1.

7 CONTROL SYSTEM COMPONENTS:

In control systems, controllers are critical for managing the behavior of the system and
ensuring that the system responds to the desired input appropriately. The components of
a controller typically fall into three main categories: Sensors, Differencing and
Amplification Devices, and Actuators. Below is a detailed explanation of these
components, along with a focus on electric actuators, particularly DC and AC motors
(including servomotors).

1.7.1 Sensors (Transducers):

Definition: Sensors are low-power devices that convert a physical quantity (position,
velocity, temperature, pressure, etc.) into an electrical signal (analog or digital) for
further processing in the control system.

- Electrical Output: The output signal is generally in an electrical form to allow easy
transmission, processing, and control. The sensor's output can be in analog or digital
form, depending on the design of the control system.

Types:

- Position sensors: Encoders, potentiometers.

- Velocity sensors: Tachometers, encoders.

- Temperature sensors: Thermocouples, thermistors.

- Pressure sensors: Piezoelectric sensors, strain gauges.

- Chemical state sensors: pH meters, concentration analyzers.

1.7.2 Differencing and Amplification Devices:

These devices are responsible for generating the error signal by comparing the sensor's
output with the reference signal and then amplifying the error signal to a suitable level
for driving the actuator.

Key Functions:

- Differencing (Error Calculation): The difference between the desired input

(reference) and the actual system output (feedback) is computed. This error signal is
crucial for the controller to decide how to adjust the system.

- Amplification: The error signal is typically small, so it is amplified to a level where

it can drive actuators. The amplification could involve increasing both the signal’s
magnitude and power.

Electronic Implementation:

- Operational Amplifiers (Op-Amps): These are commonly used for differencing and
amplifying signals in control systems.

- Power Amplifiers: At the final stage, transistors or Silicon-Controlled Rectifiers

(SCRs) are used to provide sufficient power to the actuator.

1.7.3 Actuators:

Definition: Actuators convert the electrical signal (control signal) from the controller
into mechanical motion. They can be classified based on the type of energy they use,
including electrical, hydraulic, or pneumatic actuators.

Types of Actuators:

- Electrical Actuators: DC motors, AC motors, stepper motors, and servomotors.

- Hydraulic Actuators: Used in systems requiring high torque at low speed (e.g.,
heavy machinery, industrial presses).

- Pneumatic Actuators: Operate using compressed air, commonly used in valve

control, but they are prone to leakage and inaccuracies.

Functions:

- Positioning: Open/close valves, move mechanical arms or links, or change the

position of control rods in a reactor.

- Speed Control: Modulate the speed of conveyors, fans, or turbines.

- Torque Control: Adjust the torque output to maintain stability in dynamic loads.

Electric Actuators:

Electric actuators, particularly DC and AC motors, play a dominant role in control

systems due to their reliability, ease of control, and flexibility.

Summary:

In control systems, sensors, differencing and amplification devices, and actuators are the
core components that facilitate accurate control of a process. DC and AC motors,
particularly servomotors, are widely used as actuators due to their excellent control
characteristics. DC motors, with their high torque/inertia ratio and fast dynamic
response, dominate applications requiring precision control. Electric actuators are
preferred due to their ease of integration, linearity, and flexibility, while hydraulic and
pneumatic actuators are used in specialized applications requiring high torque or unique
environmental conditions.
1.8 CONSTRUCTIONAL AND WORKING CONCEPT OF AC & DC SERVOMOTOR,
SYNCHRO’S, STEPPER MOTOR AND TACHOMETER.

1.8.1 DC SERVOMOTOR

The DC servomotor is essentially a specialized version of a regular DC motor designed

for precision control in applications that demand fast response, high torque, and low
inertia. While it shares many characteristics with standard DC motors, it is optimized for
use in closed-loop control systems, such as in robotic arms, CNC machines, and
industrial automation.

1. Basic Construction of a DC Motor

A DC motor consists of the following key components:

 Stator (Non-rotating part):

o The stator houses the magnets, which generate a magnetic field that
interacts with the rotor to create torque. These magnets can either be:
 Permanent magnets (in small motors), or
 Electromagnets (in larger motors), in which a current passes
through a field winding to generate the magnetic field. In an
electromagnet motor, the field winding current 𝑖 determines the
flux 𝜙 .
 Rotor (rotating part):
o The rotor consists of an armature winding through which a current 𝑖
flows. This current is transferred through stationary brushes that contact
the rotating commutator. The commutator is composed of copper
segments, insulated from one another, and it ensures that the current
direction in the armature coils switches as needed to maintain a
continuous torque in one direction.
 Air Gap:
o The space between the stator and rotor through which the magnetic field
passes and interacts with the rotor current to generate torque.
 Commutator and Brushes:
o The commutator ensures the correct switching of current through the
armature as the rotor turns.
o The brushes are typically made of carbon and maintain electrical contact
with the rotating commutator.

2. Working Principle of a DC Motor

The torque 𝑇 generated by the motor is directly proportional to the magnetic flux ϕ and
the armature current 𝑖 , following the relationship:

Torque equation:

𝑇 =𝐾 ⋅𝜙⋅𝑖

Where:
  𝑇 is the torque in Newton-meters (Nm),
 ϕ is the magnetic flux in Weber (Wb),
 𝑖 is the armature current in Amperes (A),
 𝐾 is a motor constant.
 In permanent magnet motors, the flux ϕ is constant, so the torque can be
controlled by varying only the armature current 𝑖 .
 In wound-field motors, the flux can be varied by adjusting the field current 𝑖 .
In this case, torque can be controlled by adjusting either the armature current or
the field current, depending on the control strategy.

1.8.2 DC motor speed control

Manufacturing systems use motors to drive processes, such as accurate positioning in

robotic welding and maintaining precise velocity in conveyor systems. The basic
structure of speed and position control systems remains consistent regardless of the
application.

In this section, we will develop models for subsystems of a typical speed control system

To understand the essential components of a speed control system, consider a conveyor

system used in manufacturing to transport goods between different areas of a production
facility. A typical conveyor system may use a belt on rollers to carry products, with the
rollers being driven by a motor (actuator).

If the load (the conveyor belt and products) applied a constant torque to the motor shaft,
feedback control would not be necessary. However, since the load changes, feedback
control is required to ensure the motor achieves its desired purpose. A typical feedback
control system may require the motor to achieve and maintain a constant speed
(setpoint) while compensating for variations in torque (disturbances) due to changing
loads.

The speed of the conveyor belt is typically measured by a tachometer (sensor). To

represent this system in a feedback-control block diagram format, we first model the
controlled process, including the measurement and actuator components, and then
establish the feedback loop.
Rotational Load

- For the speed control system under consideration, the controlled process is
represented by the rotating shaft, which moves the load (the conveyor belt and
products).
- The input signal to this rotational system is the torque 𝑇(𝑡) from the motor that
drives the load.
- The output signal of the system is the angular velocity ω(𝑡) of the shaft.

The three basic parameters for rotational systems are the moment of inertia J , viscous
friction with coefficient B , and the torsional spring with spring constant K .

In low-power servos, the driving and driven shafts can often be treated as having
negligible elasticity, allowing these rotational systems to be modeled using only two
parameters: J and B. However, high-power servos may require all three parameters: J ,
B , and K.