Chapter 3

Fully Bio-based Transparent Wood

Abstract Due to its high optical transparency, excellent thermal insulation, and
great durability, transparent wood is a desirable structural material for energy-
efficient buildings, electronics, packaging, and nanotechnologies. The transparent
wood enhances the aesthetic and practical qualities of wood. A lot of work has
gone into making transparent wood with luminous, electrochromic, thermochromic,
and photo-switchable functionalities by incorporating quantum dots, nanoparticles,
or dyes. Because of their superior mechanical qualities and immense potential to
function as renewable and CO2 -storing cellulose scaffolds for cutting-edge hybrid
materials with embedded functionality, wood-derived cellulose materials obtained
by structure-retaining delignification are gaining increasing attention. A wide range
of characteristics is produced by applying various delignification protocols and
numerous additional processes, such as polymer impregnation and densification.
Due to the scarcity of bio-based monomers that combine advantageous processing
with high performance, the sustainable development of biocomposites has been
constrained. Nonetheless, because of its renewable and biodegradable qualities,
transparent wood has the potential to replace traditional petroleum-based polymers
because of the growing knowledge obtained during the last few years which is
presented in the following chapter.

3.1 Introduction

Sustainable development requires the creation of green materials that combine

strength with useful characteristics from renewable resources. The most common
renewable biomaterial produced by photosynthesis in plants is wood. The versatile
properties of this material include low density, high modulus, high strength, high
toughness, and low thermal conductivity. Its distinctive hierarchical microstructure
and fibrous architecture with aligned fibres, composed of rigid cell walls made
of high-strength cellulose fibrils embedded in a plant matrix of hemicelluloses
and lignin, are the result [1, 2]. In contrast to conventional materials, wood has
attracted a lot of attention recently for a variety of high-value-added products,

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 23

I. Wachter et al., Transparent Wood Materials, Springer Series in Materials Science 330,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-23405-7_3
24 3 Fully Bio-based Transparent Wood

including flexible electronics [3], high-performance structural materials, energy-

efficient building materials, and other functional materials [4–7]. Wood naturally
possesses well-oriented channels and a hierarchical microstructure [8]. Lignin–
carbohydrate complex (LCC), which is mostly constituted of cellulose (35−50%),
hemicellulose (20−35%), and lignin (5−30%), makes up the chemical composi-
tion of natural woods [9]. The intricate wood tissue, cell, and cell wall structure
are typically altered somewhat unspecifically as a result of chemical delignification
procedures. Lignin cannot be selectively removed from the cell wall by chemical
treatments because of the closure assembly of cellulose, hemicelluloses, and lignin
at the nanoscale [10, 11].
Wood’s porosity opens up possibilities for new functions. In comparison with the
dense natural cell wall, the cellulose scaffolds produced by a structure-retaining delig-
nification process have higher porosity and hydroxyl accessibility in the wet state,
making it easier to incorporate polymers and inorganic materials into the hierarchical
scaffolds to improve properties or implement novel functionality [12, 13].
To produce transparent wood and its composites with exceptional optical proper-
ties, it is necessary to incorporate interface manipulation of nanocellulose fibrils via
acetylation to further improve the accessibility of polymer to the wood scaffold. A
hydrophobic liquid has poor compatibility with hydrophilic wood, making it chal-
lenging for it to permeate the cell wall. It should be simpler to induce wood flow if
the binder can penetrate the cell wall more easily. One chemical alteration of wood
used to increase dimensional stability is acetylation [14]. According to Obataya and
Shibutani [15], hydrophobic organic liquids can permeate the cell wall of acety-
lated wood, a sort of hydrophobized wood. The acetylated wood polymers allow
more hydrophobic organic liquids to penetrate because they have fewer and weaker
intermolecular hydrogen bonds. Acetylation, according to Shiraishi [16], is a useful
technique for increasing the affinity of wood with methyl methacrylate (MMA),
which can subsequently be polymerized into poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA)
inside the cell wall. Seki et al. concentrated on the chemical altering of wood through
acetylation to increase MMA penetration. They used a hydrophobic MMA monomer
as a thermoplastic binder to impregnate the wood, which was then heated to poly-
merize the monomer into PMMA and investigated how wood acetylation affected
the ability of solid wood impregnated with PMMA to be extruded [17]. Li et al. used
interface manipulation through acetylation to produce a centimetre-thick transparent
wood structure with outstanding optical properties of 60% transmittance and 76%
haze. Without acetylation, the same optical parameters were achieved by 3-mm-thick
samples. Figure 3.1 shows that more optical heterogeneity would be caused by cellu-
lose aggregations and interface debonding, which would reduce optical transmittance
and increase haze. Acetylated transparent wood had almost no interface debonding
gap, resulting in increased compatibility between PMMA and the wood template
[18].
Transparent wood’s hydrophilic and hydrophobic properties have a big impact
on where it can be used. Wood’s many hydroxyl groups readily form hydrogen
bonds with water, causing the material to absorb water and expand thus negatively
affecting its use. In addition to esterification, acetylation, chemical or enzymatic
3.1 Introduction 25

Fig. 3.1 Low- and high-magnification images of the non-acetylated transparent wood, exhibiting
the aggregation of nanocellulose fibrils and the interface debonding gaps (c–e), low-magnification
and high-magnification images of the acetylated wood template (f–h) [18]

grafting with functional molecules, and modification with organosilicon compounds,

the replacement of hydrophobic groups for hydroxyl groups has also been extensively
studied [19–21].
Since transparent wood was initially studied [22], bio-based applications have
been proposed. There are typically two crucial phases involved in the creation of
transparent wood: (1) decolorizing wood by eliminating light-absorbing substances,
primarily lignin (remove or modify) and (2) infiltrating a petroleum-based polymer
with a refractive index compatible with wood substrates [23–27]. A chemical lignin
removal also impacts hemicelluloses in close contact with lignin, which may also
be determined from the mass loss after the chemical treatment [7]. Also, the in-
plane mechanical performance of transparent wood with thickness in the longitudinal
direction is significantly worse, and the size of the structure is constrained by the
cross-sectional area of the wood or tree. This limits the use of transparent wood
when heavy, sturdy, and substantial building blocks are required. As a result, thick
transparent wood that is thick in the longitudinal direction is more desirable but also
more problematic [18]. PMMA or epoxy polymers encase the entire transparent wood
with superior protection compared to natural wood, higher dimensional stability, and
lower water sensitivity [4, 5]. As a result of their potential industrial and commercial
uses transparent wood-based materials are highly sought after.
Figure 3.2 depicts the material’s whole life cycle, starting with trees as renew-
able resources that are used to produce wood-based materials. They are subject to
processing and modification to create biocomposite materials [28].
26 3 Fully Bio-based Transparent Wood

Fig. 3.2 Wood-based biocomposites’ life cycle. To be considered sustainable, there must be a
reduction in carbon dioxide emissions and total energy consumption [28]

3.2 Recent Progress

The first ever transparent wood was created by Fink in 1992 [22]. It however was
not a fully bio-based transparent biocomposite. Since then, there have been attempts
to make a fully bio-based transparent wood primarily due to environmental reasons.
Although many of the newly created materials were completely bio-based, they
lacked in some areas and could be only used in a very specific application such as (1)
mechanical energy conversion (decayed all-wood blocks without infiltrated polymer)
[25], (2) photonic wood (white all-wood scaffold without infiltrated polymer) [29],
(3) transparent nanopaper (all bio-based, however ultra-thin) [30–34], (4) radiative
cooling material (natural delignified wood scaffold) [35], (5) high-performance struc-
tural materials (lack of transparency) [36–38], (6) hydrophobic wood films as optical
lightning materials (bio-based, polymer matrix-free) [39], (7) high-performance
densified cellulose materials (matrix-free wood-based materials) [40], and (8) natural
fibre composites [41, 42]. Despite the above-mentioned materials and their applica-
tions, none of them can be considered a truly fully bio-based transparent wood.
The definition of fully bio-based transparent wood for the purposes of this chapter
is a biocomposite material consisting of delignified or lignin-modified wood scaf-
fold with preserved microstructure and infiltrated with bio-based polymer resulting
in a material with excellent optical and mechanical properties suitable for various
applications such as in smart building, smart windows, solar panels, and electronics.
In comparison with typical non-renewable polymers made from fossil resources,
bio-based polymers may have advantages such as the utilization of renewable
3.2 Recent Progress 27

resources, carbon neutrality, and reduced global warming impact [43]. Fully bio-
based transparent wood can be prepared by using polymers which can be synthesized
from raw renewable resources or organic wastes. Such polymers include polyvinyl
alcohol [44, 45], furfuryl alcohol [46], gelatine [47], polycarbonates [48], polyacry-
lates [49], terpenes [50, 51], or polysaccharides [52]. Few studies proposed such
procedures [53–57].
In load-bearing biocomposites, bio-based and biodegradable polymers have
recently been studied as alternatives to fossil-based polymers. According to Lande
et al. [58], furfuryl alcohol is also a bio-based polymer that can replace phenol–
formaldehyde resins despite its hazardous properties (monomer and catalysts) and
dark hue. Thermosets made from vegetable oils are another bio-based polymer that
has been taken into consideration for plant fibre composites [56].
A comparison of the specific strength and specific stiffness of conventional
thermosets and thermoplastics with poly(limonene acrylate) (PLIMA), which is
considered a fully bio-based polymer, is shown in Fig. 3.3 [59].
The focus of Keplinger et al. was placed on structure-retaining delignification and
following densification phases, as well as how experimental tests and modelling tech-
niques affected mechanical characteristics [60]. Jiang et al. substantially improved
the usability and scalability of transparent wood material for a variety of sustain-
able applications by offering insights into the production of advanced transparent
wood material from the perspective of wood chemical composition [61]. The fact
that cellulose and wood come from renewable sources does not, however, make
wood composites eco-friendly materials (excessive energy requirements, greenhouse
gas emissions, and water depletion). Green chemistry principles were explored by
Montanari et al. Using a top-down strategy, a totally bio-based transparent wood

Fig. 3.3 PLIMA bio-based polymer’s mechanical characteristics in comparison with typical
thermosets and thermoplastics [59]
28 3 Fully Bio-based Transparent Wood

nanocomposite was produced. Natural wood underwent green delignification, bio-

based molecules stabilized the moisture, the bio-based monomer was infiltrated in
a solvent-free process, and final curing resulted in a biocomposite with finely tuned
properties [28]. To this date, only a handful of studies in which fully bio-based trans-
parent wood was manufactured have been published. By creating a bag, medicine
container, and drink straw, the potential for environmentally friendly packaging uses
was shown by Hai et al. (Fig. 3.4) [62]. They employed chitosan, a chitin deriva-
tive with benefits including antioxidant, antibacterial, mechanical, thermal, and UV-
protection qualities that may be obtained from a variety of sources including shrimp
shells, lobster shells, mushrooms, and crabs [63−64], and it showed a promising
result.
An entirely bio-based transparent wood biocomposite was also created by a
team under the direction of Montanari using a green synthesis process using a new
limonene acrylate monomer from renewable resources. They emphasized the need
for processing ideas that are appropriate for larger structures with controlled micro
and nanostructure so that sustainable wood nanotechnologies transparent plastics
and glass can compete with in applications like load-bearing panels, interior design,
lighting, and various energy-saving initiatives [59]. Synthetic structural materials
with great mechanical performance are often either heavy (such as steels and alloys)
or produced using complicated techniques, which results in high costs or negative
environmental effects. Therefore, Khakalo et al. created an all-wood composite mate-
rial through a process consisting of delignification, ionic liquid-facilitated partial fibre

Fig. 3.4 Preparation process of transparent wood with all bio-based cellulose nanofiber and
chitosan resin [62]
3.2 Recent Progress 29

surface dissolution, and heat-assisted densification which allowed for the encapsu-
lation of the remaining fibres in a matrix of regenerated cellulose, creating compact
composites with exceptional mechanical performance [65]. By infiltrating gelatine
into the porous wood template, a bio-based hydrogel composite was created by Wang
et al. Their work showed that wood structure is a great template for creating high-
performance hydrogel composites, utilizing native porosity cell walls and aligned
cellulose nanofibers for mechanical reinforcement and structural confinement [47].
Key research on transparent wood’s life cycle analysis and the environmental effects
of its manufacturing and disposal was performed by Rai et al., who claimed that
epoxy infiltration, sodium sulfite, hydrogen peroxide-based delignification (NaOH +
Na2 SO3 + H2 O2 technique), and sodium hydroxide have the least negative effects on
the environment. Compared to sodium chlorite delignification and PMMA, it showed
about 24% less potential for global warming and 15% less for terrestrial acidifica-
tion. In comparison with laboratory-scale production, the industrial-scale production
model consumes 98.8% less electricity and has 28% less potential for global warming
and almost 97% less toxicity for humans. Transparent wood’s end-of-life examination
revealed that it had 107 times fewer ecological effects than polyethylene, indicating
that it may be economically modified to replace traditional petroleum-based prod-
ucts [66]. Current development in the field of entirely bio-based transparent wood is
summarized in Table 3.1.

Table 3.1 Summarization of the recent progress achieved in the field of fully bio-based transparent
wood
Wood type Method Transmittance Haze Tensile Thickness Special
(%) (%) strength (mm) feature
(MPa)
Balsa Peracetic acid 90 30 174 1.2 Young’s
veneers delignification + modulus
[59] Succinylation 17 GPa
Rotary-cut NaClO2 delignification ~ 85 ~ 72 165.3 0.37 High
basswood hemicellulose
and content (~23
pinewood wt%)
[61]
Fir wood NaClO2 delignification 80 30–60 171.8 0.1 Excellent UV
veneer shielding,
[62] thermal
stability up to
315 °C
Birchwood NaClO2 delignification 40 ∼ 430 Excellent
plies [65] mechanical
properties
30 3 Fully Bio-based Transparent Wood

3.3 Conclusion

In the aforementioned studies, transparent wood composite materials made entirely

of wood and from biomaterials were created. Due to their distinctive hierarchical
structure and cellulose phase, which serves as an intrinsic reinforcement, wood-
based multifunctional materials with good mechanical performance are being more
and more evaluated for advanced sustainable applications. Based on these results,
additional work might be done to produce different structures with highly aligned
fibres, which would be valuable in the developing circular bioeconomy. Recent years
have seen a lot of interest in the study of cellulose composites generated from wood,
and, likely, these materials will soon be used in many different sectors. A thorough
understanding of long-term performance is necessary for this, though, as well as
a thorough understanding of mechanical behaviour under varied loading circum-
stances. Additionally, studies into the fundamental structure-property interactions
and how they emerge from and are impacted by different processing parameters
are lacking. The deployment of these useful wood- and cellulose-based materials
in engineering applications will advance, but only if they can deliver dependable
long-term performance, which necessitates a thorough understanding and control of
all production parameters.

References

1. O. Vay, K. De Borst, C. Hansmann, A. Teischinger, U. Müller, Thermal conductivity of wood

at angles to the principal anatomical directions. Wood Sci. Technol. 49(3), 577–589 (2015).
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00226-015-0716-x
2. E. Cabane, T. Keplinger, T. Künniger, V. Merk, I. Burgert, Functional lignocellulosic materials
prepared by ATRP from a wood scaffold. Sci. Rep. 6(1), 31287 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1038/
srep31287
3. Q. Fu, Y. Chen, M. Sorieul, Wood-based flexible electronics. ACS Nano 14(3), 3528–3538
(2020). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsnano.9b09817
4. Y. Li, Q. Fu, S. Yu, M. Yan, L. Berglund, Optically Transparent wood from a nanoporous
cellulosic template: combining functional and structural performance. Biomacromol 17(4),
1358–1364 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.biomac.6b00145
5. T. Li et al., Wood composite as an energy efficient building material: guided sunlight transmit-
tance and effective thermal insulation. Adv. Energy Mater. 6(22), 1601122 (2016). https://doi.
org/10.1002/aenm.201601122
6. R. Mi et al., Scalable aesthetic transparent wood for energy efficient buildings. Nat. Commun.
11(1), 3836 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-17513-w
7. J. Song et al., Processing bulk natural wood into a high-performance structural material. Nature
554(7691), 224–228 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1038/nature25476
8. R.J. Moon, A. Martini, J. Nairn, J. Simonsen, J. Youngblood, Cellulose nanomaterials review:
structure, properties and nanocomposites. Chem. Soc. Rev. 40(7), 3941–3994 (2011). https://
doi.org/10.1039/C0CS00108B
9. J. van Spronsen, M.A.T. Cardoso, G.-J. Witkamp, W. de Jong, M.C. Kroon, Separation and
recovery of the constituents from lignocellulosic biomass by using ionic liquids and acetic
acid as co-solvents for mild hydrolysis. Chem. Eng. Process. Process Intensif. 50(2), 196–199
(2011). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cep.2010.12.010
References 31

10. J. Fahlén, L. Salmén, Pore and matrix distribution in the fiber wall revealed by atomic force
microscopy and image analysis. Biomacromol 6(1), 433–438 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1021/
bm040068x
11. O.M. Terrett et al., Molecular architecture of softwood revealed by solid-state NMR. Nat.
Commun. 10(1), 4978 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-019-12979-9
12. C. Chen et al., Scalable and sustainable approach toward highly compressible, anisotropic,
lamellar carbon sponge. Chem 4(3), 544–554 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chempr.2017.
12.028
13. M. Frey et al., Tunable wood by reversible interlocking and bioinspired mechanical gradients.
Adv. Sci. 6(10), 1802190 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1002/advs.201802190
14. A.J. Stamm, Wood and Cellulose Science (Ronald Press Co., New York, 1964)
15. E. Obataya, S. Shibutani, Swelling of acetylated wood in organic solvents. J. Mater. Sci. 40(15),
4113–4115 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-005-0641-8
16. N. Shiraishi, Plasticization of wood. J. Japan Wood Res. Soc. (1986)
17. M. Seki, S. Tanaka, T. Miki, I. Shigematsu, K. Kanayama, Extrudability of solid wood by
acetylation and in-situ polymerisation of methyl methacrylate. BioResources 11, 4025–4036
(2016). https://doi.org/10.15376/biores.11.2.4025-4036
18. Y. Li, X. Yang, Q. Fu, R. Rojas, M. Yan, L. Berglund, Towards centimeter thick transparent
wood through interface manipulation. J. Mater. Chem. A 6(3), 1094–1101 (2018). https://doi.
org/10.1039/C7TA09973H
19. H. Chang, K. Tu, X. Wang, J. Liu, Fabrication of mechanically durable superhydrophobic wood
surfaces using polydimethylsiloxane and silica nanoparticles. RSC Adv. 5(39), 30647–30653
(2015). https://doi.org/10.1039/C5RA03070F
20. M. Matsunaga, D.C. Hewage, Y. Kataoka, A. Ishikawa, M. Kobayashi, M. Kiguchi, Acetylation
of wood using supercritical carbon dioxide. J. Trop. For. Sci. 28(2), 132–138 (2016)
21. K. Wang et al., Highly hydrophobic and self-cleaning bulk wood prepared by grafting long-
chain alkyl onto wood cell walls. Wood Sci. Technol. 51(2), 395–411 (2017). https://doi.org/
10.1007/s00226-016-0862-9
22. S. Fink, Transparent wood—a new approach in the functional study of wood structure. Holz-
forschung—Int. J. Biol. Chem. Phys. Technol. Wood 46, 403 (1992). https://doi.org/10.1515/
hfsg.1992.46.5.403
23. S. Liu et al., Bioinspired thermochromic transparent hydrogel wood with advanced optical
regulation abilities and mechanical properties for windows. Appl. Energy 297, 117207 (2021).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2021.117207
24. S. Al-Qahtani et al., Development of photoluminescent translucent wood toward photochromic
smart window applications. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 60(23), 8340–8350 (2021). https://doi.org/
10.1021/acs.iecr.1c01603
25. J. Sun et al., Enhanced mechanical energy conversion with selectively decayed wood. Sci. Adv.
7(11), eabd9138 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abd9138
26. X. Wang et al., Large-size transparent wood for energy-saving building applications. Chem-
suschem 11(23), 4086–4093 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1002/cssc.201801826
27. H. Li, X. Guo, Y. He, R. Zheng, A green steam-modified delignification method to prepare
low-lignin delignified wood for thick, large highly transparent wood composites. J. Mater. Res.
34(6), 932–940 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1557/jmr.2018.466
28. C. Montanari, P. Olsén, L.A. Berglund, Sustainable wood nanotechnologies for wood compos-
ites processed by in-situ polymerization. Front. Chem. 9, 682883 (2021). https://doi.org/10.
3389/fchem.2021.682883
29. J. Li, C. Chen, J.Y. Zhu, A.J. Ragauskas, L. Hu, In situ wood delignification toward sustainable
applications. Accounts Mater. Res. 2(8), 606–620 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1021/accountsmr.
1c00075
30. Z. Fang et al., Novel nanostructured paper with ultrahigh transparency and ultrahigh haze for
solar cells. Nano Lett. 14(2), 765–773 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1021/nl404101p
31. C. Jia et al., Scalable, anisotropic transparent paper directly from wood for light management
in solar cells. Nano Energy 36, 366–373 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2017.04.059
32 3 Fully Bio-based Transparent Wood

32. Y. Jiang et al., Highly efficient and selective modification of lignin towards optically designable
and multifunctional lignocellulose nanopaper for green light-management applications. Int. J.
Biol. Macromol. 206, 264–276 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2022.02.147
33. S. Gamage et al., Reflective and transparent cellulose-based passive radiative coolers. Cellulose
28(14), 9383–9393 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10570-021-04112-1
34. F.B. Kadumudi et al., Flexible and green electronics manufactured by origami folding of
nanosilicate-reinforced cellulose paper. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 12(42), 48027–48039
(2020). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.0c15326
35. T. Li et al., A radiative cooling structural material. Science (80-. ). 364(6442), 760 LP−763
(2019). https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aau9101
36. X. Dong et al., Low-value wood for sustainable high-performance structural materials. Nat.
Sustain. 5(7), 628–635 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-022-00887-8
37. M. Jakob, J. Gaugeler, W. Gindl-Altmutter, Effects of fiber angle on the tensile properties of
partially delignified and densified wood. Mater. (Basel, Switzerland) 13(23) (2020). https://
doi.org/10.3390/ma13235405
38. K. Li, L. Zhao, J. Ren, B. He, Interpretation of strengthening mechanism of densified wood
from supramolecular structures. Molecules 27(13) (2022). https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules
27134167
39. Q. Fu et al., Luminescent and hydrophobic wood films as optical lighting materials. ACS Nano
14(10), 13775–13783 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsnano.0c06110
40. M. Frey et al., Densified Cellulose Materials and Delignified Wood Reinforced Composites—
ICCM22. (2019)
41. Y. Jiang, A.L. Yarin, Y. Pan, Printable highly transparent natural fiber composites. Mater. Lett.
277, 128290 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matlet.2020.128290
42. L. Yang, Y. Wu, F. Yang, X. Wu, Y. Cai, J. Zhang, A wood textile fiber made from natural wood.
J. Mater. Sci. 56(27), 15122–15133 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-021-06240-2
43. S.A. Miller, Sustainable polymers: opportunities for the next decade. ACS Macro Lett. 2(6),
550–554 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1021/mz400207g
44. E. Chiellini, P. Cinelli, F. Chiellini, S.H. Imam, Environmentally degradable bio-based poly-
meric blends and composites. Macromol. Biosci. 4(3), 218–231 (2004). https://doi.org/10.
1002/mabi.200300126
45. C. Haweel, S. Ammar, Preparation of poly (Vinyl) alcohol from local raw material. Iraqui J
Chem Pet Eng. 9, 15–21 (2008)
46. R. Mariscal, P. Maireles-Torres, M. Ojeda, I. Sádaba, M. López Granados, Furfural: a renewable
and versatile platform molecule for the synthesis of chemicals and fuels. Energy Environ. Sci.
9(4), 1144–1189 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1039/C5EE02666K
47. S. Wang, K. Li, Q. Zhou, High strength and low swelling composite hydrogels from gelatin
and delignified wood. Sci. Rep. 10(1), 17842 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-748
60-w
48. P.A. Wilbon, F. Chu, C. Tang, Progress in renewable polymers from natural terpenes, terpenoids,
and rosin. Macromol. Rapid Commun. 34(1), 8–37 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1002/marc.201
200513
49. C.M. Byrne, S.D. Allen, E.B. Lobkovsky, G.W. Coates, Alternating copolymerization of
limonene oxide and carbon dioxide. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 126(37), 11404–11405 (2004). https://
doi.org/10.1021/ja0472580
50. A. Stamm et al., Chemo-enzymatic pathways toward pinene-based renewable materials. Green
Chem. 21(10), 2720–2731 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1039/C9GC00718K
51. L. Peña Carrodeguas, C. Martín, A.W. Kleij, Semiaromatic polyesters derived from renewable
terpene oxides with high glass transitions. Macromolecules 50(14), 5337–5345 (2017). https://
doi.org/10.1021/acs.macromol.7b00862.
52. P. Maćczak, H. Kaczmarek, M. Ziegler-Borowska, Recent achievements in polymer bio-based
flocculants for water treatment. Mater. (Basel, Switzerland) 13(18) (2020). https://doi.org/10.
3390/ma13183951
References 33

53. W. Wu, H. Tian, A. Xiang, Influence of polyol plasticizers on the properties of polyvinyl alcohol
films fabricated by melt processing. J. Polym. Environ. 20(1), 63–69 (2012). https://doi.org/
10.1007/s10924-011-0364-7
54. D. Yue, G. Fu, Z. Jin, Transparent wood prepared by polymer impregnation of rubber wood
(Hevea brasiliensis Muell. Arg). BioResources 16, 2491–2502 (2021). https://doi.org/10.
15376/biores.16.2.2491-2502
55. Y. Liu et al., Luminescent transparent wood based on lignin-derived carbon dots as a building
material for dual-channel, real-time, and visual detection of formaldehyde gas. ACS Appl.
Mater. Interfaces 12(32), 36628–36638 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.0c10240
56. A. O’Donnell, M.A. Dweib, R.P. Wool, Natural fiber composites with plant oil-based resin.
Compos. Sci. Technol. 64(9), 1135–1145 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compscitech.2003.
09.024
57. N.A. Muhammad, B. Armynah, D. Tahir, High transparent wood composite for effective X-ray
shielding applications. Mater. Res. Bull. 154, 111930 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.materr
esbull.2022.111930
58. S. Lande, M. Westin, M. Schneider, Development of modified wood products based on furan
chemistry. Mol. Cryst. Liq. Cryst. 484(1), 1/[367]−12/[378] (2008). https://doi.org/10.1080/
15421400801901456
59. C. Montanari, Y. Ogawa, P. Olsén, L.A. Berglund, High performance, fully bio-based, and
optically transparent wood biocomposites. Adv. Sci. 8(12), 2100559 (2021). https://doi.org/
10.1002/advs.202100559
60. T. Keplinger, F.K. Wittel, M. Rüggeberg, I. Burgert, Wood derived cellulose scaffolds—
processing and mechanics. Adv. Mater. 33(28), 2001375 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.
202001375
61. Y. Jiang et al., Hemicellulose-rich transparent wood: Microstructure and macroscopic proper-
ties. Carbohydr. Polym. 296, 119925 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2022.119925
62. L. Van Hai, R.M. Muthoka, P.S. Panicker, D.O. Agumba, H.D. Pham, J. Kim, All-biobased
transparent-wood: a new approach and its environmental-friendly packaging application.
Carbohydr. Polym. 264, 118012 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2021.118012
63. M. Mujtaba et al., Current advancements in chitosan-based film production for food technology;
a review. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 121, 889–904 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2018.
10.109
64. K. V. Harish Prashanth, R.N. Tharanathan, Chitin/chitosan: modifications and their unlimited
application potential—an overview. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 18(3), 117–131 (2007). https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2006.10.022
65. A. Khakalo, A. Tanaka, A. Korpela, L.K.J. Hauru, H. Orelma, All-wood composite material by
partial fiber surface dissolution with an ionic liquid. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 7(3), 3195–3202
(2019). https://doi.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.8b05059
66. R. Rai, R. Ranjan, P. Dhar, Life cycle assessment of transparent wood production using
emerging technologies and strategic scale-up framework. Sci. Total Environ. 846, 157301
(2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.157301