addressing issues of
such as access & teacher-training, but also involves a shift in underlying values & beliefs
held across the system. It is actually including children with disabilities to have access
to schooling within their own communities, provided with appropriate learning
opportunities in order to fulfill their potential. This approach is grounded by an
understanding that all children should have equivalent & systematic learning

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opportunities in a wide range of school & additional educational settings, despite the
differences that might exist.
This pedagogical approach stresses upon –
i) The open learning potential of each student, rather than a hierarchy of cognitive
skills.
ii) Reform of the curriculum & a cross – cutting pedagogy, than a need to focus on
student deficiencies
iii) Active participation of students in the learning process, rather than emphasis on
specialised discipline knowledge as key to teacher expertise.
iv) A common curriculum for all, based upon differentiated &/or individualised
instruction than an alternative curriculum being developed for low achievers
v) Teachers who include, rather than exclude.

5.2.2 Objectives :
Upon completion of the teaching learning material, the trainee trachers will be able to –
• develop a considerable knowledge on inclusion & its key areas of concern.
• analyse & put forward relevant human right standards.
• understand principles on right based model/approach.
• pinpoint & discuss concepts underlying right to eduation.

5.2.3 Radical changes in the Education System :

The following changes are based upon values & principles of the people involved in
delivering education. Central to an inclusive approach is a commitment to :
i) Putting values into action
ii) Valuing every life equally
iii) Helping everyone feel a sense of belonging
iv) Promoting children’s participation in learning & teaching.
v) Reducing exclusion, discrimination & barriers to learning & participation.

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 vi) Developing cultures, politicises & practices to promote diversity & respect for
everyone equally.
vii) Learning from inclusive practice to share the lessons widely.
viii) Acknowledging the right of children to locally based high quality education.
ix) Improving schools for staff & parents as well as children.
x) Emphasising the value of building positive school communication as well as
achievements.
xi) Fostering positive relationships between schools & their values & surrounding
communities.
xii) Recognising the inclusion in education is one aspect of inclusion in society.

5.2.4 The Human Rights backdrop for Inclusion :

In is known to all that inclusion is much said in human rights issues (or approach), but
there are also social & educational beneficiaries. These can be put together as under :
i) It can produce positive changes in attitudes within schools towards diversity by
educating all children together thereby to higher social cohesion.
ii) Children with disabilities learn tolerance, acceptance of difference & respect for
diversity.
iii) Children with disabilities are less stigmatised & more socially included.
iv) Children with disabilities have access to wider curriculum than that which is
available in special schools.
v) There are educational benefits for all children inherent in providing inclusive
education by the help of changes made in the way schooling is planned,
implemented & evaluated.
vi) As a matter of fact education is a means to ensure that people can enjoy &
defend their rights in society & contribute to the process of democratisation &
personalisation both in society & in education.

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5.2.5 The significant Human Rights standards :
One of the messages emerging from the general Discussion Day on the rights of children
with disabilities held by the committee on the rights of the child in Oct’1997, was the
importance of recognising children with disabilities as contributors of society & not
burdens.
The World Bank was estimated that people with disabilities may account for as
many as 1 in 5 of the world’s poorest people (1997).
A 2005 World Bank study also concluded the “disability is associated with long
term poverty in the sense that children with disabilities are less likely to acquire the
human capital that will allow them to earn higher incomes”.
Educating children with disabilities is a good investment. A world Bank paper purports
that it reduces welfare costs & current & future dependence. It also frees other members
from caring responsibilities, allowing them to increase employment or other production
activities.
A 2009 UNESCO study notes that up to 35.6% of global GDP lost due to disability
is estimated to take place in Europe & Central Asia.
In addition to this the orginisation of Economic Cooperation & Development (OECD)
acknowledges that improving the equity & equality of education system is “vital to the
maintenance of a flourishing economy & society”.
CRC : All government in the region have agreed upon the convention on the rights
of the child (CRC), holistic human rights treaty addressing the society economic, cultural,
civil, political & protection rights of the children. It emphasizes both the right to education
on the basis of equality of opportunity & the broad aims of education in terms of
promoting the fullest possible development of the child. In its general comment on the
aims of education, the committee on the “Rights of the child” has emphasised that
education to which every child has a right is one designed to provide the child with life
skills, to strengthen the child’s capacity to enjoy a full range of human rights & to
promote a culture which is infused by human rights values.
CRPD : Although the CRC commitments, the rights of children with disabilities
continue to be widely neglected & violated. The UN convention on rights of persons
with Disabilities (CRPD) was drafted, not to introduce new rights the rights of persons

198
with disabilities are exactly, the same as those of every other person. In order to confirm
those rights & introduce additional obligation on govt. to realise their commitment.
May 2012, 7 countries had ratified the CRPD : Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bosnia and
Herzogoverria, Serbia, Slovakia, Croatia, Czech Republic, Hungary Latvia, Lithuania,
Montenegro, Moldova, Romania, Russian Federation, Slovenia, Turkey & Turkmenistan.
The CRPD includes detailed provisions on the rights to education, stressing more
explicitly than in the CRC, regarding “an inclusive system of education at all levels”.
It also unproduced a range of obligations to remove the barriers that serve to impede
the realization of rights for people, including children with disabilities & ensure to
more effective protection & a harder voice for children with disabilities to claim their
rights. The chart elaborate the key articles in both conventions, i.e., CRC & CRPD.
See Chart – 1 :

5.2.6 Principles underlying a Rights Based Model/Approach to

Education
A rights based approach to education is informed by 7 fundamental principles of human
rights. These principles are required to be implemented in the development of legislations,
policies & practices confining to the right to inclusive education. They are the following :
1) Universality & inalienability : Human rights are universal & inalienable, the
entitlement of all people everywhere in the world. An individual cannot
voluntarily give them up. Nor can others take them away.
2) Indivisibility : Human rights are indivisible. Whether civil, cultural, economic,
political or social, they are all inherent to the dignity of every person.
3) Interdependence & interrelatedness : The realisation of one right often
depends, holly or partially on the realization of others.
4) Equality & non-discrimination : All individuals are equal as human beings &
by virtue of the inherent dignity of each person, are entitled to their rights without
discrimination of any kind.
5) Participation and Inclusion : Every person & all people are entitled to active,
free & meaningful participation in, contribution to & enjoyment of civil,
economic, social, cultured & political development.
6) Empowerment : It is the process by which people’s capabilities to demand &

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 use their human rights grow. The goal is to give people the power & capabilities
to claim their rights, in order to change their own lives & improve their
communities.
7) Accountability & respect for the rule of law : A rights based approach seeks
to raise levels of account ability in the development process by identifying rights
holders and corresponding ‘duty bearers’ & to enhance the capacities of those
suty bearers to meet their obligations.

5.2.7 Commitment of the Right to Education in Human Rights

Based approach
The following are the obligations to endure the right to education for children with
disabilities. CRC & CRPD undertook to lake all necessary measures to ensure the
following realizations transforming into action –
i) To fulfill the right to education – To ensure that quality education is available
for all children, promoting inclusive education & introducing positive measures
to enable children to benefit from it. For eg, making physical adaptations to
buildings, providing accessible transport, adapting the curricula to the needs of
all children & providing necessary equipment & resources.
ii) To respect the right to education – Smooth implementation serve to prevent
children availing education, such as legislation that categorizes certain groups
of children with disabilities as uneducable or school entry testing systems that
serve to categorize children with disabilities as not ready for school.
iii) To protect the right to education – This can be maximized by taking necessary
measures to remove the obstacles to education put forward by individuals or
communities, like resistance by teachers or violence, abuse or bullying in the
school environment.
iv) For local authorities – The development of local policies for implementation
of inclusion, appropriate support for individual schools, provisions for funding,
securing necessary building adaptations & the provisions for resource centres.
v) For individual schools – With the advent & introduction of an inclusive
educational environment the addresses the culture, policies & practices of the
school to ensure that the basic conditions exist in which all children can participate
& learn.

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 vi) For parents – Sending all their children to school & supporting them both in
their education & in helping the schools to comply with the principles of an
inclusive approach.
vii) For children – To take advantage of opportunities to participate & learn, support
their peers & cooperate with the values of inclusive schooling.
viii) For social society – Supporting the development of community based inclusive
education & contributing to an environment of respect & acceptance.

5.2.8 Good Governing policies :

Inclusive education demands that ministries of education have responsibility for the
education of all children. In addition to this, without coordinated action across a no. of
govt. ministries being embedded in the strategies for introducing inclusive education,
the system will remain entrenched in an able-bodied culture & ethos. This will
subsequently be or harder to change. Overall, ministries need to the aligned in their
understanding of all commitment to inclusive education in order to achieve an integrated
& holistic approach where they are working collaboratively towards a shared agenda.
Inclusion needs to he understood as an integral to the whole of the education system –
not just an odd on. According to rights based approach, this will require –
• Coordination between ministries of health, to ensure early identification &
assessment & rehabilitation services.
• Close liaison between ministries responsible for social work services, social
protection, employment & vocational training.
• Engagement of ministries responsible for school building maintenance and
improvements needed to ensure that the design of schools is consistent with the
commitment to inclusion – that play areas, sports facilities, corridors, doors,
classroom, layout & entry to buildings are accessible.
• Cooperation between finance ministries & those developing the policy to ensure
the allocation & oversight of budgets for inclusive education.
• Collaboration with ministry of transport at national & local levels, to ensure that
accessible & affordable transport systems are in place consistent with the numbers
of children needing provision.

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 • Awareness on the port of ministries responsible for child protection to the rights
of children with disabilities in school.
Overall, addressing these challenges implies the need for the following government
frameworks :
• National policy frameworks for inclusive education that support the policy,
practice & culture of inclusion across all levels of the mainstream system are
needed.
• Principles of universal entitlement to inclusive education must be established at
national level & supported by transparent guidance as to the acquaint with the
technical know that need to be applied at the local level.
• Provision for incentives for innovative & promising practice that rests upon local
strengths local authorities need to be mobilized with capacity building for local
officials, uniform budget for investing in the necessary services and programs,
kind reporting & enforcement mechanisms to safeguard accountability & also
policies that provide incentives for innovative & challenging practice that rests
on local strengths.
• Collaboration is required at national & local levels with transport ministry in
order to make sure the accessibility & affordability of children with needs.
• Transport ministries awareness plays a pivotal part for child protection in the
schools.
In the light of the above points of discussion on addressing the challenges needs and
extra Phillip on the part of the following government frameworks:
• Rights based model/approach addresses National policy frameworks for inclusive
education that indulges & support the policy, practice & culture of inclusion
across all levels of the mainstream system.
• Establishment of principles of universal entitlement to inclusive education at
national level which in turn needs to be clearly guided on how they must be
implemented at the local level.

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 • In order to ensure accountability, transparency in reporting & enforcement
mechanises local authorities need to be provided with capacity building for local
officials & subsequent dedicated budgets.
• If should be also taken into consideration to provide incentives for innovative &
promising practice that is build upon local strength.

5.2.9 Check your progress : 2

1. What is meant by Right Based approach / Model?

.................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................
2. Mention the three broad approached to education for children with disabilities.
.................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................
3. Elaborate the full form of CRC & CRPD.
.................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................
4. Write two principles of Rights Based approach / model.
.................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................
5. Give two characteristics of good governance.
.................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................

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 6. Mention any 1 commitment of Right to Education.
.................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................
Suggested Readings :
1. Geoff Lindsay Inclusive education : a critical perspective. British Journal of
Special Education, Volume 30, Issue 1, Pages – 3-12, March 2003.
2. Susan Peters, C. Johnstone & P. Ferguson, A Disability Rights in Education
Model for evaluating inclusive education, International Journal of Inclusive
Education, Volume 9, Issue 2, 2005, pages 139-160.
3. Susan J. Peters “Education for All?” A Historical Analysis of International
Inclusive Education Policy and Individuals with Disabilities Journal of Disability
Policy Studies Fall 2007 Vol. 18 No. 298-108.
4. Implementing Inclusive Education : A Commonwealth Guide to Implementing
…By Richard Rieser ISBN :978-1-84929-073-9, http://www.keepeek.com/
Digital-Asset-Management/oecd/commonwealth/education/implementing-
imclusive-education_9781848591271-en#page2
5. A Human Rights-Based Approach to EDUCATION FOR ALL
http://unesdoc.unesco.orgimages/0015/001548/154861E.pdf
6. http://www.opepa.in/website/download/framework_finalapproved.pdf
7. The Journey for Inclusive Education in the India Sub-Continent, Mithu Alur,
Michael Bach, Routledge Research in Education 2009 ISBN 1135858926,
9781135858926

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 Chart - 1
CRC CRPD
Best interests Article 7 – reaffirms that the best interests of the child with
Article 3 – the best interests of the child must be a primary disabilities must be a primary consideration.
consideration in all actions concerning children taken by Article 16 – all facilities and programmes for people.
public and private bodies. Services, facilities and institutions Including children with disabilities, must be monitored by
caring for children must comply with appropriate standards independent authorities.
in respect of health, safery, wuality of staff and proper
supervision.

Participation Article 3 – full and effective participation is a general

Article 12 – the right of every child capable of forming a principle of the CRPD.
view, to express views and have them given due weight in Article 7 – affirms the right of children with disabilities to
accordance with age and maturity. express views and have them given due weight in accordance
Article 23 – right to active participation within the with age and maturity, on an equal basis with other children.
community. They must be provided with disability and age-appropriate
support of realise this right.

Support for parents Article 23 – States must produce appropriate assistance to

Article 18 – both parents have equal responsibilities for their parents with disabilities to help them care for their children.
children and should have children’s best interests as their Children with disabilities have equal rights to family life and
primary concern. States must provide assistance, support and States must provide early information, services and support
services to help parents bring up their children. to children with disabilities and their families to prevent
concealment, abandonment, neglect and segregation.
Protection from all forms of violence
Article 19 – children have the right to protection from all Article 16 – affirms the right to protection from violence,
forms of violence, neglect, exploitation and abuse, and States and requires States to provide forms of support to people
must take all appropriate measures to protect them from such with disabilities to help them avoid violence and abuse and
violence. it must be accessible and appropriate to children with
disabilities, as well as gender sensitive. All protection services
must be age, gender and disability – sensitive. States must
introduce child-focused legislation and policies to ensure that
violence against children with disabilities is identified,
investigated and prosecuted where appropriate.
Article 30 – ensures that children with disabilities have equal
opportunities with others to play, recreation, leisure and
sporting activities.

Play, leisure and access to cultural life Article 30 – ensure that children with disabilities have equal
Article 31 – the right to play and recreation and to participate opportunities with others to play, recreation, leisure and
in cultural and artistic life sporting activities.

Education Article 24 – affirms the right of people with disabilities to

Article 28 – education must be provided to every child on inclusive education, at all levels, without discrimination and
the basis of equality of opportunity. on the basis of equality of opportunity. States must ensure
States must : that children with disabilities :
• Make primary education compulsory and free to all; • Are not excluded from the general education system and
• Make secondary school available and accessible to every can access inclusive, quality and free primary and
child and take measures to make it free; secondary education on an equal basis with others in the
• Make higher education accessible to all on basis of communities in which they live;
capacity; • are provided with reasonable accommodation of their
• Make vocational information available and accessible to needs;
all children; • receive the support they need within the general
• Take measures to increase attendance and reduce drop- education system;
outs. • are provided with individualised support measures,
All appropriate measures must be taken to ensure that school consistent with full inclusion.
discipline respects children’s dignity and complies with other States must also take measures to enable people with
right in the UNCRC, and States must encourage international disabilities to participate equally in education and their
cooperation. communities by supporting learning of all alternative
Article 29 – Education must be directed to the development forms of communication, and enabling deaf, blind and

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of children to the fullest potential respect for human rights, deaf, blind children to learn in the most appropriate languages
respect for the child’s parents and their values, the values of and modes and in environments that maximise their
their own and others’ societies, preparation of the child for development.
life in a free society and respect for the natural environment. The education system must enable people with disabilities to
achieve the full development of their personality, talents,
creativity and mental and physical abilities, a sense of dignity
and self-worth, respect for human rights and effective
participation in society.

Non-discrimination Article 2 – defines discrimination on the basis of disability

Article 2 – the right to non-discrimination on any ground, as any exclusion or restriction that prevents the realisation of
including disability, and the obligation of States to take all rights on an equal basis with other.
appropriate measures to protect children from all forms of Article 3 – non-discrimination, equality of opportunity and
discrimination. equality between men/boys and women/girls are general
principles of the CRPD.
Article 4 – duty on States to eliminate discrimination.
Article 5 – prohibition of discrimination on grounds of
disability, and obligation on States to provide reasonable
accommodation to promote equality and eliminate
discrimination.
Article 6 – obligation to take measures to address the multiple
discrimination faced by women and girls with disabilities.
Article 7 – guarantees children with disabilities respect for
rights on an equal basis with other children.
Article 8 – States must adopt wide-ranging measures to raise
awareness of the rights of people with disabilities, combat
prejudice and discrimination, promote positive images of
disability, encourage respect for people with disabilities in
the education system and provide awareness training on
disability.
Implementation
Article 4 – obligation on States to take all appropriate Article 4 – sets out detailed obligations to take all appropriate
legislative, administrative and other measures to implement measures to implement the CRPD, including :
the UNCRC. With social, economic and cultural rights, • legislation;
measures must be taken to the maximum extent of available • protection of rights of people, including children, with
resources. disabilities in all policies and programme;
• avoidance of actions inconsistent with the CRPD;
• measures to eliminate discrimination;
• promotion of universal design, research into new
technologies and provision of information and services
on available aids and devices;
• training professionals on the CRPD;
• consulting with people with disabilities, including
children, on all legislation and policies to implement the
CRPD;
• With regard to economic, social and cultural rights,
implementation to the maximum of available resources
(Education is a social right).
Article 31 – obliges States to collect data on the number of
persons with disabilities and to disaggregate data in their
national statistics.
Article 33 – requires States to designate a focal point for
implementation of the Convention and to fully involve
organizations of persons with disabilities and their
representative organizations to participate fully in this process.

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5.3 Complementarity of inclusive & special schools
Structure
5.3.1 Introduction
5.3.2 Objectives
5.3.3 Fully Inclusive Schools & General / Special Education Policies
5.3.4 Classification of Students & Educational Practices
5.3.5 School Procedures & Community Development
5.3.6 Laws Pertaining to Education & Disability
5.3.7 Principles of Inclusion
5.3.8 Selection of Students for Inclusion Program in Schools
5.3.9 Inclusive Education vis-à-vis progressive Education
5.3.10 Inclusionary Practices
5.3.11 Classroom Practices in Inclusive Classrooms
5.3.12 Check your progress

5.3.1 Introduction :
There are many positive effect of inclusions where both the students with special needs
and with general (so called normal) students in the classroom, both benefit. Researches
in the recent past has shown favourable effects for children with disabilities in reaching
Individualized Education programe (IEP) goal, improving communication & social skills,
increasing positive peer interactions, many educational outcomes & post school
adjustments. Positive effects on children without disabilities included the development
of positive attitudes & perceptions of persons with disabilities & the enhancement of
social status with non-disable peers. It has been confirmed through numerous studies
that children in the integrated sites progressed in social skills development while the
segregated children actually regressed. It has also been reported & confirmed that learners
with specific learning disabilities made considerable academic & affective gains at a
pace comparable to that of normal achieving students. It has been also purported that

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specific learning disabilities learners also showed an improvement in self esteem & in
some cases improved motivation.

5.3.2 Objectives :
Upon completion of the SLM the students will be able to –
• delineate the features of inclusive, special & general schools
• classify students according to the educational practices.
• know different laws related to Education & disability
• understand the various principles of inclusion
• critically analyse the domain of inclusive & progressive education.

5.3.3 Fully Inclusive Schools & General / Special Education

Policies :
Though it seem a dreamy affair but it is a true fact that fully inclusive schools which
are very rare & resultantly no longer distinguish between general education & special
education programs. These were referred in numerous debated & federal initiatives of
the 1980s & henceforth such as community integration project & various debates on
special education – regular education classrooms. These projects put emphasis on
restructuring of schools so that all students learn together. It is quite alarming but a pre-
requisite factor that all approaches to inclusive schooling require administrative &
managerial changes to shift from the traditional approaches to elementary & high school
education.
Inclusion remains as a part of school in the recent times as a most integrated setting
& other educational reform initiatives in maximum parts of the world. It is an honest
effort to improve quality in education in the sectors of disability, is a common topic in
our educational reform for decades. This has been supported by the UN convention on
the right of persons with disabilities (UN, 2006). Inclusion, as a philosophy has been
researched & studied for decades, but it is reported lightly in the public.

5.3.4 Classification of Students & Educational Practices :

In order to classify students by disability is standard in educational systems which use

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diagnostic, educational & psychological testing. Basically, inclusion has two sub-types :
(a) regular inclusion or partial inclusive & (b) full inclusive.
Inclusive practice is not always inclusive but is a form of integration. Students with
special needs are educated in regular classes for nearly all of the day, or at least for
more than half of the day. Whenever possible the students receive any additional help or
special instruction in the general classroom & the student is treated like a full members
of the class. However, most specialized services are provided outside a regular classroom
for instance speech therapy or alike. In order to execute inclusive practice, more intensive
instructional sessions in a resource room, or to receive other related services, such as
speech & language thereby, occupational &/or physical thereby, psychological services
& social work. This kind of approach can be very similar to many mainstreaming
practices & may differ slightly than the educational ideals behind it.
In the full inclusion setting, the students with special needs are always educated
along with students without special needs. At one hand, full inclusion is the integration
of all students, even those that require the most substantial educational & behavioral
supports & services to be successful in regular classes & the elimination of special,
segregated special education classes. Special education is considered a service, not a
place & those services are integrated into the daily routines & classroom structures,
environment, curriculum & strategies brought to the student. However, this approach to
full inclusion is still an issue of controversy & it is not widely understood or applied to
date.
Local educational agencies have the responsibility to organize services for children
with disabilities. They usually provide a variety of settings, from special classrooms to
mainstreaming to inclusive set up & subsequently assign teachers & administrators to
help the students achieve their respective educational goals. In addition to this, all types
of disabilities from all the different disability categories, have been successful included
in general education classes, working & achieving their individual education goals in
regular school environment & activities.

5.3.5 School Procedures & Community Development :

To accommodate students with disabilities those who are not included are wither
mainstreamed or segregated.

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 Mainstream - A mainstreamed students attend. General education classes as proposed
for less than half a day, e.g., a young student with significant intellectual disabilities
might be mainstreamed for same physical education classes, are classes & story book
time. Such students may have access to a resource room for remediation or enhancement
of course content, or for a variety of groups & individual meetings & consultations.
Segregation – A segregated student attends no classes with non-disabled students
with disability, a tested category determined before or at school entrance. He or she as
recommended might attend a special school termed as residential schools that enrolls
other students with disabilities or they can be placed in a self-contained classroom in a
school that also enrolls general education students. Home schooling (previously
recommended action) was also a popular alternative among highly educated parents
with children with significant disabilities.
From the above explanation, it can be summarized that both types-mainstreamed &
segregated students have a wide opportunity to achieve learning goals despite of their
disabilities.
Residential schools have been criticized for long time & the govt. was repeatedly
asked to keep funds & services in all sectors, including family support services for
parents with challenged children. Children with special needs may already be involved
with early childhood education which actually possess a family support component
highlighting the strengths of the child & the family.

5.3.6 Laws Pertaining to Education & Disability :

The anti discriminatory climate has provided the basis for much change in policy &
statute, nationally & internationally. Inclusive has been enshrined at the same time that
segregation & discrimination have been rejected. Articulations of the new developments
in ways of thinking, in policy & in law include:
• The UN convention on the Rights of the child (1989). It sets out children rights
in respect of freedom from discrimination & in respect of the representation of
their wishes & views.
• The convention against discrimination in education of UNESCO prohibits any
discrimination, exclusion or segregation in education.

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 • The UNESCO Salamanca Statement (1994) it purports all governments to give
the highest priority to inclusive education.
• The UN convention on the right of persons with disabilities (2006). It calls on
all states parties to ensure an inclusive education septum at all levels.
• Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, 1997 (IDEA) – greater emphasis on
delivery of related services within inclusive, general education.

5.3.7 Principles of Inclusion :

To avoid harm to the academic education of the learners with disabilities, a full impressive
range of services & resources includes the following :
→ Adequate supports & services for the student.
→ Well designed individualized education programs
→ Professional development for all teachers involved, general & special educators
alike.
→ Time for teacher to meet, plan, create & evaluate the students together.
→ Reduced class size based on the severity of the student needs.
→ Professional skill development in the areas of cooperative learning, peer-tutoring,
adoptive curriculum.
→ Collaboration between parents or guardians, teachers or para educators,
specialists, administration & outside agencies.
→ Sufficient funding so that schools with be able to develop program for students
based on student need instead of the availability of funding.
Having said the above underlying principles, it can be further elaborated that several
factors can determine the success of inclusive classrooms.
These are clubbed together as –
→ Family – school partnerships.
→ Collaboration between general & special educators.
→ Well constructed plans that identify specific accommodations, modification &
goals for each students.
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 → Coordinated planning & communication between “general” & “special needs”
staff.
→ Ongoing training & staff development
→ Integrated service delivery
→ Leadership of teachers & administrators.

5.3.8 Selection of Students for Inclusion Program in Schools :

Generally, educators are of the opinion that some students with special needs are not
good candidates for inclusion. There are schools those expect a fully included student
to be working at or near class level, but the basic requirements that exist requires the
student to be able to attend the school students that are entirely excluded from school
cannot attempt inclusion.
In addition, some students with special needs are poor candidates for inclusion because
of their effect on other students. This is because the school has a duty to provide a safe
environment to all students & staff.
Whereas, some students are not good candidates for inclusive because the normal
activities in a general education classroom will prevent them from learning. Seclusion
needs to be appropriate to the child’s unique needs. On the other hand most students
with special needs donot fall into these extreme categories, as most students do attend
school, are not violent, donot have severe sensory processing disorders etc.
Keeping in mind, the students that are most commonly included are those with
physical disabilities that have no or little effect on their academic work, students with
all types of mild disabilities & also for students whose disabilities require relatively
few specialized services.
While promoting the criteria on selection of students for inclusion, Bome admits
that regular inclusion, but not full inclusion, is a reasonable approach for a significant
majority of student with special needs. He extends his opinion that for some students
with multiple disabilities, even regular inclusion may not offer an appropriate education.
To cater to such type of students, sometimes use of antecedent procedures, delayed
contingencies, self-management strategies, peer-mediated interventions, pivotal response
training& naturalistic teaching strategies.

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5.3.9 Inclusive Education vis-à-vis progressive Education :
Some advocates of inclusion promote the adoption of progressive education practices.
In such practices, commonly termed as inclusive classrooms, everyone is exposed to a
rich set of activities. In such setting, each student does what he or she can do, or what he
or she wishes to do & learns whatever gathered from that experience. Maria Montessori’s
schools sometimes named as example of inclusive education.
Honestly speaking, inclusion requires some changes in how teachers teach, as well
as changes in how students with/without needs interact with & relate to one another.
Inclusive education practices frequently rely on active learning, authentic assessment
practices, applied curriculum, multi-level instructional approaches& increased attention
to diverse student needs & individualization.
A 2nd key argument is that everybody benefits from inclusion. Advocates say that
there are many children who don’t fit in & that a school which fully includes all disabled
students feels welcoming to all. Moreover, long term effects of typical students who are
included with special need students at a very young age have a heightened sensitivity to
the challenges that others face, increased empathy & compassion & improved leadership
skills which benefits all society.
A combination of inclusion & pull-out (partial inclusion) services has been shown
to be not ………. beneficial to students with special need because researches shows
that inclusion helps students understand the importance of working together & fosters
a sense of tolerance & empathy among the student body.

5.3.10 Inclusionary Practices :

• One teach, one support – Here, content teacher delivers the lesson & the special
education teacher will assist the student’s individual needs & enforce classroom
management as needed.
• One teach one observe – Content teacher will deliver the lesson & the special
educator will float or observe. This is use during data retrieval of IEP or
Functional Behaviour analysis.
• Rotational teaching – Students are divided into small groups. The content teacher
delivers the lesson in her group & the special educator completes a review or

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 adapted version of the lesson with the students.
• Parallel teaching – One half of the class is taught by the content teacher & one
half by the special educator.
• Alternative teaching – The content teacher will teach the lesson to the class,
while the special educator will teach a small group in an alternative lesson.
• Team teaching – Both teachers share the planning, teaching & supporting equally.
This is the traditional approach & often the most successful teaching method.

5.3.11 Classroom Practices in Inclusive Classrooms :

It is seen often that teachers rise an number of techniques to help build classroom
communities, thereby ensuring complementarily with general education set up :
• Using games designed to build community.
• Involving students in solving problems.
• Sharing songs & books that teach community.
• Openly dealing with individual differences by discussion.
• Assigning classroom jobs that build community.
• Teaching students to look for ways to help each other.
• Utilizing physical therapy equipment.
• Encouraging students to take the role of teachers & deliver instruction.
• Focusing on the strength of a student with special need.
• Create classroom check list & take break wherever necessary.
• Create an area for children to calm down.
• Organize student desk in groups.
• Create a self & welcoming environment.
• Set ground rules & stick with them.
• Help establish short term goals.
• Design multifaceted curriculum.
• Communicate with parents & cregivers & educators regularly.

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5.3.12 Check your progress :
1. Elaborate the term IEP & IDEA.
2. Name the two sub-types of inclusion.
3. Mention any 3 educations & disability Law.
4. Give 3 principles of inclusion in an inclusive set up.
5. What are the 2 factors that determines the success of inclusive classrooms.
6. Enumerate some of the commonly used inclusionary practices.
7. Name some of the common practices in inclusive classrooms.
8. What is progressive education?
9. What are PRT and AAP?
10. Mention any two benefits of inclusive set up.

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Unit - 5 ❐ Issues & Trends in Education
Structure
5.4 Language issues in education
5.4.1 Introduction
5.4.2 Objectives
5.4.3 Concept of Language
5.4.3.1 Definition & meaning
5.4.3.2 Characteristics
5.4.4 Origin of Language
5.4.5 Functions of language
5.4.6 Strategies for language development
5.4.6.1 Strategies for early educators
5.4.6.2 Strategies for families
5.4.6.3 Expressive language
5.4.7 Receptive language
5.4.8 Language development & communication skills of children
5.4.9 Children with specific language impairment.
5.4.10 Multilingualism
5.4.11 Check your progress

5.4.1 Introduction :
Every field of study has a set of technical terms, which forms the basis for the knowledge
to be acquired in that field; special education of the children with hearing impairment is
no exception. It has a range or well-defined terms, thorough understanding of which is
a pre-requisite of success in this profession. You will realize or must have realized
already, that communication and language are the two of such concepts/terms, which
are at the core of all the issues in special education. Hence a clear and descriptive idea

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of these terms will help you understand the issues in a better way – as a teacher trainee,
as a teacher and also as human being. Clear understanding of these key terms will give
you a better perspective of the controversy – ‘oral versus manual’.

5.4.2 Objectives :
Upon completion of the sub-unit, the student teacher will be able to –
• identify & define key concepts of language.
• delineate the origin of language.
• understand language development & communication skill.
• execute strategies fir language development
• practice & promote language skills among children.
• Identify language impairment among burners.
• Critically analyse the concept of multilingualism.

5.4.3 Concept of Language

5.4.3.1 Definition & meaning :
Language is a creation of our social needs. Language is so complex that, any, attempt to
define it, poses problems. However, many linguists have given the following definitions :
→ According to Lahey, 1978, “Language is a code whereby the idea about the
world are represented through conventional system of arbitrary signals for
communication.
→ According to Chomsky, 1957, “Language is a set of (finite or infinite) sentences,
each finite in length& constructed out of a finite set of elements.”
→ Sapir, 1921, says, “language is a purely human & man-instinctive method of
communicating ideas, emotions & desires by means of a system of voluntarily
produced symbols.
A few terms used in these definitions have to be understood to understand the
definition. These are –

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 i) Language is a system
ii) The symbols used in language (words) are arbitrary in nature.
iii) Language is species specific, i.e., purely human.
iv) Infinite number of sentences are generated using finite number of elements.

5.4.3.2 Characteristics of Language :

• creativity is an important aspect of human language.
• double articulation or duality of patterns.
• displacement is another characteristic of language.
• cultural transmission
• language has reflexivity.

• recursion, i.e., sentences may be produced with other sentences inside them.

5.4.4 Origin of Language :

The origin of language in the human species has luen the topic of scholarly discussions
for centuries. In spite of this, there is no consensus on the ultimate origin or age of
human language. One problem makes the topic difficult to study, i.e., the lack of direct
evidence. Many argue that the origins of language probably related closely to the origins
of modern human behaviour, but there is little agreement about the implications &
directionality of this connection.
In 1866, the linguistic society of Paris banned any existing or future debated on the
subject, a prohibition which remained influential across much of the western world
until late in the 20th century.
One can sub-divide approaches to the origin of language according to some underlying
assumptions:
• Continuity theories build on the idea that language exhibits so much complexity
that one cannot imagine it simply appearing from nothing in its final form : it
must therefore have evolved from earlier pre-linguistic systems among our
primate ancestors.

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 • Discontinuity theories take the opposite approach – that language as a unique
trait cannot compare with anything found among non-humans & must therefore
have appeared fairly suddenly during the course of human evolution.
• Some theories see language mostly as an unite faculty largely generically encoded.
• Other theories regard language as mainly cultural system – learned through social
interaction.
However scholarly interest in the question of the origin of language has only gradually
been rekindled from the 1950s on with ideas such as universal grammar, mass comparison
& glottochronology.
The origin of language as a subject in its own right emerged from studies in
neurolinguistics, psycholinguistics & human evolution. The linguistic Bibliography
introduced, “Origin of language” as a separate heading in 1988, as a subtopic of
psycholinguistics. Dedicated research institutes of evolutionary linguistics are a recent
phenomenon emerging only in the 1990s.

5.4.5 Functions of language :

Language has many functions or uses :
i) Communicate our ideas (Cairs, 1986). It occurs in 2 contexts, namely –
→ Everyday communication which is contextualized
→ Academic situations such as education, law, govt., business.
ii) Social interactions, i.e., language is used to maintain a comfortable relationship
among people who belong to one language community.
iii) Emotional expression, i.e. to provide an outlet for our emotions & attitudes while
we speak.
iv) Instrument of though
v) Expression of identity
vi) Recording the facts.
vii) The ………. of reality

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Developmental functions of language for a child :

i) Instrumental, i.e., to express the material needs.

ii) Regulatory, i.e., controlling behaviour of others.
iii) Heuristic, i.e., it is the learning function of language, helping to explore the
environment.
iv) Informative, i.e., use of language to inform any incidents.
v) Imaginative i.e., children learn about real life situations through fantasy & learn
to use the language accordingly.

5.4.6 Strategies for language development

5.4.6.1 Strategies for early educators :

• Using facial expressions, gestures, rich & varied vocabulary while reading&
speaking with children.
• Introduction of new words & concepts by labeling & providing opportunities
for conversations.
• To state directions positively, respectfully, carefully & only when required.
• Use of props to assist children to understand & respond to verbal & non-verbal
cues.
• Provide opportunities for children to talk, share & discuss stories & also
interacting with them.
• Help children discriminate sounds in spoken language through shymes, songs
& word games with the use multiple media.

5.4.6.2 Strategies for families :

• Engaging in conversations to help children understand complex language &
words.

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 • Assignment of simple tasks.
• Family members need to be expressive
• Be a good & patient listener.
• Protection of child’s hearing through regular health checkups.
• Need to have fun with words.
• Creating an atmosphere of communicative languages like manual signs, gestures
& devices
• Use of home language at its best.

5.4.6.3 Expressive language :

Strategies for early educations :
• To create a trustworthy & supportive environment in which children feel free to
express.
• Small group interactions with adults & with friends.
• Provision of encouragement of children to describe their surroundings.
• To create focus of children by redirecting & restarting current ideas.
• To build children’s interest when conversing with them.
• To provide props & opportunities that generate discussions & asking open-ended
questions.
• Create an accepting, culturally diverse environment that is nurturing, supportive
& interesting for all children.

Strategies for families :

• To encourage children to express their thoughts & feelings.
• Provide opportunities for children to talk in social situations.
• Make comments & complete ideas.
• Use of descriptive language.
• Pronunciation of words correctly.

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 • Use of home language.
• Support of children’s use of communicative devices.

5.4.7 Receptive language :

Early language & communication skills are crucial for children’s success in school
& beyond. Language & communication skills include the ability to understand others
(i.e., receptive language) & express oneself (i.e., expressive language) using words,
gestures or facial expressions. Children who develop strong language & communication
skills are more likely to arrive at school ready to learn. They also are less likely to have
difficulties in learning to read & are more likely to have higher levels of achievement in
school.

5.4.8 Language development & communication skills of children

Research supports the importance of adult-child interactions for infants & toddlers,
the practices are designed to be done in small groups. Each practices draws upon the
types of interactions that research suggests promotes language & communication skills.
These interactions include :
→ Responding to children’s vocalization & speech.
→ Engaging in joint attention with early learners.
→ Electing conversation with children.
→ Talking & giving time to the children more.
→ Using complex grammar (at times) & rich vocabulary.
→ Providing children with more information about objects emotion or events.
These kinds of interactions actually benefit children / learners from a variety of
language & cultural backgrounds & who are dual language learness.
• Ten practices to promote language & communication skills among children :

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 Practice Description

1. Get chatty Engaging in conversations with children

2. Be a commentator Giving descriptions of objects, activities or events
3. Mix it up Using different types of words & grammar
4. Label it Providing children with the names of objects or actions.
5. Tune in Engaging in activities or objects that interest children.
6. Read interactively Using books to engage children’s participation.
7. Read it Again & Again Reading books multiple times
8. Props, Please! Introducing objects that peak conversations
9. Make music Engaging in musical work.

10. Sign it Using gestures or simple signs with words.

It has been seen that although each practice is presented separately many of the
practices can be used in combination with each other. These golden practices can be
used when working with any child/early learners. Educators should keep in mind,
however, that children develop at varying rates & differently depend upon a no. of
factors such as – personality & age. These factors & home language exposure affect
children’s development of language & communication skills. By using these practices
early childhood educators can provide all children with the rich language exposure &
opportunities children need to enhance their language & communication skills.

5.4.9 Children with specific language impairment :

History reveals that specific language impairment has been extensively studied for more
than 40 years. Language acquisition is the primary area of concern as the child grows &
develops. There are no obvious causes such as hearing loss or low IQ. Such type of
condition is found in young learners & persist into adulthood if not taken into account
at early stage. Although the causes are unknown, current research focuses on some
genetic tendencies. Early identification & intervention are regarded as the choiced
practices, in order to minimize possible academic risks. Some of the issues are discussed
below –
→ Specific language impairment (LI), characterised by developmental language
disorder, language delay or developmental dysphasia.

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 → Late talking may be a sign of disability.
→ A child with SLI does not have a low IQ or poor hearing.
→ Speech impediments are different from language disorders.
→ An incomplete understanding of verbs is an indicator of SLI.
→ Reading & learning will be affected by SLI.
→ SLI often affect a child’s academic success, if left untreated.
→ SLI can be diagnosed precisely & accurately.
→ In 2001, the psychological corporation release the first comprehensive test for
SLI, named Rice/Wexler Test of Early grammaritical impairment.
→ The genetic disposition of SLI has not yet been proven, but chromosomal study
has documented the chromosomes that are responsible for it.
→ The nature of the disability limits a child’s exposure to language.
→ Early intervention can be carried out during the onset of pre-schooling.
→ Some pre-school programs are designed to enrich the language development of
students with disabilities. These encompass speech pathology, interesting,
vocabulary, role playing hands-on-lessons sharing time etc.
→ Parents can also consult language or speech pathologists to endure child’s needs,
engage in structured activities etc.

5.4.10 Multilingualism
Definition : Multilingualism is a subject of debate in the very same way as the definition
of language fluency. On one end of a sort of linguistic continuum, one may define
multilingualism as complete competence & mastery in another language. The speaker
would presumably have complete knowledge & compote over the language so as to
sound native. On the contrary, people who know enough phrases to get around as a
tourist using the alternate language. Since 1992, Vivian cook has argued that most
multilingual speaker’s fall somewhere between minimal & maximal definitions. Cook
calls these people as multi-competent.
Multilingualism at the Linguistic Level : Socio-political & socio-cultural identity
arguments may influence native language literacy. According to Jim Cummins (1983),
while these two parameters occupy debate about which languages, children will learn

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to read, a greater emphasis on the linguistic aspects of the arguments is appropriate. In
spite of the political unrest created by this debate, researches continue to prefer a linguistic
basis for it.
Multilingualism at the Workplace : Globalisation has led the world to be strongly
interconnected. Consequences of this more & more companies are trading with foreign
countries & also with countries that does not necessarily speak the same language.
English became an important working knowledge for multinational companies & also
in small companies learners are required to know English because it is regarded as the
international language.
Multilingual Individuals : A multilingualn person is someone who can communicate
in more than one language, either actively (though speaking, writing or signing) or
passively (though listening, reading or perceiving). A multilingual person is generally
referred to as Polyglot.

5.4.11 Check your progress :

1. Define language.
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2. State two functions of language.
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3. Write any two characteristics of language.
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4. Give three developmental functions of language for a child.
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 .................................................................................................................................
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5. What is meant by SLI?
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6. What is the meaning of multi-competent?
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7. Differentiate between receptive language & expressive language.
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8. Mention two communication skills for the language development of children.
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9. What is ‘polyglot’?
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10. What did linguistic bibliography introduce?
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Unit : 5 p Issues & Trends in Education

Structure
5.5.1 Introduction
5.5.2 Objectives
5.5.3 Meaning of community and participation
5.5.3.1 What is community participation in Education
5.5.3.2 Role of community participation in Education
5.5.3.3 Contribution ofcommunity participation in the improvement of
Education of the masses
5.5.4 Challenges towards community participation in Educations/Community
Education
5.5.5 Initiatives for the improvement of the practice
5.5.6 Factors affecting the mechanisms of community participation.
5.5.7 Check Your Progress

5.5.1 Introduction
Policymakers, educators, and others involved in education are seeking ways to utilize
limited resources efficiently and effectively in order to identify and solve problems in
the education sector and to provide quality education for children. Their efforts have
contributed to realizing the significance and benefits of community participation in
education, and have recognized community participation as one of the strategies to
improve educational access and quality.
This is not to say that community participation is something new in the education
delivery, however. It did not suddenly appear as panacea to solve complex problems
related to education. In fact, not all communities have played a passive role in children’s
education. For instance, Williams (1994) stresses that until the middle of the last century,
responsibility for educating children rested with the community. Although there still
are places where communities organize themselves to operate schools for their children
today, community participation in education hasn’t been fully recognized nor extended
systematically to a wider practice.

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Increasing amounts of research on this topic have been conducted since the late 1980s,
and there are more and more resources becoming available. In preparing and
implementing any efforts to promote community involvement in education, it is important
to understand the whole picture of community participation: how it works; what forms
are used; what benefits it can yield; and what we should expect in the process of carrying
out the efforts. A deeper understanding of this issue is important since the link between
community involvement and educational access and quality is not simple and involves
various forms).

5.5.2 Objectives
l Upon completion of the submit, the learners will be able to :
l Know the meaning of community & participation
l Explain community participation in Education
l detail the role & contribution of community participation in Education.
l Delineate the unitiatives & factors affecting the mechanisms of community
participation.

5.5.3 Meaning of Community & Participation

Communities can be defined by characteristics that the members share, such as culture,
language, tradition, law, geography, class, and race. As Shaeffer (1992) argues, some
communities are homogeneous while others are heterogeneous; and some united while
others conflictive. Some communities are governed and managed by leaders chosen
democratically who act relatively autonomously from other levels of government, and
some are governed by leaders imposed from above and represent central authorities.
Zenter (1964) points out three aspects of communities. First, community is a group
structure, whether formally or informally organized, in which members play roles which
are integrated around goals associated with the problems from collective occupation
and utilization of habitational space. Second,members of the community have some
degree of collective identification with the occupied space. Lastly, the community has
a degree of local autonomy and responsibility.
Bray (1996) presents three different types of communities, applied in his study on
community financing of education. The first one is geographic community, which is
defined according to its members’ place of residence, such as a village or district. The

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second type is ethnic, racial, and religious communities, in which membership is
based on ethnic, racial, or religious identification, and commonly cuts across membership
based on geographic location. The third one is communities based on shared family or
educational concerns, which include parents associations and similar bodies that are
based on families’ shared concern for the welfare of students.
The term “participation” can be interpreted in various ways, depending on the context.
Shaeffer (1994) clarifies different degrees or levels of participation, and provides seven
possible definitions of the term, including:
l involvement through the mere use of a service (such as enrolling children in school
or using a primary health care facility);
l involvement through the contribution (or extraction) of money, materials, and labor;
l involvement through ‘attendance’ (e.g. at parents’ meetings at school), implying
passive acceptance of decisions made by others;
l involvement through consultation on a particular issue;
l participation in the delivery of a service, often as a partner with other actors;
l participation as implementors of delegated powers; and
l participation “in real decision making at every stage,” including identification of
problems, the study of feasibility, planning, implementation, and evaluation.
Shaeffer stresses that the first four definitions use the word involvement and connote
largely passive collaboration, whereas the last three items use the word participation
instead, implying a much more active role.
Shaeffer further provides some specific activities that involve a high degree of
participation in a wider development context, which can also be applied in the education
sector, including:
l collecting and analyzing information;
l defining priorities and setting goals;
l assessing available resources;
l deciding on and planning programs;
l designing strategies to implement these programs and dividing responsibilities
among participants;

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l managing programs;
l monitoring progress of the programs; and
l evaluating results and impacts.
5.5.3.1 What is community participation in education1?
Education takes place not only in schools but also within families, communities, and
society. Despite the various degree of responsibilities taken by each group, none can be
the sole agent to take 1 00 % responsibility for educating children. Parents and families
cannot be the only group of people for children’s education as long as their children
interact with and learn from the world outside their families. Communities and society
must support parents and families in the upbringing, socializing, and educating of their
children. Schools are institutions that can prepare children to contribute to the betterment
of the society in which they operate, by equipping them with skills important in society.
Schools cannot and should not operate as separate entities within society.
Since each group plays a different role in contributing to children’s education, there
must be efforts to make a bridge between them in order to maximize the contributions.
Education takes place most efficiently and effectively when these different groups of
people collaborate. Accordingly, it is important to establish and continuously attempt
to develop partnerships between schools, parents, and communities.
Many research studies have identified various ways of community participation/in
education, providing specific channels through whiph communities can oe involved in
cfijfldren’s education.
Colletta and Perkins (1995) illustrate various forms of community participation: (a)
research and data collection; (b) dialogue with policymakers; (c) school management;
(d) curriculum design; (e) development of learning materials; and (f) school construction.
Heneveld and Craig (1996) recognized parent and community support as one of the
key factors to determine school effectiveness in Sub-Saharan Africa. They identify five
categories of parent and community support that are relevant to the region: (1) children
come to school prepared to learn; (2) the community provides financial and material
support to the school; (3) communication between the school, parents, and community
is frequent; (4) the community has a meaningful role in school governance; and (5)
community members and parents assist with instruction.
Williams (1994) argues that there are three models of Education and Community. The
first one is traditional community-based education, in which communities provide new
generations of young people with the education necessary for transmitting local norms

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and economic skills. In this model, education is deeply embedded in local social relations,
and school and community are closely linked. The government, being of little use in
meeting the specialized training needs of industrialized economies, plays a minor role,
providing little basis for political integration at the national level. The second model is
government-provided education, in which governments have assumed responsibility
for providing and regulating education. The content of education has been largely
standardized within and across countries, and governments have diminished the role of
the community. However, a lack of resources and management incapability have proven
that governments cannot provide the community with adequate the educational delivery,
fully-equipped school buildings, and a full range of grades, teachers and instructional
materials. This triggers the emergence of the collaborative model, in which community
plays a supportive role in government provision of education. Williams further presents
a model that shows the relations between the role of community and local demand.
Epstein (1995, 1997) seeks ways to help children succeed in school and later life, and
focuses on partnerships of schools, families, and communities that attempt to: (a) improve
school programs and school climate; (b) provide family services and support; (c) increase
parents’ skills and leadership; (d) connect families with others in the school and in the
community; and (e) help teachers with their work. She summarizes various types of
involvement to explain how schools, families, and communities can work productively
together:
(1) parenting -to help all families to establish home environments that support children’s
learning at schools;
(2) communicating -to design effective forms of school-to-home and home-to-school
communication that enable parents to learn about school programs and their
children’s progress in schools as well as teachers to learn about how children do at
home;
(3) volunteering - to recruit and organize parent help and support;
(4) learning at home - to provide information and ideas to families about how to help
students at home with home-worR and other curriculum-related activities, decisions,
and planning;
(5) decision making -to include families in school decisions, to have parent leaders
and representatives in school meetings; and
(6) collaborating ‘with the community - to identify and integrate resources as well as
services from the community in order to strengthen school programs, family
practices, and student learning.

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5.5.3.2 Role of community participation in Education.
The goal of any kindof activity that attempts to involve community and families/parents
in education is to improve the educational delivery so that more children lessen better
and are well prepared for the changing world. There are various reasons to support the
ide/a that community participation contributes to achieving this goal. Extensive/literature
research has resulted in identifying the following rationales that explain the importance
of community participation in education.
• Maximizing Limited Resources
Most governments all over the world have been committed to delivering education for
their children. Particularly after the World Conference on Education for All, assembled
in Jomiten, Thailand in 1990, an increasing number of countries have attempted to
reach the goal of providing education for all. However, governments have found
themselves incompetent to do so because of lack of resources and capacities. Learning
materials as well as human resources are limited everywhere, particularly in developing
countries. The focus has shifted to finding efficient and effective ways to utilize existing
limited resources.
Although some communities have historically been involved in their children’s education,
it hasn’t been fully recognized that communities themselves have resources to contribute
to education, and they can be resources by providing local knowledge for their children.
Involving parents, families, and communities in the process of research and data
collection can reveal to them factors that contribute to lower enrollment and attendance,
and poor academic performance in their schools. Furthermore, parents are usually
concerned about their children’s education, and often are willing to provide assistance
that can improve the educational delivery.
• Developing Relevant Curriculum and Learning Materials
Communities’ and parents’ involvement helps achieve curriculums and learning materials
that reflect children’s everyday lives in society. When children use textbooks and other
materials that illustrate their own lives in their community, they can easily associate
what they are learning with what they have already known.
• Identifying and Addressing Problems
Communities can help identify and address factors that contribute to educational
problems, such as low participation and poor academic performance. This is well
illustrated in the case of the Gambia, in which the techniques of Participatory Rural
Appraisal (PRA) were adapted to education. The work was carried out in order to

232
understand why girls do not attend schools, to mobilize communities around these
problems, and to assist them in organizing their own solutions (World Bank 1995a).
• Promoting Girls’ Education
Community participation can contribute to promoting girls’ education (UNICEF, 1992).
Through participating in school activities and frequently communicating with teachers,
parents and communities can learn that girls’ education contributes to the improvement
of various aspects of their lives, such as increased economic productivity, improved
family health and nutrition, reduced fertility rates, and reduced child mortality rates.
Involving parents and communities in discussions as part of school activities also helps
to identify factors that prevent girls from schooling. Parents are encouraged to express
their concern, and reasons why they are not sending their daughters to school. These
issues are serious obstacles and have to be addressed and overcome in order to promote
girls’ education.
Involving parents and communities in school activities also helps to identify possible
teachers in the community, especially local female teachers which greatly help girls’
education. Furthermore, in places where communities are indifferent in girls’ education,
elderly people or religious leaders who are respected by community members can
convince them to send their girls to schools, if the dialogue with these respected people
takes place successfully.
• Creating and Nourishing Community-School Partnerships
There are various ways to bring parents and community members closer to schools
which they serve, including: (a) minimizing discontinuities between schools and
communities, and between schools and families; (b) minimizing conflicts between
schools and communities, schools and families, teachers and parents, and what is taught
in school and what is taught at home; (c) making easy transition of pupils going from
home to school; (d) preparing pupils to engage in learning experiences; and (e)
minimizing cultural shock of new entrants to schooling (Carino and Valismo, 1994),
• Realizing Democracy
Where schools are perceived as authoritarian institutions, parents and community
members do not feel welcomed to participate in their children’s education. They are
not capable of taking any responsibility in school issues and tend to feel that education
is something that should be taken care of by educational professionals at schools Many
people, especially minority groups in many developing countries, develop this kind of
negative attitudes towards schools because they are not treated by teachers with respect.

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Moreover, parental involvement in education is seen as a right, or as an outright
democratic value in some countries
• Increasing Accountability
Parental involvement in education, particularly in school governance, is seen as a means
of making schools more accountable to the society which funds them. This has been
witnessed in some places such as England and Wales, Canada and the United States.
The notion of parental involvement for accountability derives from a more market-
oriented concept in which school-family partnerships are viewed rather like business
partnership, through which the two parties receive mutual and complementary benefits
which enable them to operate more effectively (OECD, 1 997).
• Ensuring Sustainability
One of the major factors to ensure sustainability of programs is the availability of
funds, whether from governments, private institutions, or donor organizations. In this
regard, community participation in education cannot ensure the sustainability of schools
by itself since communities oftentimes have to rely on external funding to keep the
program sustained. However, involving community is a way to ensure that the benefits
brought by a development program will be maintained after the external interventions
are stopped. Thus, sustainability is dependent on the degree of self-reliance developed
in target communities and on the social and political commitment in the wider society
to development programs that support the continuation of newly self-reliance
communities (Lovell, 1992).

5.5.3.3 Contribution of community participation in Education of the masses

Community participation can contribute to education delivery through various channels.
The following is a list of ways through which communities can contribute to the education
delivery
l advocating enrollment and education benefits;
l boosting morale of school staff;
l raising money for schools;
l ensuring students’ regular attendance and completion;
l constructing, repairing, and improving school facilities;
l contributing in labor, materials, land, and funds;
l recruiting and supporting teachers;
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l making decisions about school locations and schedules;
l monitoring and following up on teacher attendance and performance;
l forming village education committees to manage schools;
l actively attending school meetings to learn about children’s learning progress and
classroom behavior;
l providing skill instruction and local culture information;
l helping children with studying;
l garnering more resources from and solving problems through the education
bureaucracy;
l advocating and promoting girls’ education;
l providing security for teachers by preparing adequate housing for them;
l scheduling school calendars;
l handling the budget to operate schools;
l identifying factors contributing to educational problems (low enrollment, and high
repetition and dropout); and
l preparing children’s readiness for schooling by providing them with adequate
nutrition and stimuli for their cognitive development.

l Among various forms of community contributions, some are specifically aimed to

support teachers. For instance, communities can provide, or construct, housing
for teachers who are from outside of the community. In rural areas, lack of qualified
teachers is critical, and preparing a safe environment and housing is necessary to
attract teachers, particularly female teachers, who otherwise tend to stay in or go
to urban areas.
l Teachers can benefit from communities’ active participation in their children’s
schools. For example, community members themselves can be a rich resource to
support teachers’ practice in classrooms by facilitating children’s learning.)
l Also, community members can support teachers by contributing their skill to speak
the local language when the majority of students don’t understand the teacher’s
language of instruction. They can attend classrooms as interpreters who not only
translate languages but also help teachers as well as students by bridging the gap
that exists between cultural values of teachers and those of students) Furthermore,

235
 parents and community members can contribute to teachers’ teaching materials
by providing them with knowledge and materials that are locally sensitive and
more familiar to children,
l Community participation in education can also be a powerful incentive for teachers.
Teachers’ absenteeism, and lack of punctuality to show up in classrooms on time
are serious problems in many places. Among many other reasons, lack of monitoring
system is one of the critical factors contributing to these problems. When teachers
are monitored and supervised for their attendance and performance by communities,
they tend to be more aware of what they do. Feedback from parents and the
community about their teaching performance can be a strong tool to motivate
teachers, if schools are also collaborative.

5.5.4 Challenges towards community participation in Educations/community

Education.
Involving communities in the education delivery requires facing and tackling a number
of challenges. In general, as Crewe and Harrison (1998) articulate, participatory
approaches tend to overlook complexities and questions of power and conflict within
communities. They are designed based on the false assumption that the community,
group, or household is homogeneous, or has mutually compatible interests. Differences
occur with respect to age, gender, wealth, ethnicity, language, culture, race and so on.
Even though marginalized or minority groups (such as female, landless, or lower-caste
people) may be physically present during discussion, they are not necessarily given a
chance to express their views to the same degree as others.
Challenges vary from one stakeholder to another because each group has its own vision
to achieve the common goal of increasing educational access and improving its quality.
The section below attempts to turn to specific challenges and problems that have been
witnessed among teachers, and parents and communities.
Teachers
Resistance among teachers - Not all teachers welcome parents’ and communities’
participation in education. They tend to feel that they are losing authority within schools,
as power is taken by community and parents. At the same time, they are encouraged to
involve community members who sometimes are not willing to get involved in any
school activities.

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Parents and Communities
Not all parents and community members are willing to get involved in school activities.
Some have had negative schooling experiences themselves, some are illiterate and don’t
feel comfortable talking to teachers, and getting involved in any kind of school activities.
They feel they don’t have control over the school. Some parents and families are not
willing to collaborate with schools because they cannot afford to lose their economical
labor by sending their children. Even though they see the benefits to send children to
schools, opportunity costs are oftentimes too high to pay.

5.5.5 Initiativies for the improvement of the practice

Although community participation can be a strong tool to tackle some educational
problems, it is not panacea that can solve all the problems encountered in the education
sector. Any strategies to achieve a high degree of community participation require careful
examination of communities because each community is unique, and complicated in
its nature. This section illustrates some issues that need to be solved in order to improve
the practices of involving communities in the education delivery.
l To Understand the Nature of Community
As discussed previously, no community, group, or household is homogenous. Thus, it
is crucial to examine and understand community contexts, including characteristics
and power balance. It is important to examine the degree of community participation in
some activities in society, since some communities are traditionally involved in
community activities, while others are not used to working together with schools or
even other community members. Careful examination of communities is necessary to
successfully carry out activities promoting community participation. Narayan
summarizes elements that contribute to forming well-functioning groups as seen in the
box 1.
l To Assess Capabilities of Communities and Responsible Agencies, and Provide
Assistance
It is necessary to assess community contexts, and the agencies responsible for promoting
community participation efforts, in order to create specific plans or components of the
projects.
When the agencies are not willing to collaborate with communities in achieving the
objectives, it is important to help them understand why community participation is
important. If they disagree, but implement the plans because they are told to, the results

237
will be unfavorable. Communities, as well, need to have a good understanding of why
they need to collaborate with schools, what benefits can be
yielded.
Preparing the environment that can facilitate active community participation is also
important.
Campfens (1997) summarizes main factors for effective participation (Box 2).

Key Factors for Effective Participation

l An open and democratic environment;
l a decentralized policy with greater emphasis on local initiatives;
l reform in public administration;
l democratization of professional experts and officials;
l formation of self-managing organizations of the poor and excluded;
l training for community activism and leadership; » involvement of NGOs; and
l creation of collective decision-making structures at various levels that extend from
the micro to the meso and macro levels and link participatory activities with policy
frameworks.
Source: Campfens (1997)
l To Establish Communication Channels
In order to exercise any kind of community participation, there needs to be understanding
among all stakeholders, all people who are targeted. Reasons and benefits of community
participation have to be clearly addressed and understood by people. In addition, a
continuing dialogue between schools and community is essential because it usually
takes a long period of time to yield any benefit. Also all the stakeholders need to share
the understanding that responsibility to educate children cannot be taken by single
group of people.
l To Conduct Continuous Assessment
It is important to conduct assessment of any practices of community participation
continuously, once the implementation gets started. The following activities are the
need of the hour :
l the need to spend a great deal of time and effort in preparing community participation
activities;

238
l the necessity to properly time project launch in order to ensure maximum community
participation and the necessity to continuously maintain this motivation;
l the need to pay communities and local contractors directly and not to pass through
an intermediary such as a local government authority; and
l the need to overcome the difficulty that the Ministry of Education has in effectively
communicating and controlling activities at the district and community levels.

5.5.6 Factors affecting the mechanisms of community participation.

l a clearly defined legal framework that allows representative school councils to
function with real decision-making authority;
l establishment of non-politicized school and local councils, truly representative of
the common interests prevalent within the community;
l election of representatives to higher-level educational boards by local school
councils, rather than by political appointment;
l training for council members and community authorities in how to carry out their
duties responsibly, including the objective assessment of financial responsibilities
and operational performance;
l timely and reliable reporting by school administrators to school councils on financial
expenditures, facilities management, teacher and student performance, and other
pertinent administrative information;
l timely provision of information by the central and departmental authorities on
innovative activities in other schools, and on the performance of the system in
general, as indicators to stimulate local initiatives and against which to measure
progress; and
l participation of the school council in the school budget process, including allocation
of central government transfers as well as contributions in cash and in kind form
the community.
Conclusion
Community participation itself is not a goal in educational delivery, nor a panacea to
solve complicated issues contributing to poor educational quality in both developing
and developed countries. It is a process that facilitates the realization of improving
educational quality and the promotion of democracy within society. Through its projects,

239
the World Bank aims at involving communities in various stages; preparation,
implementation, and evaluation. Communities are also expected to develop and
strengthen these capacities so that they can take over the work the Bank has initiated
and continue to carry on. In this sense, the Bank’s job is to facilitate the process, providing
communities with the necessary knowledge and skills, and making sure communication
takes place effectively among different stakeholders, including parents, community
members, teachers, and government officials. As the recognition of community
participation increases, careful examination of its exercises becomes more important.

Bibliography
Shaeffer, Sheldon (Ed.). (1994). Partnerships and Participation in Basic Education: A
Series of Training Modules and Case Study Abstracts for Educational Planners and
Mangers, Paris: UNESCO, International Institute for Educational Planning.
UNICEF. (1992). Strategies to Promote Girls’ Education: Policies and Programmes
that Work. New York: UNICEF.
Williams, James H. (James Howard). (1993). “Improving School-Community Relations
in the Periphery.” In Reaching Peripheral Groups: Community, Language and Teachers
in the Context of Development. Edited by William K. Cummings. Buffalo, NY: Graduate
School of Education Publications in association with the Comparative Education Center,
State University of New York at Buffalo; Washington, DC: Project ABEL, the Academy
for Educational Development
Williams, James H, (1994). “The Role of the Community in Education.” In The Forum
For Advancing Basic
Education and Literacy, Volume 3, Issue 4, September 1994. Cambridge: Harvard
Institute for International Development.
World Bank. (1995a). The Gambia: Why Gambian Households Underinvest in Education
of Girls. Washington,
DC: World Bank. World Bank. (1995b). Madagascar: Towards a School-Based Strategy
for Improving Primary and Secondary Education. Washington, DC: World Bank.

5.5.7 Check Your Progress

1. What is community? Define it.
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2. What is participation? Define it.
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3. Mention any four contributions of community in Education.

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4. Mention any two challenges of community participation in Education.

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5. What are the two factors affecting the mechanisms of community participation.
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6. Name two initiatives for the improvement of the practice of community in

Education.
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7. Write down the steps of participations.
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8. Mention the key factors for effective participation (any 3).

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