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Traffic stream models

Lecture notes in Transportation Systems
Engineering
December 10, 2010
Overview
To figure out the exact relationship between the
traffic parameters, a great deal of research has been
done over the past several decades. The results of
these researches yielded many mathematical
models. Some important models among them will be
discussed in this chapter.
Greenshield's macroscopic stream model
Macroscopic stream models represent how the
behaviour of one parameter of traffic flow changes
with respect to another. Most important among them
is the relation between speed and density. The first
and most simple relation between them is proposed
by Greenshield. Greenshield assumed a linear speed-
density relationship as illustrated in figure 1 to derive
the model.
 Figure 1: Relation between speed and density
The equation for this relationship is shown below.
(1)

where is the mean speed at density , is the free

speed and is the jam density. This equation ( 1) is
often referred to as the Greenshields' model. It
indicates that when density becomes zero, speed
approaches free flow speed (ie. when ).

Figure 2: Relation between speed and flow

Once the relation between speed and flow is
established, the relation with flow can be derived.
This relation between flow and density is parabolic in
shape and is shown in figure 3. Also, we know that
(2)

Figure 3: Relation between flow and density 1

Now substituting equation 1 in equation 2, we get
(3)

Similarly we can find the relation between speed and

flow. For this, put in equation 1 and solving, we
get
(4)

This relationship is again parabolic and is shown in

figure 2. Once the relationship between the
fundamental variables of traffic flow is established,
the boundary conditions can be derived. The
boundary conditions that are of interest are jam
density, freeflow speed, and maximum flow. To find
density at maximum flow, differentiate
equation 3 with respect to and equate it to zero.
ie.,

Denoting the density corresponding to maximum flow

as ,
(5)

Therefore, density corresponding to maximum flow is

half the jam density Once we get , we can derive
for maximum flow, . Substituting equation 5 in
equation 3

Thus the maximum flow is one fourth the product of

free flow and jam density. Finally to get the speed at
maximum flow, , substitute equation 5 in
equation 1 and solving we get,
 (6)

Therefore, speed at maximum flow is half of the free

speed.
Calibration of Greenshield's model
Inorder to use this model for any traffic stream, one
should get the boundary values, especially free flow
speed ( ) and jam density ( ). This has to be
obtained by field survey and this is called calibration
process. Although it is difficult to determine exact
free flow speed and jam density directly from the
field, approximate values can be obtained from a
number of speed and density observations and then
fitting a linear equation between them. Let the linear
equation be such that is density and
denotes the speed . Using linear regression method,
coefficients and can be solved as,
(7)

(8)

Alternate method of solving for b is,

(9)

where and are the samples, is the number of

samples, and and are the mean of and
respectively.
Problem

For the following data on speed and density,

determine the parameters of the Greenshields'
model. Also find the maximum flow and density
corresponding to a speed of 30 km/hr.
k v
171 5
129 15
20 40
70 25

Solution
Denoting y = v and x = k, solve for a and b using
equation 8 and equation 9. The solution is tabulated
as shown below.
x(k) y(v)
( ) ( ) ( )( ) ( )
171 5 73.5 -16.3 -1198.1 5402.3
129 15 31.5 -6.3 -198.5 992.3
20 40 -77.5 18.7 -1449.3 6006.3
70 25 -27.5 3.7 -101.8 756.3
390 85 -2947.7 13157.2

= 97.5, = 21.3. From equation 9,

b= = -0.2 = 21.3 + 0.2 97.5 = 40.8 So
the linear regression equation will be,
(10)

Here = 40.8 and = 0.2 This implies, =

204 veh/km The basic parameters of Greenshield's
model are free flow speed and jam density and they
are obtained as 40.8 kmph and 204 veh/km
respectively. To find maximum flow, use equation 6,
i.e., = 2080.8 veh/hr Density
corresponding to the speed 30 km/hr can be found
out by substituting in equation 10. i.e, 30 =
40.8 - 0.2 k Therefore, k = = 54 veh/km
Other macroscopic stream models
In Greenshield's model, linear relationship between
speed and density was assumed. But in field we can
hardly find such a relationship between speed and
density. Therefore, the validity of Greenshields'
model was questioned and many other models came
up. Prominent among them are Greenberg's
logarithmic model, Underwood's exponential model,
Pipe's generalized model, and multiregime models.
These are briefly discussed below.
Greenberg's logarithmic model

Greenberg assumed a logarithmic relation between

speed and density. He proposed,

Figure 4: Greenberg's logarithmic model

 (11)

This model has gained very good popularity because

this model can be derived analytically. (This
derivation is beyond the scope of this notes).
However, main drawbacks of this model is that as
density tends to zero, speed tends to infinity. This
shows the inability of the model to predict the speeds
at lower densities.
Underwood's exponential model

Trying to overcome the limitation of Greenberg's

model, Underwood put forward an exponential model
as shown below.
(12)

where The model can be graphically expressed as

in figure 5. is the free flow speedm and is the
optimum density, i.e. the densty corresponding to the
maximum flow.

Figure 5: Underwood's exponential model

In this model, speed becomes zero only when density
reaches infinity which is the drawback of this model.
Hence this cannot be used for predicting speeds at
high densities.
Pipes' generalized model

Further developments were made with the

introduction of a new parameter (n) to provide for a
more generalised modelling approach. Pipes
proposed a model shown by the following equation.
(13)

When is set to one, Pipe's model resembles

Greenshields' model. Thus by varying the values of ,
a family of models can be developed.
Multiregime models

All the above models are based on the assumption

that the same speed-density relation is valid for the
entire range of densities seen in traffic streams.
Therefore, these models are called single-regime
models. However, human behaviour will be different
at different densities. This is corraborated with field
observations which shows different relations at
different range of densities. Therefore, the speed-
density relation will also be different in different
zones of densities. Based on this concept, many
models were proposed generally called multi-regime
models. The most simple one is called a two-regime
model, where separate equations are used to
represent the speed-density relation at congested
and uncongested traffic.
Shock waves
The flow of traffic along a stream can be considered
similar to a fluid flow. Consider a stream of traffic
flowing with steady state conditions, i.e., all the
vehicles in the stream are moving with a constant
speed, density and flow. Let this be denoted as state
A (refer figure 6. Suddenly due to some obstructions
in the stream (like an accident or traffic block) the
steady state characteristics changes and they
acquire another state of flow, say state B. The speed,
density and flow of state A is denoted as , ,
and , and state B as , , and respectively.

Figure 6: Shock wave: Stream characteristics

The flow-density curve is shown in figure 7.

Figure 7: Shock wave: Flow-density curve

The speed of the vehicles at state A is given by the
line joining the origin and point A in the graph. The
time-space diagram of the traffic stream is also
plotted in figure 8.

Figure 8: Shock wave : time-distance diagram

All the lines are having the same slope which implies
that they are moving with constant speed. The
sudden change in the characteristics of the stream
leads to the formation of a shock wave. There will be
a cascading effect of the vehicles in the upstream
direction. Thus shock wave is basically the movement
of the point that demarcates the two stream
conditions. This is clearly marked in the figure 7.
Thus the shock waves produced at state B are
propagated in the backward direction. The speed of
the vehicles at state B is the line joining the origin
and point B of the flow-density curve. Slope of the
line AB gives the speed of the shock wave (refer
figure 7). If speed of the shock-wave is represented
as , then
(14)

The above result can be analytically solved by

equating the expressions for the number vehicles
leaving the upstream and joining the downstream of
the shock wave boundary (this assumption is true
since the vehicles cannot be created or destroyed.
Let be the number of vehicles leaving the section
A. Then, . The relative speed of these vehicles
with respect to the shock wave will be . Hence,
(15)

Similarly, the vehicles entering the state B is given as

(16)

Equating equations 15 and 16, and solving for as

follows will yeild to:

This will yeild the following expression for the shock-

wave speed.
(17)

In this case, the shock wave move against the

direction of traffic and is therefore called a backward
moving shock wave. There are other possibilities of
shockwaves such as forward moving shockwaves and
stationary shockwaves. The forward moving
shockwaves are formed when a stream with higher
density and higher flow meets a stream with
relatively lesser density and flow. For example, when
the width of the road increases suddenly, there are
chances for a forward moving shockwave. Stationary
shockwaves will occur when two streams having the
same flow value but different densities meet.
Macroscopic flow models
If one looks into traffic flow from a very long distance,
the flow of fairly heavy traffic appears like a stream
of a fluid. Therefore, a macroscopic theory of traffic
can be developed with the help of hydrodynamic
theory of fluids by considering traffic as an effectively
one-dimensional compressible fluid. The behaviour of
individual vehicle is ignored and one is concerned
only with the behaviour of sizable aggregate of
vehicles. The earliest traffic flow models began by
writing the balance equation to address vehicle
number conservation on a road. Infact, all traffic flow
models and theories must satisfy the law of
conservation of the number of vehicles on the road.
Assuming that the vehicles are flowing from left to
right, the continuity equation can be written as
(18)

where denotes the spatial coordinate in the

direction of traffic flow, is the time, is the density
and denotes the flow. However, one cannot get two
unknowns, namely by and by solving one
equation. One possible solution is to write two
equations from two regimes of the flow, say before
and after a bottleneck. In this system the flow rate
before and after will be same, or
(19)

From this the shockwave velocity can be derived as

(20)

This is normally referred to as Stock's shockwave

formula. An alternate possibility which Lighthill and
Whitham adopted in their landmark study is to
assume that the flow rate is determined primarily
by the local density , so that flow can be treated
as a function of only density . Therefore the number
of unknown variables will be reduced to one.
Essentially this assumption states that k(x,t) and q
(x,t) are not independent of each other. Therefore the
continuity equation takes the form
(21)

However, the functional relationship between flow

and density cannot be calculated from fluid-
dynamical theory. This has to be either taken as a
phenomenological relation derived from the empirical
observation or from microscopic theories. Therefore,
the flow rate is a function of the vehicular density
k; . Thus, the balance equation takes the form
(22)
Now there is only one independent variable in the
balance equation, the vehicle density . If initial and
boundary conditions are known, this can be solved.
Solution to LWR models are kinematic waves moving
with velocity
(23)

This velocity is positive when the flow rate

increases with density, and it is negative when the
flow rate decreases with density. In some cases, this
function may shift from one regime to the other, and
then a shock is said to be formed. This shockwave
propagate at the velocity
(24)

where and are the flow rates corresponding

to the upstream density and downstream
density of the shockwave. Unlike Stock's
shockwave formula there is only one variable here.
Extented Topics

1.Multi regine model (formulation of both two and

three regime models)
2.Catastrophe Theory
3.Three dimentional models and plots
Summary
Traffic stream models attempt to establish a better
relationship between the traffic parameters. These
models were based on many assumptions, for
instance, Greenshield's model assumed a linear
speed-density relationship. Other models were also
discussed in this chapter. The models are used for
explaining several phenomena in connection with
traffic flow like shock wave.
Problems
1.Stationary shockwaves will occur
1.when two streams having the same flow
value but different densities meet.
2.when two streams having the different flow
value but same densities meet.
3.when two streams having the same flow
value and densities meet.
4.when two streams with different speeds
meet.
2.Linear relationship between speed and density
was assumed in
1.Greenberg's model
2.Greenshield's model
3.Pipe's generalized model
4.Underwood's model
Solutions

1.Stationary shockwaves will occur when two

streams having the same flow value but different
densities meet.
2.Linear relationship between speed and density
was assumed in Greenshield's model
Bibliography

1 Adolf D. May. Fundamentals of Traffic Flow.

Prentice - Hall, Inc. Englewood Cliff New Jersey
07632, second edition, 1990.
Prof. Tom V. Mathew 2010-12-10

ntelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) is the application of

computer, electronics, and communication technologies and
management strategies in an integrated manner to provide traveler
information to increase the safety and efficiency of the road
transportation systems. This paper mainly describes ITS user
services, ITS architecture and ITS planning. The various user
services offered by ITS have been divided in eight groups have been
briefly described. The ITS architecture which provides a common
framework for planning, defining, and integrating intelligent
transportation systems is briefly described emphasizing logical and
physical architecture. Integration of ITS in transportation planning
process which follows a systems engineering approach to develop a
transportation plan is also briefly described in this paper.

2 Introduction
Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) is the application of
computer, electronics, and communication technologies and
management strategies in an integrated manner to provide traveler
information to increase the safety and efficiency of the surface
transportation systems. These systems involve vehicles, drivers,
passengers, road operators, and managers all interacting with each
other and the environment, and linking with the complex
infrastructure systems to improve the safety and capacity of road
systems.
As reported by Commission for Global Road Safety(June 2006) , the
global road deaths were between 750,000 to 880,000 in the year
1999 and estimated about 1.25 million deaths per year and the toll is
increasing further. World health organization report (1999), showed
that in the year 1990 road accidents as a cause of death or disability
were the ninth most significant cause of death or disability and
predicted that by 2020 this will move to sixth place. Without
significant changes to the road transport systems these dreadful
figures are likely to increase significantly. Traditional driver training,
infrastructure and safety improvements, may contribute to certain
extent to reduce the number of accidents but not enough to combat
this menace. Intelligent Transport Systems are the best solution to
the problem. Safety is one of the principal driving forces behind the
evolution, development, standardization, and implementation of ITS
systems.
ITS improves transportation safety and mobility and enhances global
connectivity by means of productivity improvements achieved
through the integration of advanced communications technologies
into the transportation infrastructure and in vehicles. Intelligent
transportation systems encompass a broad range of wireless and
wire line communication based information and electronics
technologies to better manage traffic and maximize the utilization of
the existing transportation infrastructure. It improves driving
experience, safety and capacity of road systems, reduces risks in
transportation, relieves traffic congestion, improves transportation
efficiency and reduces pollution.

3 ITS user services

 In order to deploy ITS, a framework is developed highlighting various
services the ITS can offer to the users. A list of 33 user services has
been provided in the National ITS Program Plan. The number of
user services, keep changing over time when a new service is
added. All the above services are divided in eight groups. The
division of these services is based on the perspective of the
organization and sharing of common technical functions. Some of
the user services offered by ITS are shown in Fig. 1. The eight
groups are described as follows:

1. Travel and traffic management

2. Public transportation operations
3. Electronic payment
4. Commercial vehicle operations
5. Advance vehicle control and safety systems
6. Emergency management
7. Information management
8. Maintenance and construction management

Figure 1: ITS user services

3.1 Travel and traffic management

The main objective of this group of services is to use real time

information on the status of the transportation system to improve its
efficiency and productivity and to mitigate the adverse environmental
impacts of the system. This group of user service is further divided in
 10 user services. Most of these services share information with one
another in a highly integrated manner for the overall benefit of the
road transportation system. These services are described as below:
3.1.1 Pre trip information
This user service provides information to the travelers about the
transportation system before they begin their trips so that they can
make more informed decisions regarding their time of departure, the
mode to use and route to take to their destinations. The travelers
can access this information through computer or telephone systems
at home or work and at major public places. Pre travel information
can be accessed through mobile phones as shown in Fig. 2.
Different routes and respective travel time durations indicated on
VMS are shown in Fig. 3. The information include real time flow
condition, real incidents and suggested alternate routes, scheduled
road construction and maintenance tasks, transit routes, schedules,
fares, transfers, and parking facilities.

Figure 2: Pre trip information

Figure 3: VMS showing routes

3.1.2 En-route driver information

This user service provides travel related information to the travelers
en route after they start their trips through variable message signs
(VMS), car radio, or portable communication devices. Fig. 4 shows
the various congested and non congested routes shown on display
screen. VMS indicating different routes and travel time is shown in
Fig. 5. This helps the travelers to better utilize the existing facility by
changing routes etc to avoid congestion. This also provides warning
messages for roadway signs such as stop signs, sharp curves,
reduced speed advisories, wet road condition flashed with in vehicle
displays to the travelers to improve the safety of operating a vehicle.
The information can be presented as voice output also.

Figure 4: Showing congested routes

Figure 5: VMS showing routes and travel times

3.1.3 Route guidance
This service provides information to the travellers with a suggested
route to reach a specified destination, along with simple instructions
on upcoming turns and other manoeuvres. This also provides
travellers of all modes the real-time information about the
transportation system, including traffic conditions, road closures, and
the status and schedule of transit systems. The benefits of this
service are reduced delay and drivers stress levels particularly in an
unfamiliar area.
3.1.4 Ride matching and reservation
This user service provide real-time ride matching information to
travellers in their homes, offices or other locations, and assists
transportation providers with vehicle assignments and scheduling.
Travellers give information to the service center and get number of
ride sharing options from which they can choose the best.
3.1.5 Traveler Services Information
This service provides a business directory of information on travel-
related services and facilities like the location, operating hours, and
availability of food, lodging, parking, auto repair, hospitals, gas
stations and police facilities. This also makes reservations for many
of these traveler services. The traveler services information are
accessible in the home, office or other public locations to help plan
trips. These services are available en-route also.
3.1.6 Traffic Control
This service collects the real time data from the transportation
system, processes it into usable information, and uses it to
determine the optimum assignment of right-of-way to vehicles and
pedestrians. This helps in improving the flow of traffic by giving
preference to transit and other high occupancy vehicles or by
adjusting the signal timing to current traffic conditions. The
information collected by the Traffic Control service is also
disseminated for use by many other user services.
3.1.7 Incident Management
Figure 6: Incident management

This service aims to improve the incident management and

response capabilities of transportation and public safety officials, the
towing and recovery industry, and others involved in incident
response. Advanced sensors (close circuit TV cameras), data
processors and communication technologies are used to identify
incidents quickly and accurately and to implement response which
minimizes traffic congestion and the effects of these incidents on the
environment and the movement of people and goods. Fig. 6 shows
the occurrence of incident and its detection by the center and
decision implemented responding to the incident on a highway
pertaining to incident management.
3.1.8 Travel Demand Management
This user service develop and implement strategies to reduce the
number of single occupancy vehicles while encouraging the use of
high occupancy vehicles and the use of more efficient travel mode.
The strategies adopted are:

1. Congestion pricing
2. Parking management and control
3. Mode change support
4. Telecommuting and alternate work schedule.
3.1.9 Emissions Testing and Mitigation
The main objective of this service is to monitor and implement
strategies to divert traffic away from sensitive air quality areas, or
control access to such areas using advanced sensors. This also
 used to identify vehicles emitting pollutants exceeding the standard
values and to inform drivers to enable them to take corrective action.
This helps in facilitating implementation and evaluation of various
pollution control strategies by authorities.
3.1.10 Highway Rail Intersection
This service is to provide improved control of highway and train
traffic to avoid or decrease the severity of collisions between trains
and vehicles at highway-rail intersections. This also monitors the
condition of various HRI equipments.

3.2 Public transportation operations

This group of service is concerned with improving the public

transportation systems and encouraging their use. Fig. 7 shows
different public transportation facilities. This group is divided in four
services which are described as below:

Figure 7: Different public transportation systems

3.2.1 Public Transportation Management

This user service collects data through advanced communications
and information systems to improve the operations of vehicles and
facilities and to automate the planning and management functions of
public transit systems. This offers three tasks:

1. To provide real-time computer analysis of vehicles and facilities

to improve transit operations and maintenance by monitoring
 the location of transit vehicles, by identifying deviations from the
schedule, and offering potential solutions to dispatchers and
operators.
2. To maintain transportation schedules and to assure transfer
connections from vehicle to vehicle and between modes to
facilitate quick response to service delays .
3. To enhance security of transit personnel by providing access
management of transit vehicles.
3.2.2 En-Route Transit Information
This service is intended to provide information on expected arrival
times of t vehicles, transfers, and connections to travellers after they
begin their trips using public transportation. This also provide real-
time, accurate transit service information on-board the vehicle, at
transit stations and bus stops to assist travellers in making decisions
and modify their trips underway.
3.2.3 Personalized Public Transit
The aim of this service is to offer public transport facility to travellers
by assigning or scheduling vehicles by

1. diverting flexibly routed transit vehicles.

2. assigning privately operated vehicles on demand which include
small buses, taxicabs, or other small, shared-ride vehicles.

Under this service, travellers provide information of their trip origin

and destination to service station. The center then assigns the
closest vehicle to service the request and to inform the travellers
regarding arrival of such vehicles well in advance to reduce their
anxiety.
3.2.4 Public Travel Security
This user service creates a secure environment for public
transportation operators and support staff and monitors the
environment in transit facilities, transit stations, parking lots, bus
stops and on-board transit vehicles and generates alarms (either
automatically or manually) when necessary. It also provides security
to the systems that monitor key infrastructure of transit (rail track,
bridges, tunnels, bus guide ways, etc.).
 3.3 Electronic payment

This user service allows travellers to pay for transportation services

with a common electronic payment medium for different
transportation modes and functions. Toll collection, transit fare
payment, and parking payment are linked through a multi-modal
multi-use electronic system. With an integrated payment system a
traveller driving on a toll road, using parking lot would be able to use
the same electronic device to pay toll, parking price and the transit
fare. Fig. 8 shows the electronic payment facility by radio car tag.

Figure 8: Electronic payment facility

3.4 Commercial Vehicle operations

The aim is to improve the efficiency and safety of commercial vehicle

operations. This involves following services:

1. CV electronic clearance
2. Automated road side safety inspection
3. On-board safety monitoring administrative process
4. Hazardous material incident response
5. Freight Mobility
3.4.1 Commercial Vehicle Electronic Clearance
This service allows enforcement personnel to electronically check
safety status, vehicle’s credentials, and size and weight data for the
commercial vehicles before they reach an inspection site. The
authorities send the illegal or potentially unsafe vehicles only for
inspection and bypass safe and legal carriers to travel without
stopping for compliance checks at weigh stations and other
inspection sites.
3.4.2 Automated Roadside Safety Inspection
At inspection station the safety requirements are checked more
quickly and more accurately during a safety inspection using
automated inspection capabilities. Advanced equipments are used to
check brake, steering and suspension performance and also the
driver’s performance pertaining to driver alertness and fitness for
duty.
3.4.3 On-board Safety Monitoring
This service monitors the driver, vehicle, and cargo and notify the
driver, carrier, and, also to the enforcement personnel, if an unsafe
situation arises during operation of the vehicle. This is user service
also assures freight container, trailer, and commercial vehicle
integrity by monitoring on-board sensors for a breach or tamper
event.
3.4.4 Commercial Vehicle Administrative Processes
This service allows carriers to purchase credentials such as fuel use
taxes, trip permits, overweight permit, or hazardous material permits
automatically. The mileage and fuel reporting and auditing
components are provided to the carriers automatically which reduce
significant amount of time and paperwork.
3.4.5 Hazardous Materials Incident Response
This user service provides immediate information regarding the
types and quantities of hazardous materials present at incident
location to the emergency personnel in order to facilitate a quick and
appropriate response. The emergency personnel are informed
regarding shipment of any sensitive hazardous materials so that
timely action could be taken in case of accidents.
3.4.6 Freight Mobility
This service provides information to the drivers, dispatchers, and
inter-modal transportation providers, enabling carriers to take
advantage of real-time traffic information, as well as vehicle and load
location information, to increase productivity.
3.5 Advanced vehicle control and safety systems

This user service aims to improve the safety of the transportation

system by supplementing drivers’ abilities to maintain vigilance and
control of the vehicle by enhancing the crash avoidance capabilities
of vehicles. Following user services are included in this group:
3.5.1 Longitudinal Collision Avoidance
This user service provides assistance to vehicle operators in
avoiding longitudinal collisions to the front and/or rear of the vehicle.
This is achieved by implementing rear-end collision warning and
control, Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC), head-on collision warning
and control, and backing collision warning to the drivers.
3.5.2 Lateral Collision Avoidance
This helps drivers in avoiding accidents that result when a vehicle
leaves its own lane of travel, by warning drivers and by assuming
temporary control of the vehicle. This service provides to the drivers
the lane change/blind spot situation display, collision warning control
and lane departure warning and control.
3.5.3 Intersection Collision Avoidance
This user service is specifically aimed at providing vehicle operators
with assistance in avoiding collisions at intersections. The system
tracks the position of vehicles within the intersection area through
the use of vehicle-to-vehicle communications or vehicle to
infrastructure communications.
3.5.4 Vision Enhancement for Crash Avoidance
This service helps in reducing the number of vehicle crashes that
occur during periods of poor visibility by in vehicle sensors capable
of capturing an image of driving environment and providing a
graphical display of the image to the drivers.
3.5.5 Safety Readiness
This helps to provide drivers with warnings regarding their own
driving performance, the condition of the vehicle, and the condition
of the roadway as sensed from the vehicle.
3.5.6 Pre-Crash Restraint Deployment
This service helps in reducing the number and severity of injuries
caused by vehicle collisions by anticipating an imminent collision and
by activating passenger safety systems prior to the actual impact.
3.5.7 Automated Vehicle Operations (AVO)
This service provides a fully automated vehicle-highway system in
which instrumented vehicles operate on instrumented roadways
without operator intervention.

3.6 Emergency management

This service has two functions:

1. Emergency notification and personal security - This is to

provide travellers the ability to notify appropriate emergency
response personnel regarding the need for assistance due to
emergency or non-emergency situations either by manually or
automatically from the vehicle on the occurrence of an accident.
2. Emergency vehicle management - This user service is to
reduce the time from the receipt of an emergency notification to
the arrival of the emergency vehicles at incident location
thereby reducing the severity of accident injuries.

3.7 Information management

This service is aimed to provide the functionality needed to store and

archive the huge amounts of data being collected on a continuous
basis by different ITS technologies.

3.8 Maintenance and construction management

This user service is aimed to provide the functionality needed for

managing the fleets of maintenance vehicles, managing the roadway
with regards to construction and maintenance and safe roadway
operations.

4 ITS Architecture
The ITS Architecture provides a common framework for planning,
defining, and integrating intelligent transportation systems. It
specifies how the different ITS components would interact with each
other to help solving transportation problems. It provides the
transportation professionals to address their needs with wide variety
of options. It identifies and describes various functions and assigns
responsibilities to various stake-holders of ITS. The ITS architecture
should be common and of specified standards throughout the state
or region so that it can address solution to several problems while
interacting with various agencies.

1. Interoperability - The ITS architecture should be such that the

information collected, function implemented or any equipment
installed be interoperable by various agencies in different state
and regions.
2. Capable of sharing and exchanging information - The
information by traffic operations may be useful to the
emergency services.
3. Resource sharing - regional communication towers constructed
by various private agencies are required to be shared by ITS
operations.

4.1 National ITS architecture

This is developed by US Department of Transportation to provide

guidance and co-ordinate all regions in deploying ITS. It documents
all information available and keep updating continuously. The
national architecture contains the following components:

4.2 User services and their requirements

A number of functions are needed to accomplish the user services.

These functional statements are called user services requirements.
For all the user services the requirements have been specified. If
any new function is added, new requirements are to be defined.
Table. 1 shows an illustration of user service requirements for traffic
control user service.
Table 1: User service requirements for Traffic Control user service

Traffic Control provides the capability to efficiently manage the movement of traffic

on streets and highways. Four functions are provided which are

(1) Traffic Flow Optimization,

(2) Traffic Surveillance,

(3) Control, and

(4) Provide Information.

This will also include control of network signal systems with integration of freeway

control. The specified User service requirements

(1) TC shall include a Traffic Flow Optimization function to provide the capability

to optimize traffic flow.

(1.1) Traffic Flow Optimization shall employ control strategies that seek to maximize

traffic-movement efficiency.

(1.2) Traffic Flow Optimization shall include a wide area optimization capability, to

include several jurisdictions.

(1.2.1) Wide area optimization shall integrate the control of network signal systems

with the control of freeways.

(1.2.2) Wide area optimization shall include features that provide preferential

treatment for transit vehicles.

(2) TC shall include a Traffic Surveillance function.

4.3 Logical architecture

To accomplish user service requirements many functions or

processes are needed. The logical architecture defines a set of
 functions (or processes) and information flows (or data flows) that
respond to the user service requirements. It describes the lower end
interaction of different components of ITS. Processes and data flows
are grouped to form a particular functions. These are represented
graphically by data flow diagrams (DFDs). Fig. 9 shows the
interaction of Manage Traffic process with other processes. Each
process is broken down into more sub processes. The sub process
is further broken into sub process which are called process
specifications (P-specs) lowest level. These p specs are required to
be performed to fulfill user services requirements. Fig. 10 shows
process decomposition into process specifications.

Figure 9: High level ITS logical architecture

Figure 10: Decomposition of process into P-specs

4.4 Physical architecture

 The functions from logical architecture that serve the same need are
grouped into sub systems. With these subsystems a physical entity
is developed to deliver functions. The data flow of logical
architecture are also combined to define interface between
subsystems. Fig. 11 shows the functions A and B of logical
architecture assigned to subsystem A in physical architecture. Both
the architecture forms the core of ITS.

Figure 11: Assigning function from logical to the physical architecture

The physical architecture of ITS defines the physical subsystems

and architectural flows based on the logical architecture. The 22
subsystems are broadly classified in four groups as centers, field,
vehicle, and travelers. Fig. 12 shows the subsystems and
communications that comprise the national physical architecture.
The subsystem represent aggregation of functions that serve the
same transportation need and closely correspond to physical
elements of transportation management system.
Vehicle group consists of five different types of vehicles. The traveler
group represents different ways a traveler can access information on
the status of the transportation system. There are four different types
of communication systems.

1. Fixed point to fixed point

2. Wide area wireless
3. Vehicle - vehicle communication
4. Field - vehicle communication
Figure 12: National ITS physical architecture showing subsystems and
communications

Through the communication systems all the subsystems are

interconnected and transfer the required data. Fig. 13 shows the
communication between traffic management subsystem and the
roadway subsystem. Traffic management subsystem is connected to
communications which gets real time information of the
transportation system through roadway subsystem which comprise
of signal control, detectors, camera, VMS etc.

Figure 13: Communications between subsystems of physical

architecture

4.5 Equipment packages

 In order to provide more deployment oriented perspective to the ITS
architecture an equipment package is developed. In this similar
functions of a particular subsystem are grouped together and
implemented by a package of hardware and software facilities. As an
example Table. 2 shows the TMC signal control equipment package
and its functional requirements.

Table 2: TMC Signal control equipment package

TMC Equipment package provides the capability for traffic managers to monitor

and manage the traffic flow at signalized intersections. It analyzes and reduces the

collected data from traffic surveillance equipment and implements control plans

for signalized intersections.

TMC signal control equipment package contains five P- specs:

(i) Traffic operation personnel traffic interface

(ii) Process traffic data

(iii) Select strategy

(iv) Determine indicator state for road management

(v) Output control data for roads

4.6 Market package

The market package defines a set of equipment packages that are

required to work together to provide a given transportation service.
Most market packages are made up of equipment packages from
two or more subsystems. These are designed to address specific
transportation problems and needs. Fig. 14 shows surface street
control market package.
Figure 14: Surface street control market package

This package provide the central control and monitoring equipment,

communication links and the signal control equipment that support
local street control or arterial traffic management. The various signal
control systems dynamically adjusted control plans and strategies
based on current traffic conditions and priority requests.

5 ITS Planning
ITS planning is to integrate ITS into the transportation planning
process.

5.1 Transportation planning and ITS

Transportation planning helps in shaping a well balanced

transportation system that can meet future demands. Transportation
planning is an iterative process which include problem identification,
solution generation, analysis, evaluation and implementation. This
can be integrated with ITS using computers, communication systems
and software. As planning is normally made for long period, installing
ITS facilities needs to be updated and one should ensure that the
equipments and technologies are compatible for future improvement
and expansion. The steps in traditional transportation planning are
as follows:

1. Establish goals and objectives

2. Inventory existing conditions
 3. Analyze existing conditions
4. Long range/ short range element
5. Forecast land use, population/employment
6. Forecast future travel/trips
7. Develop and evaluate alternative transportation plans
8. Prepare recommended plans and programs

ITS transportation planning process differs from the traditional

transportation planning process. ITS has the unique capability to
integrate different modes of transportation such as public auto,
transit, and infra-structural elements through communications and
control. The multi-modal integration potential provides a great
opportunity for planning across modes. The comparison between
ITS approach and conventional approach for solving various
transportation problems are shown for few problems are shown in
table. 3.

Table 3: Relationship between problems, conventional approach and

ITS approach

Problem Possible solutions Conventional approach ITS approach

Lack of Provide user Expand fixed route Multi-modal pre trip and

mobility friendly access to transit and Para en-route traveler

and quality transit service information

accessibility transportation

services Radio and TV Personalize public

traffic reports transportation

Enhance fare card

Traffic Increase roadway New roads Advanced traffic

 congestion capacity control, advanced

Car pooling vehicle systems

Reduce demand

Flex-time program Real time ride matching

Personalized public

transport

Telecommuting

transportation pricing

Traffic Improve safety Improve roadway Fully automated vehicle

accidents geometry, sight control system

distance, traffic

signal Automated warning

system

Grade separated

intersection Driver condition on

monitoring

Driver training

Automated detection of

Street lighting adverse weather

Emergency notification

5.2 Planning and ITS architecture

ITS architecture is a useful tool for integrating ITS technique into

planning process. The ITS architecture defines the comprehensive
 set of data that should be shared by various agencies of
transportation network. With the knowledge of what data must be
exchanged, these agencies develop a common interest in
cooperating planning efforts between all transportation projects.

5.3 Planning for ITS

ITS planning process follows a systems engineering approach to

develop a deployment plan in descending order vision, goal,
objectives, and functions. Table. 4 shows the ITS approach for
achieving goal “enhance public safety”.

Table 4: ITS approach for the goal enhance public safety

Vision Improvement of travelers safety by providing advance warning by

implementing crash counter measures and by controlling to the security

of the transportation facilities

Goal Enhance public safety

Objectives Promote safety of transportation Reduce crashes on freeways

facility and streets

Functions # Monitoring of rest areas # Implement crash counter

measures at high accident

# Provide public safety at park locations

and ride lots

# Implement work zone safety

# Coordinate emergency response measures

 using appropriate agency

# Install traffic signs signals and

road marking

# Remove obstruction from the

incident scene

5.4 Integrating ITS into Transportation planning

Integrating ITS into transportation planning process require

overcoming some obstacles and some changes in the business
practices of many institutions. The major challenges in
mainstreaming ITS into everyday operations of transportation
agencies are:

 Institutional coordination and cooperation for sharing

information and data
 Technical compatibility among ITS projects
 Human resource needs and training
 Financial constraints and opportunities to involve the private
sector

Most public agencies are aware of the challenges in mainstreaming

ITS into transportation planning process where ITS projects are part
of traditional transportation programs on local or state level to
achieve the best output from transportation investments.

6 Summary
This lecture introduces three important intelligent transportation
system concepts such as: user services architecture planning. ITS
user services includes concept on Travel and traffic management,
Public transportation operations, Electronic payment, Commercial
Vehicle operations, Advanced vehicle control and safety systems,
Emergency management, Information management, and
Maintenance and construction management A general ITS
architecture and its national representation is then covered. The ITS
planning discusses how to integrate ITS into transportation planning

Exercises

1. Not Available

References

1. M A Chowdhary and A Sadek. Fundamentals of Intelligent

Transportation systems planning. Artech House Inc., US, 2003.
2. Bob Williams. Intelligent transportation systems standards.
Artech House, London, 2008.

Acknowledgments

I wish to thank several of my students and staff of NPTEL for their

contribution in this lecture. Specially, I wish to thank my student Mr.
Shekhar Babu for his assistance in developing the lecture note, and
my staff Ms. Reeba in typesetting the materials. I also appreciate
your constructive feedback which may be sent
to tvm@civil.iitb.ac.in
Prof. Tom V. Mathew
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, India
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Thursday 28 September 2023 11:4