The McGraw-Hill companies Models of Industrial Control Devices and Systems ‘There are no combinations of more than two nontouching loops. Hence from Eqn. (3.7b), A= 1 (GH) ~ Galt, ~ GyHs ~ GaHlsHyH) + GM GH The first forward path is in touch with all the loops. Therefore A, = 1. The second forward path is not in touch with one loop (Fig. 3.17b). Therefore A, = | -(— GyH,). From Eqn. (3.7), the overall gain is yw X Mt Be GGG, + Gy + GOH R A 14 GH, + GH, + GH, + GHgHH, + GH,GH, Example 3.3 Consider another typical block diagram shown in Fig. 3.18. This feedback system has ‘wo inputs. We shall use the superposition to treat each input separately. The Mason’s gain rule may be applied directly to the block diagram without transforming it into an equivalent signal flow graph. When the disturbance input 17(s) is zero, the resulting block diagram has one forward path and two oops. The two loops touch each other and the forward path touches both the loops. By Mason’s gain rule (Eqns (3.7)) ms) cao —— Gels) 1%) - + mon Gu 6x9} x) +h Gus) \ Lis As) Fig. 3.18 Block diagram of a control system = 2) LAGI AGIAGLAG RM ejan 1+ GS) (S) + G(5)G(S)G(8)G,(s)H(9) With R(s) = 0, the block diagram has two forward paths and two loops. The two loops touch each other and both the forward paths touch both the loops. By Mason’s gain rule, ¥(s) GGUS) ~ Gels) Gy(G(S)G5) WIeci-0 FGM) + GIGGING (IAS ‘The response to the simultaneous application of R(s) and W(s) is given by ¥(s) = MG)R(s) + M, (WG DC MOTOR SPEED CONTROL Manufacturing systems use some form of motor to actuate a process; for example, for accurate positioning in robotic welding, and for accurate velocity in conveyor systems. We will develop, in this chapter, simple models of motor speed control and position control systems. M(s) M,(s)The McGraw-Hill companies Control Systems: Principles and Design The applications of control systems developed in this chapter are not limited to manufacturing floors. We use feedback to control inertia load. The inertia load may consist of a small object such as a precision instrument in a manufacturing system, or a very large, massive object such as a radar antenna, a rigid satellite or control surfaces of an aircraft. There are numerous applications wherein one encounters the need to control mechanical motions. ‘The de motor has been a workhorse in industry for the better part of the century. It has survived because it provides good torque at all speeds and can be manufactured easily and inexpensively. Itis being replaced, to some extent, by brushless de motors and ac induction motors. However, commutator de motors are still ‘manufactured in great quantities because for many applications, they are still the best solution. In the follow- ing we consider the de motor speed control systems, and the components that make up these systems. 3.5.1 DC Servomotors A sketch of the basic components of a de motor is given in Fig. 3.19. The non-turning part (called the stator) has magnets which establish a field across the turning part (called the rofor). The magnets may be electro- magnets or, for small motors, permanent magnets. In an electromagnet motor, the stator is wound with wire and current is forced through this winding (called the field winding). For a constant field current i, the magnetic flux @ is constant; the magnetic flux may be varied by varying the field current. The rotor is wound with wire and through this winding (called the armature winding) a current i, is forced through the (stationary) brushes and the (rotating) commutator, The reaction of the magnetic flux $ with the armature current i, produces a torque Ty that forces the armature to rotate. The relationship among the developed torque Ty (newton-m), flux ¢ (webers) and current i, (amps) is Ty = Kyi Gig (3.8a) where Kyy is a constant. In servo applications, a wound-field de motor is generally used in the linear range of magnetization; the flux ¢ is therefore proportional to field current i, and Tye Kua iia (3.80) where Ky, is a constant. —— Stator magnet Brush ovr windings Fig. 3.19 Sketch of a de motorThe McGraw-Hill companies Models of Industrial Control Devices and Systems As the armature rotates in the magnetic field, a voltage is induced into the armature winding, This voltage is 180° out of phase with the applied armature voltage and is therefore called back emf. The relationship among the back emf e, (volts), rotor velocity @ (rad/sec) and flux 6 (webers) is ey = Kyi 8 9a) where K,, is a constant. For the wound-field motor, = Kyzip@ (3.90) where Kya is a constant. Equations (3.8) and (3.9) form the basis of de motor operation. Ina permanent-magnet (PM) motor, the flux ¢ is constant; the torque T,, exerted on the motor rotor ean therefore be controlled by varying the armature current (refer Eqn. (3.8a)). If the direction of the armature current is reversed, the direction of the torque is reversed. In a wound-field motor, the torque may be controlled by varying the armature current and/or the field current (refer Eqn. (3.8b)). Generally, one of these is varied to control the torque while the other is held constant. In the armature control mode of operation, the field current is held constant and armature current is varied to control the torque. In the field-control mode, the armature current is maintained constant and field current controls the torque; a reversal in the direction of field current reverses the direction of the torque, In servo applications, a de motor is required to produce rapid accelerations from standstill. Therefore, the physical requirements of such a motor are low inertia and high starting torque. Low inertia is attained with reduced armature diameter; with a consequent increase in armature length such that the desired power output is achieved. Thus, except for minor differences in constructional features, a de servomotor is essentially an ordinary de motor. Armature-Controlled de Motor The symbolic representation of armature-controlled de motor as a control system component is shown in Fig. 3.20. Under consideration is a wound-field motor. An extemal de source supplies a constant current i; to the field winding, The armature circuit consists of the armature resistance R, and the armature inductance Z,; both are due to the total armature winding which makes an electrical contact with the brushes of the commutator. e, is the applied armature voltage which controls the motor operation, and ¢, is the back emf. ‘On the mechanical side, the motor rotor and the attached load can be treated as inertia and viscous friction; J and B are the corresponding 4 parameters. 7, is the disturbance load torque. The torque Ty, developed by the motor drives the load with angular velocity «. Letus summarize the variables and parameters in the de motor model of Fig. 3.20: R= armature winding resistance (ohms); armature winding inductance (henrys); armature current (amps); field current (amps) = a constant; Fig. 3.20 Armature-controlied de motor with load applied armature voltage (volts); back emf (volts); angular velocity of the motor rotor (rad/sec);The McGraw-Hill companies © Control Systems: Principles and Design = angular displacement of the motor rotor (rad); Ty = torque developed by the motor (newton-m); J = moment of inertia of the motor rotor with attached mechanical load (kg-m* or (newton-m)/(rad/sec”)); B= viscous-friction coefficient of the motor rotor with attached mechanical load ((newton-m)/(rad/sec)); and T,,= disturbance load torque (newton-m). Since the field current is kept constant in the armature-control mode of operation, Eqns (3.8b) and (3.96) become (G.10a) (3.106) where Ky* torque constant; K,, * back emf constant ‘The differential equation of the armature circuit is di ; Ly Ria eh G1) The torque equation is 12 sbo+r, 6.12) ——— ‘Taking the Laplace transform of Eqns 2), assuming zero initial conditions, we get Ty(s) = Kr LAs) (3.13a) Ex(s) = K,o(s) (3.130) (Ls + Ra) Li{s) = E,fs) ~ Eyl) (3.13e) (Us + B) as) = Tys)— TAs) (3.13d) Figure 3.21 shows a block diagram representation of the de motor system. The block diagram gives a clear picture of the cause and effect relationships in the physical system of Fig. 3.20. The voltage applied to the armature circuit is £,(s) which is opposed by the back emf E,(s). The net voltage (E,(s)~ E,(s)) acts on a linear circuit comprised of resistance and inductance in series, having the transfer function 1/(sL, + R,). The result is an armature current /,(s). For the fixed field, the torque developed by the motor is KyJ,(s). The torque rotates the load at a speed (s) against the disturbance 7,(s); the load having moment of inertia J and viscous friction with coefficient B has the transfer function 1/(Js + B). The back emf signal E,(s) = K,(s) is taken off from the shaft speed and fedback negatively to the summing point. Note that although a de motor by itself is basically an open-loop system, it has a ‘built in’ feedback loop caused by the back emf, TAs) Els) +, 1 13) Tis) + - +R, as Exs) Ky Fig. 3.21 Block diagram of a de motor (armature-controlled) system ‘The transfer function between the motor velocity «9(s) and the input voltage E.,(s) obtained from the block diagram isThe McGraw-Hill companies Models of Industrial Control Devices and Systems G.14) as) Ky E,(s) (Lys + R,)ds + B) + KK, The inductance L, in the armature circuit is usually small and may be neglected. IfL, is neglected, then the transfer function given by Eqn. (3.14) reduces to R, oS). Brie __ G15) EQ) I B+K;KIR, The back emf constant K, represents an added term to the viscous friction coefficient B. Therefore, the back emf effect is equivalent to an ‘electric friction’ which tends to improve the stability of the de motor system, ‘The transfer function given by Eqn. (3.15) may be written in the form given below. K, os) _ Kn GB.16) Es) ts +1 where 4 = ——Kt___ — motor gain constant R,B+ KK, RJ and = motor time-constant RB + K;Ky When the motor is used to control shaft position @, rather than the speed @, we get the block diagram model shown in Fig. 3.22. The transfer function between the shaft position 6(s) and the input voltage E,(s) becomes Os) Kw Ex) sts+D ‘The significance of this transfer function is that, Ths) the de motor is essentially an integrating device between the input voltage and the shaft position. 4) + ik | + J. This is expected since if e, is a constant input, the T re G.I) 1 Jo fi 1a) iB motor displacement will behave as the output of an integrator; that is, it will increase linearly with time. We shall see later that the integrating effect Ky Us in Eqn. (3.17) givesa feedback position control system a better steady-state behaviour than the corresponding speed control system. The motor torque and back emf constants are inter-related. Their relationship is deduced below. Power developed in the armature is, Fig. 3.22 The de motor (armature-controlled) model with displacement as output P= e,(t) i,t) [(volts) (amps) = watts] (0) woll volts estrone rad/see In terms of torque and angular velocity, P= ‘ye(0)@ (2) [(newton-m) (rad/see) = watts]The McGraw-Hill companies @ Control Systems: Principles and Design vst =Kri do) (c= o npc amp ‘Therefore, K, (volts/(rad/sec)) = K, (newton-m/amp) G18) This result can be used to advantage in practice as K, can be measured more easily and with greater accuracy than Kp. Ina PM motor, the field winding is absent and a constant magnetic flux is provided by the permanent ‘magnet, Since in the preceding development, the magnetic flux is a constant, Egns (3.14) — (3.18) are also valid for a PM motor. The torque-speed curves of a de motor describe the static torque-producing capability of the motor with respect to the applied voltage and motor speed. With reference to Fig, 3.21, in the steady-state the effect of the inductance is zero, and the torque equation of the motor is T= Lee, - Kyo Kak yy Kop, where Typ Ey, and @ represent the steady-state values of the motor torque, applied voltage and speed, respectively. Figure 3.23 shows a typical set of torque-speed curves (experimentally obtained/supplied by the manu- facturer) of a de motor for various constant armature voltages. The no-load point on the torque-speed characteristic corresponding to armature voltage Eis defined by the coordinates (@,, 0) in Fig. 3.23. Ifa load 7, is applied to the motor shaft, the operating point of the motor shifts from the point (@,, 0) to the point (@,, T,) as shown in the figure. Thus, the applied torque reduces the motor speed. The reduction in speed results in a lower back emf and, for a constant armature voltage Eq, reduction in a, 3 Speed back emf causes an increase in armature current. The increase in armature current is responsible for an increase in motor-generated torque to accommodate the applied load T,. Ifthe new steady-state speed @, is too low and the original speed «@, must be restored, the armature voltage must be increased. This is illustrated in Fig. 3.23; the increase in armature voltage from E,, to E,, restores the original no-load speed @; with the load T, applied. Ina de motor system, there may be a significant nonlinear friction due to the rubbing contact between the brushes and the commutator. Also, torque saturation may occur because of the limitation of the maximum current that the motor can handle due to the heat-dissipation rating of the motor. Refer Chapter 14 for methods for analysis of control systems with nonlinearities in the closed loop. Also see Appendix A wherein Simulink tool has been employed. Torque Fig. 3.23 Typical torque-speed curves of an armature-controlled dc motor Field-Controlled de Motor The schematic diagram of a field-controlled de motor is shown in Fig. 3.24. Inthis system,The McGraw-Hill companies Models of Industrial Control Devices and Systems Ry= field winding resistance (ohms); L,= field winding induetance (henrys); i= field current (amps); i, = armature current (amps) = a constant; = applied field voltage (volts); = angular velocity of the motor rotor (rad/sec); angular displacement of the motor rotor (rad); torque developed by the motor (newton-m); = moment of inertia of the motor rotor with fig 3.24 attached mechanical load (kg-m? or (newton-m) M(radisec’)); B= viscous-friction coefficient of the motor rotor with attached mechanical load ((newton-m)/ (rad/see)); and T,, = disturbance load torque (newton-m). Ty Field-controlled de motor with load ‘The following assumptions are made in the derivation of the transfer function of field-controlled motor: (a) a constant current i, is fed into the armature; (b) the air gap flux ¢ is proportional to field current iy; and (©) the torque developed by the motor is proportional to field current; Ty =Kpig Ky* torque constant. ‘The voltage applied to the field circuit is £,(s) which acts on a linear circuit comprising of resistance and inductance in series, having the transfer function 1/(L,s + R,). The result is a field current /,(s). For fixed armature current, the torque developed by the motor is K’;-/,(s). This torque rotates the load at a speed «(s) against the disturbance 7,,(s); the load having moment of inertia J and viscous-friction coefficient B has the transfer function 1/(Js + B). These cause and effect relationships are described by the block diagram of Fig. 3.25. The transfer function between the motor displacement 0(s) and the input voltage E(s), obtained from the block diagram, is, As) Ky Els) s(Lps +R, \US+ BY s(tps + (F841) G19) where K’,, = K’;/(R,B) = motor gain constant; y= Ly/Ry= time-constant of the field cireuit; and 1, =J/B = mechanical time-constant. Tals) E,(s) 1 Js) K Tis) + A 1 8) ] 1 | A), EystR y ‘ ie 5 Fig. 3.25 Block diagram of a field-controlled de motor For small-size motors, field control is advantageous because only a low power servo amplifier is required while the constant armature current, which is not large, can be supplied from an inexpensive constant voltage source. This control scheme poses great practical difficulties in medium- and large-size motors; because of large back emf of the motor, the armature current cannot be kept constant by supplying a constant voltage to the armature. The assumption of constant armature current leads to the linear equations representing theThe McGraw-Hill companies @ Control Systems: Principles and Design operation of the motor, However, if instead, a constant voltage source is applied to the armature, the equa- tion of the motor becomes nonlinear and cannot be handled by linear analysis methods. For this reason, it is normal practice to have a fixed excitation and control the armature current. 3.5.2 Electronic Amplifiers Broadly speaking, there are two types of electronic amplifiers used in control systems: (a) Asmat signal amplifier is one which linearly amplifies a small signal (usually voltage) and is suitable for sensor circuits to amplify weak measured signals. The operational amplifier (usually called the op amp) is in common use. From the block diagram of Fig. 3.2, we see that a control signal in a feedback loop is a function of the error signal. The functional dependence is given by the controller transfer function D(s). Mechanization of ‘D(s), as we shall see in the next chapter, usually requires amplification of the error signal, and generation of the derivative and the integral of the error signal. Op amp cireuits (refer Section 2.13) are now commonly used for mechanization of the controller transfer function D(s). (b) A power amplifier is one which controls a large amount of power, and is therefore suitable for actuat- ing devices. Power amplifiers are available in three major types: the smooth transistor, the switching transistor (pulse- width modulated (PWM)), and the silicon control rectifier (SCR). Smooth transistor amplifiers use the tran- sistors in a smooth modulating fashion and produce an output voltage that is high-power copy of the input. ‘These amplifiers are used mainly below 1 kW applications. Switching (PWM) amplifiers use the transistors as on-off switches; the output voltage is a constant-frequency, fixed-amplitude waveform whose duty eycle is smoothly varied with input voltage. Switching amplifiers are economical in the 25 W to 5 kW range. In SCR amplifiers, the input voltage smoothly modulates the point in each power-line cycle at which the SCR, (this term arises from the device as controlled rectifier is constructed from silicon), also known as the thyristor, is made to conduct, These amplifiers are often used in high power applications. To be precise, the transfer function of an electronic amplifier is of the form Ki stl However, usually the time constant 1, is negligibly small compared to the dynamics of the plant; the transfer function can therefore be approximated as Gis) = Ky G21) where K, is the proportional gain of the amplifier. In addition to neglecting ‘fast’ dynamics, the model (3.21) of the amplifier further differs from reality because of its perfect linearity which assumes no limit on the magnitude of the input signal. Actually the amplifier, like other devices, exhibits saturation, limiting its output when input becomes too large (refer Chapter 14.) Discussion on hardware aspects of various types of electronic amplifiers is beyond the scope of this book [50]. 3.5.3 DC Tachogenerator ‘We are interested in measuring the rotational velocity of the drive shafis for feedback control. Optical encoders are often used in manufacturing and robotics to provide a measurement of the angular movement (angular velocity/angular position). The encoder is mounted on the drive shaft and rotates at the same veloc- ity as the shaft. The output of the encoder is a series of electrical pulses, directly proportional to the shaft Gs) = 8.20)The McGraw-Hill companies Models of Industrial Control Devices and Systems velocity/position. Interfacing an encoder with a computer is straightforward (discussed later in Chapter 11). We consider here a transducer that produces continuous-time electrical signal proportional to velocity. Such atransducer facilitates interfacing with an op amp comparator/eontrol circuit é ‘A tachogenerator is an electromechanical device which produces an output voltage that is proportional to its shaft speed. Figure 3.26 shows the Schematic diagram ofa dc tachogenerator. It comprises a stator (nonrotating part) with a permanent-magnet field, a rotating armature circuit, and ‘commutator and brush assembly. The rotor is connected to the shaft to be _ ‘measured. The output voltage of the tachogenerator is proportional to the 19 $26 Schematic gram of a de angular velocity of the shatt, The polarity of the output voltage is dependent, eee < on the direction of rotation of the shaft. Dynamics of a de tachogenerator achogenerator can be represented by the equation 2A) Ke) 22) where e, is the output voltage (volts), @ is the rotor velocity (rad/sec), and K, is the sensitivity of the tachogenerator (volts per rad/sec). ‘The transfer function from a(t) to e,(t) of a de tachogenerator is of the form Ex) og) 3.5.4 A Speed Control System Basic structure of speed control systems will remain the same irrespective of the application. We consider here conveyor systems in a manufacturing process to transport goods from different areas of the production facility. A typical conveyor system may use a belt on rollers to carry products. The rollers are driven by motors( Fig. 3.27 ). If the /oad (conveyor belt and products) presented a constant torque to the motor shaft, then no control would be required. But the load docs change, and as a result, control is required if the motor is to achieve its purpose. A typical conveyor system may require the motor to achieve and maintain a con- stant speed (set-point) while working against a load of varying torque (disturbance). To meet the manufacturing requirements, it is imperative that the conveyor belt operates at a Products constant speed; and has acceptable transient performance in moving from one speed setting to the next, We know that we have made several approximations while deriving models of the components that make up a speed control system. For example, nonlinear frictional effects due to brushes and commutator in de machines have been ignored. Also we have assumed that the de machines will be operating in the linear range of magnetization. We have neglected the inductance of the armature circuit. The tachogenerator and power amplifier models are of zero-order; we have assumed that the time- constants of these devices are much smaller than that of the process, and can be neglected, Also 3.23) Fig 3.27 Conveyor bell system in a manufacturing processThe McGraw-Hill companies © Control Systems: Principles and Design the numerical values of the parameters of the models are obtained from the design manuals of the equipment, which are usually not very precise on the parametric values. One may argue that one should attempt to take all, these factors into account to develop a model. This approach will not be cost effective; the time and money spent on modelling is already much higher than that spent on developing a control design. In addition, a complex ‘mathematical model will not necessarily lead to a better control design. The design toolkit is well developed for linear systems; but for nonlinear systems we have limited results. Robustness provided by feedback loop against extemal disturbances 7,, and the model uncertainties, is a well-tested solution to the control problem. Figure 3.28 shows a closed-loop block diagram for the speed control system. We have introduced a scaling block with transfer function X, in the forward path to allow us to compare the command input with controlled output of the system. (Reference voltage e, is calculated from the command input, «, (set-point), using the relation ¢, = K, @,, and this value is then fed to the system through a potentiometer setting (Fig. 3.29). Here X,, is the back emf constant of the motor, R, is the armature resistance (armature inductance is assumed negligible), Kis the torque constant of the moter; J and B are, respectively, moment of intertia and viscous-friction coefficient on motor shaft, and T,, is the disturbance torque on motor shaft (refer Eqns (3.10)-(3.13), and Fig. 3.22). etn é ¥ “lk, FEO] vw Ke ~ Controller Power amplifier ‘Tachogeneratoi Motor + load K, Fig. 3.28 Closed-loop block diagram for speed control system Figure 3.29 shows schematic diagram for speed control using proportional control logic. The feedback voltage e, from the tachogenerator of sensitivity K, volts/(rad/sec) represents the actual speed «of the motor. ‘The reference-input voltage e, represents the desired motor speed ,. An op amp circuit amplifies the error (c,— ¢) between the reference and feedback voltage signals and supplies a voltage u to a power amplifier. The output e, of the power amplifier drives the armature-controlled de motor which rotates in the direction to reduce the error (¢, ~ ¢,) as a consequence of the negative feedback, Reduction in (¢, ~ ¢,) results in reduction in the difference between the desired motor speed and actual motor speed. Reversal in the polarity of ¢, reverses the direction of rotation of the motor. Its seen that the control law is i.e,, the control signal is proportional to the error. It will be seen in later chapters that the speed control system of Fig. 3.29 has poor disturbance-rejection property with a proportional control law. The perform- ance of the control system can be improved by introducing an appropriately designed controller? D(s) in the forward path of the loop (refer Fig. 3.28). The objective set for this chapter is the control hardware familiarity. In almost all the conttol system examples in this ‘chapter, we will use an amplifier (proportional control law) as a controller, knowing very well that it may not satisfy the control requirements. The problem of design of controllers will be discussed in the next and later chapters,The McGraw-Hill companies Models of Industrial Control Devices and Systems Power amplifier Re Fig.3.29 Schematic diagram of a speed control system DC MOTOR POSITION CONTROL In the following, we consider the position control systems, and the components that make up these systems, 3.6.1 Geared Drives Electrical motors generally produce their maximum power at high speed. In other words, generally electrical motors exert rather small torques while rotating at high speeds (power = torque x angular velocity). In consequence, appropriate gearing is necessary for the electrical motors in order for these systems to drive large loads (requiring large torques) at low speeds. For example, robot arms are usually moved at low speeds, less than I revolution/sec, while required maximum torques range from a few newton-m to several hundred newton-m, A large gear reduction is typically required for standard servomotors, Figure 3.30 shows a motor driving a load through a gear train which consists of two gears coupled together. ‘The gear with N, teeth is called the primary gear and the gear with N, teeth is called the secondary gear. Angular displacements of shafts I and2 are denoted by 8, and 6, respectively, with their positive directions as indicated in the figure. The moment of inertia and viscous friction of motor and gear | are denoted by J, and B, respectively, and those of gear 2 and load are denoted by J, and B, respectively. T,,is the torque developed by the motor and Tis the disturbance torque on the load, Elasticity of the gear teeth and shafts is assumed negligible. Jy, Ba Ny Ty Fig, 3.30 Motor driving a load through gearingThe McGraw-Hill companies © Control Systems: Principles and Design AA free-body diagram is shown in Fig. 3.31. Ty, is the torque exerted on gear I by gear 2, and Ty, is the torque transmitted to gear 2 through gear 1. For the motor shaft, the differential equation is SO, + BO. + Ty = Ty 6.24) For the load shaft, SO, +B,6,+T, (3.25) 41, Ta Ta Baby QS, ee ee Z Ty Ty Fig. 3.31 Free-body diagram for system of Fig. 3.30 Idealized characteristic of the gear train is given by the relationship @, = (N,/N,) 6). In reality, there is always a certain amount of backlash (free play) between coupled gears. Keeping the backlash small will inevitably increase the friction between the teeth, and wear out the teeth faster. On the other hand, an exces- sive amount of backlash may cause sustained oscillations or chattering phenomenon in control systems (refer Chapter 14). The assumption of zero backlash is reasonable for high quality, well-adjusted gear boxes. Let ry be the radius of gear 1 and r, be the radius of gear 2. Since the linear distance travelled along the surface of each gear is the same, 6, r; = 8, r». The number of teeth on a gear surface being proportional to gear radius, we have (Nj /r;) = (N,/1,). The linear forces developed at the contact point of both the gears are equal, hence (7,2 /r,) = (Ty /73). By combining these equalities, we obtain Ta - M_% 3.26) Tn Nn Differentiating this equation twice, we have the following relation for speed and acceleration: & aM 3.27) § 4% From Eqns (3.26) and (3.27), it is observed that with (N,/N;) < 1, the gear train provides torque magnification and speed reduction. By proper selection of N / N, gear trains can be used to attain mechani- cal matching of motor to load: a servomotor operating at high speed and generating low torque is matched to a load to be moved at low speed but requiring high torque. Eliminating 7; and T,y from Eqns (3.24) and (3.25) with the help of Eqn. (3.26), we obtain (6+ By O,+T,)=Ty (3.28) Elimination of 6, from Eqn. (3.28) with the help of Eqn. (3.27), yields 2 2 N N ™ (8) aa ofa (2) tfaodr- Ty 3.29) Note that the Toad inertia J; is reflected on the motor shaft as (N,/N,)* J, load viscous-friction By is reflected on the motor shaft as (NV, /NN,)’ B, and the load disturbance T,, is reflected on the motor shaft as (Ny/N) Dy Equation (3.29) suggests that the geared system of Fig. 3.30 is equivalent to non-geared (direct drive) system of Fig. 3.32 with equivalent moment of inertiaThe McGraw-Hill companies Models of Industrial Control Devices and Systems equivalent friction —_——_—_—— 2 ) By (3.30b) and equivalent disturbance torque (3.30) The problems that the mechanical gearing unavoidably possess (backlash, friction, ete.), can be solved completely using the direct- drive technology. An order of magnitude larger torque can be generated by direct-drive motors in a compact and light-weight body. ‘The de torque motors are capable of exerting, much larger torque compared with regular de Motor] Ty motors. These motors are designed in such a Fig. 3.32 Equivalent direct-drive system forthe way that the output torque rather than power geared system of Fig. 3.30 is maximized (refer [19] for details). 3.6.2 Potentiometers For conversion of a linear or an angular displacement into voltage, a potentiometer is probably the simplest device. Potentiometric transducers are relatively inexpensive and easy to apply. However, they have some limitations. The resolution (minimum change in output voltage obtained by moving the wiper, expressed as a percentage of the total applied voltage) of precision wire-wound potentiometers (constructed by winding, resistance wire on a form) ranges from 0.001 to 0.5 percent. This discontinuous output voltage contributes to servo inaccuracy. Potentiometers are temperature-sensitive, a characteristic that affects their accuracy. The wiper contact is another limiting factor, being subject to wear and dirt and potentially producing electrical noise. Ina large number of control systems, the low-amplitude high-frequency noise generated by the potentiometer does not create problems. This is because the plant usually acts as a low-pass filter. However, ifthe potentiometer output is differentiated to obtain a measure of velocity, the resulting signal will be completely useless.’ A non-wire potentiometer (constructed by depositing conductive plastic resistance material on a form) is stepless and therefore resolution is better. However, values less than 1000 Q and hard to obtain with non- wire type of potentiometers, while wire-wound potentiometers can be made with very low values. 3.6.3 A Position Control System ‘The basic structure of position control systems will remain the same irrespective of the application. We consider here a robot manipulator in a manufacturing process for load and unload operations. The motion of load gripper in a typical robot system is caused by the movements of de motors driving the joints. Positions of the joints at any time determine the location of the gripper in the environment at that time (refer Example 1.8.). ‘Differentiation of the signal sin ¢ contaminated by low-magnitude high-frequency noise 0.01 sinl0"r gives (cost + 10 c0510')}; noise becomes the dominant term after differentiationThe McGraw-Hill companies Control Systems: Principles and Design Inthe following, we investigate the linear position control of a single-link robot manipulator, which consists of a single rigid link attached to a joint (Fig. 3.33). The joint can move the link driven by an armature controlled de motor through a gear train, We model the manipulator link and its payload (the object picked up by the gripper) as a lumped parameter system with moment of inertia J, and viscous damping factor B;. In response to motor torque Ty, the link will rotate; the angular position of the link is designated by 6,, It may be noted that the moment of inertia will not necessarily be constant because during the course of an operation, the robot may pick up different objects with its gripper. The variation in the payload will change the effective moment of inertia of the link. In robotic applications, J, is usually constant during each task; and the gripper in two-dimensional space. The manipulator is = Joint axis %) Link Gripper however it may vary from task to task. Fig. 3.33 Asingle-iink robot Consider a conceptual design of a position control system, manipulator shown in the schematic diagram of Fig. 3.34a. ‘Ry R = So - RL |, nt Ks Ftie R Oe @ fa Ty Mw Oy 8 on fe At, fe +b ee 4 " R “yo I R, Js +B s Ky Kp Fig. 3.34 Closed-loop position control system (a) Schematic diagram (0) block diagram.The McGraw-Hill companies ‘The operation of the system is as follows. The load with an inertia J, and viscous friction with coefficient B, is to be positioned at some desired angle 6, (7,, represents the load torque disturbance). The feedback potentiometer, whose wiper arm is mechanically coupled to the load shaft, produces a voltage ¢, which represents the actual load position 6, The feedback velotage = Kp, G31) where Kp = sensitivity of the potentiometer in volts/deg. ‘The reference voltage e, is calculated from the command input, @ (set-point), using the relation ¢, =K'p Op, and this value is then fed to the system through a potentiometer setting. ‘The error voltage (e,—e,) is amplified by an op amp circuit that supplies a voltage u to a power amplifier, The output ¢, of the power amplifier drives the armature-controlled de motor (reversal in the polarity of ¢, reverses the direction of rotation of the motor). The torque developed by the motor is transmitted to the load shaft through a gear train, The transmitted torque rotates the load shaft in the direction to reduce the error (e,-€,) a8 a consequence of the negative feedback. When e, = ¢,, the motor stops, as its drive is cut off. This must necessarily occur when Op = @, because feedback voltage is e, = KpQ, , and the reference voltage (by calculation) is ¢, = K’p Op. ‘A change in the load position caused by disturbances in the system (intemal or external) causes the error signal (e,—,) to reappear, which after amplification acts on the motor; the motor torque transmitted to the load shaft forces the load to return to its original position. ‘A block diagram of the system is shown in Fig. 3.34b (refer Eqns (3.10)-3.13), (3.30), and Fig. 3.22) Here K;, is the back emf constant of the motor, , is the armature resistance (armature inductance is assumed negligible), K’yis the torque constant of the motor, 1 is the gear ratio (n = load shaft speed 6, /motor shaft speed 6y ), Jand B are, respectively, equivalent moment of inertia and viscous-friction coefficient on motor shaft, and n7,, is the equivalent disturbance torque on motor shaft. It will be seen in the next chapter that the performance of position control system of Fig. 3.34 can be improved by introducing minor-loop feedback (refer Figs 1.12 and 1.13). A signal proportional to motor! load angular velocity, generated by a tachogenerator is fedback. Since tachogenerators tend to be noisy at low speeds, in a geared system one usually puts the tacho on the motor, rather than the load. ‘AC (CARRIER) CONTROL SYSTEMS‘ The ac setvomotors possess many virtues in comparison to de servomotors. These include significantly lower costs, weight and inertia, higher efficiency, and fewer maintenance requirements because of no commutator and brushes. However, as we shall see later, the characteristics of ac motors are quite nonlinear and these motors are more difficult to control, especially for positioning applications. The ac motors are best suited for low-power applications such as in. instrument servos (e.g., control of pen in X-Y recorders) and computer-related equipment (e.g., disk drives, tape drives, printers, ete) The de motors are expensive because of brushes and commutators. These motors have relatively lower torque-to-volume, and torque-to-inertia ratios. However, the characteristics of de motors are quite linear and these motors are easier to control. The de motors have been generally used for large-power applications such as in machine tools and robotics. Developments in technology are opening new applications for both ac and de motors. Today, with the development of the rare-earth magnet, de motors with very high torque-to-volume ratio at reasonable costs ‘This section and the related problems in the book which involve ac devices, may be skipped if'a course plan so demands.The McGraw-Hill companies Control Systems: Principles and Design have become possible. Furthermore, the advances made in brush-and-commutator technology have made these wearable parts practically maintenance-free. The advancements made in power electronics have made brushless de motors quite popular in high-performance control systems [51]. Advanced manufacturing techniques have also produced de motors with rotors of very low inertia, thus achieving very high torque-to- inertia ratios, These properties have made it possible to use de motors in many low-power control applications that formerly used ac motors. On the other hand, three-phase induction motors with pulse-width modulated power amplifiers are currently gaining popularity in high-power control applications. Inthe following, we describe the basic characteristics of an ac servomotor, and the related components comm- only used in position control systems 3.7.1 AC Servomotor An ac servomotor is basically a two-phase induction motor ‘except for certain special design features. Consider atypical Tue set of curves of speed versus torque, shown in Fig. 3.35. For an A induction motor used in power applications, the rotor resistance is low in order to obtain high maximum torque (Curve A, Fig, 3.35). However, this type of characteristic is not suitable for B feedback control systems, mainly because of the positive slope on part of the curve. We will shortly see that a negative slope on the torque-speed curve is essential for stability (The de motors inherently exhibit the desired torque-speed oO Speed characteristic, Fig. 3.23). In order to obtain the desired type of characteristic, induction motors for servo applications are designed to have high rotor resistance (Curve B, Fig. 3.35). It should be noted that the required characteristic is purchased at a price of power which is dissipated as heat in the high rotor resistance. This decreases the efficiency of the motor and also limits its maximum power rating since the temperature rise in the motor becomes excessive for motors with high power rating. In servo applications, an induction motor is required to produce rapid accelerations from standstill. Therefore, low inertia isa physical requirement ofa servomotor. Thus, except for minor differences in constructional features (rotor has high resistance and low inertia), an ac servomotor is essentially a two-phase induction motor. ‘The stationary part (stator) of an ac motor is slotted to accommodate two field windings with their axes 90° apart. A two-phase excitation voltage is supplied to the stator windings. The resultant currents produce a rotating magnetic field which, by transformer action, induces voltages in the conductors in the rotating part of the machine (rotor); thereby producing currents in the short-circuited paths of rotor conductors. Interaction of the magnetic field with these currents produces a torque on the rotor. In the de motor, current for armature (rotor) conductors is supplied conductively by connection to a voltage source through brush and commutator. In the ac motor, the current for rotor conductors is supplied inductively by the magnetic field. Since no external connections are made to the rotor circuit, the motor can be made very robust and requires little maintenance. Elementary analysis of the ac motor is more complex than that of the de motor. So, rather than give the details of production of magnetic field and derivation of motor-torque equation using these details, we use ‘the experimental data of the motor in the form of a set of torque-speed curves to obtain a model. Fig. 3.35 Torque-speed characteristics of ac motorsThe McGraw-Hill companies Models of Industrial Control Devices and Systems ‘The symbolic representation of an ac servomotor as a control system component is shown in Fig. 3.36. One phase, designated as the reference phase, is excited by a constant voltage source, the frequency of which is usually 50/60, 400, or 1000 Hz. By using frequencies of 400 Hz. or higher, the system can be made less susceptible to low-frequency noise. Due to this feature, ac devices are extensively used in aircraft and missile control systems in which noise and disturbance often create problems, ‘The second phase of the servomotor, designated as ‘the control phase, is excited by a voltage of variable AC supply magnitude and polarity. The control signal of the servo iis seston 2 loop dictates the magnitude and polarity of this Rotor voltage A The control signals in a servo loop are usually of low frequency, in the range of 0 to 20 Hz. For pro- duction of rotating magnetic field, the control-phase voltage must be of the same frequency as the refer Modulator Js) ence-phase voltage, and in addition, the two voltages Stator must be in time quadrature. The arrangement shown Control phase winding 1 in Fig. 3.36 meets these requirements. The input Phase signal ¢,(t) is applied to the control phase after qc oe modulation; the cartier frequency of the modulation supply Reference | capacitor process is equal to the frequency of the reference phase supply. The 90° phase difference between the FI9. 3.38 Symbolic representation of an ac control-phase and reference-phase voltages is servomotor obtained by the insertion of a capacitor (Note that a single-phase power supply is required to run the motor). & Figure 3.37 shows the waveforms of a typical input signal ¢,(0), the carrier signal cos «,t and the suppressed-carrier modulated signal e.,_(t) = e,(t) cos @,t. Note that the envelope of the modulated 0 signal e,,, is identical to the low-frequency signal e,. The polarity of e, dictates the phase of ¢,,, with respect to that of cos at. If e, is positive, then e., f\ f\ f\ f\ n {_, and cos @,t have the same phase; otherwise they 0 Ui z have 180° phase difference: UU V VV Caglt) =| ee(le0s 02 fore G39) ! =le,(| cos(a,t+ 2) fore,(t) <0 fom Phase reversals of carrier wave ‘This means that a reversal in phase of ¢,,, occurs whenever the signal ¢, crosses the zero-magnitude axis. This reversal in phase causes a reversal in the 0 direction of rotation of the magnetic field and hence a reversal in the direction of rotation of the motor shaft, ‘The modulator in Fig, 3.36 transforms the signal ¢, into the signal ¢,,,. If we consider ¢, as the input Fig. 3.37 input-output waveforms of a and €j_ in Eqn. (3.32) as the output, then the modulatorThe McGraw-Hill companies mathematical description of the modulator will be rather complicated. Recall that the reason for the introduction of ¢,,, is to match the operational frequency ranges; therefore the information is not stored in Coq, but rather in its envelope. Hence, we should consider ¢, as the input and the envelope of ¢,», 8 the output of the modulator. Therefore, the transfer function of the modulator is just equal to 1, for the envelope of ay is identical to ¢,. The torque-speed curves of a typical ac servomotor plotted for fixed reference-phase voltage £, cos «,t and different values of constant input voltages e, < E, are shown in Fig. 3.38. All these curves have negative slope, (Note that the curve for e, = 0 goes through the origin; this means that when the control-phase voltage becomes zero, the motor develops a decelerating torque, causing it to stop). The curves show a large torque at zero speed. This is a requirement for a servomotor in order to provide rapid acceleration. 0 Itis seen that the torque-speed curves of an ac servomotor are nonlinear except in the low-speed Control Systems: Principles and Design ‘Torque region. In order to derive a transfer function for the motor, some linearizing approximations are necessary. A servomotor seldom operates at high speeds; therefore, the linear portions of the torque~ speed curves can be extended out to the high speed region, as shown in Fig, 3.38 by use of dashed lines, But even with this approximation, the resultant curves are still not parallel to each other. This means that for constant speeds, except near- zero speed, the torque does not vary linearly with respect to input voltage ¢,. The curves in Fig, 3.39 itlustrate this effect For speeds near zero, all the curves are straight lines parallel to the characteristic at rated input voltage (e, = £,), and are equally spaced for equal increments of the input voltage. Under this assumption, the torque Ty generated by the motor is represented by the equation Fig. 3.38 Torque-speed curves of an ac servomotor Torque + Speed @=0 (Slope = Ky) Control-phase voltage Fig. 3.39 Torque vs control voltage curves of anac servomotor 3.33) where K and K, are the slopes defined in Figs 3.38 and 3.39. Note that both K, and K;, are positive numbers, If we consider that the moment of inertia of the motor rotor with attached mechanical load is J, the viscous-friction coefficient of the motor rotor with attached mechanical load is B, and the disturbance load torque is 7,,, then we have Ty=Kye,-K,6 =J6 +B6 +T, (3.34) Figure 3.40 shows a block diagram representation of the ac motor system. The transfer function between the shaft position 6(s) and the input voltage E,(s), obtained from the block diagram, isThe McGraw-Hill companies Models of Industrial Control Devices and Systems K K, S@-___Ki___Kn— 3.35) EG) ss +B+K;) s(tqs+D K, where a = motor gain constant and 1, motor time-constant BE, BK, Since K, is a positive number, the above equations show that the effect of the slope of the torque-speed Tol) curve is to add more friction to the motor, which does improve the damping of the motor. However, £.(8) if K, is a negative number, for |K,| > B, negative damping occurs and the motor becomes unstable. This verifies the statement made previously that the conventional induction motors are not suitable for servo applications. It must be noted that the modulation process for FIG: 3.40 Block diagram of an ac motor system running the ac servomotor is not necessary if the control signal in the servo loop is an ac signal of frequency equal to that of reference phase supply. The ‘transfer function model given by Eqn. (3.35) is applicable in these situations also, with the only difference that the input variable for the model is not the control-phase voltage itself but rather its envelope. This is in order as the information about the required control action is stored in the envelope of the control-phase voltage; the frequency of the voltage is governed only by the operational frequency range of the servomotor. as) | 1 | 8) 3.7.2. AC Tachogenerator The ac tachogenerator resembles a two-phase induction motor in that it comprises two stator windings arranged in space quadrature, and a rotor which is not conductively connected to any external circuit. A sinusoidal voltage e) = E, sin @,t is applied to the excitation (reference) winding (refer AC supply 7 > Output Fig. 3.41b). When the rotor is stationary (@ = 0), no emf. winding Li is induced in the output winding and therefore the output voltage will be zero. When the motor tums, a voltage at. the reference frequency @, is induced in the output t winding. The magnitude of the output voltage is e mond tor e proportional to the rotational speed. A change in the ™ | direction of shaft rotation causes a 180° phase shift in the output voltage. When the output voltage is in phase with the reference, the direction of rotation is said to be ~*~ positive, and when the output voltage is 180° out of Reference phase, the direction is said to be negative. winding ‘The output voltage of an ac tachogenerator is, thus, in a modulated form. A typical waveform of the output voltage Fig. 3.41 Schematic diagram of an ac en(t) is shown in Fig, 3.42. It can be mathematically tachogenerator represented as AC supply enff) = e(0) sin @tThe McGraw-Hill companies Control Systems: Principles and Design In the measurement system shown in Fig. 3.41, en we have used a demodulator for signal condition- ing. The input to the demodulator is e,(f) and its output is e(2). Since the information about shaft speed is stored not in ¢,(0) itself but rather in its 0 envelope, we should consider the envelope of p(t) as the input of the demodulator. Therefore, the transfer function of the demodulator is just equal to 1, for the envelope of ,(t) is identical to the output e(#). The output voltage of an ac sinat tachogenerator (with signal conditioning) is f\ f\ A {\ a {\ f\ therefore of the same form as that for a de 0 V U y tachogenerator (refer Eqn. (3.22)), ie, I I dot) et) = KS 3.36: = Ka 360) where K, is the sensitivity of the tachogenerator (volts per radi The transfer function from 6(t) to e(#) of an ac 0 tachogenerator is of the form EO) Lyx 3.366) Fig 3-42 Waveforms ilusirating the operation of 5) a demodulator 3.7.3 Synchros A synchro system, formed by interconnection of the devices called the synchro transmitter and the synchro control transformer, is pethaps the most widely used error detector in feedback control systems. It measures and compares two angular displacements, and its output voltage is approximately linear with angular differ- ence. Our discussion on synchro devices will be limited to the basic features of the synchro transmitter and the synchro control transformer. The constructional features, electrical circuit, and a schematic symbol of a synchro transmitter are shown in Fig. 3.43. The stationary part of the machine (stator) is slotted to accommodate three Y connected coils, wound with their axes 120° apart. The stator windings are not directly connected to the ac power source. Their excitation is supplied by the ac magnetic field produced by the rotating part of the machine (rotor). The rotor is of a dumb-bell construction with a single winding. A single-phase excitation voltage is ap- plied to the rotor through two slip rings. The resultant current produces a magnetic field and, by the trans former action, induces voltages in the stator coils. The effective voltage induced in any stator coil depends ‘upon the angular position of the coil’s axis with respect to the rotor axis. Let the ac voltage applied to the rotor be et) = E,sin at 37) When the rotor is in the position corresponding to 0= 0 in Fig. 3.43b, the voltage induced across the stator winding 5) and the neutral is maximum and is written as 5p = KE, Sin where K is a proportional constant.The McGraw-Hill companies Models of Industrial Control Devices and Systems Stator Ri ‘windin AC * supply R, Rotor? S Ss @ © Ss Re Ss Ry Ss Shaft input e © Fig. 3.43 (a) Consiructional features, (b) electrical circuit, and (c) schematic symbol of a synchro transmitter When the rotor is in position corresponding to @= 90° in Fig. 3.43b, the voltage e,, is zero, Therefore when 8= 0, the coupling coefficient between the rotor winding and the stator winding S, is 1, and when @= 90°, the coupling coefficient equals 0. In fact, in general, the coupling coefficient between S, winding and rotor winding is equal to cos @ for any position of the rotor: » KE, cos Osin «,t ‘When the rotor is at 0° position with respect to the S, winding, it is at 120° position with respect to the ‘5, winding; that is, positive (counter clockwise) rotation of 120° is required to move the rotor from the first position to the second position. Thus, if S, winding is taken as a reference, Es, = KE, co8(0= 120) sina,t e In the same way, 5» = KE, cos(0— 240) sina.t 0 _ £5 — KE, cos 240) sina The three terminal voltages of the stator are 5,5, ~ esa t ens, = V3 KE, sin(0+ 240) sinew (3.38a) VB KE, sin(@+ 120) sin ot (3.38b)The McGraw-Hill companies Control Systems: Principles and Design 65,5, = sn + es, = V3 KE, sind sina (3.38) When @ = 0°, maximum voltage is induced in winding S,, and it follows from Eqn. (3.38c) that the terminal voltage es ¢ is zero. This position of the rotor is defined as the electrical zero of the transmitter and is used as reference for specifying the angular position of the rotor. It should be noted that the synchro is not a three-phase machine. In a three-phase machine, there are three voltages equal in magnitude, displaced from each other by 120 electrical degrees. With the synchro, which is a single-phase device, the three stator voltages vary in magnitude, and one stator coil is in phase or 180° out of phase with another coil. Itis scen that the input to the synchro transmitter is the angular position of its rotor shaft and the output is a set of three stator coil-to-coil voltages (common connection between the stator coils is not accessible) given by Eqns (3.38). By measuring and identifying the set of voltages at the stator terminals, it is possible to identify the angular position of the rotor.> Our interest here is in synchro error detector formed by interconnection of two synchro devices—the transmitter and the control transformer. A typical arrangement of a synchro error detector in servo applica- tions is to connect the stator leads of the transmitter to the stator leads of the control transformer. A servo loop using the synchro error detector is shown in Fig. 3.44. Basically, the principle of operation of a synchro control transformer is identical to that of the synchro transmitter, except that the rotor is cylindrically shaped so that the air-gap flux is uniformly distributed around the rotor. This feature of the control transformer minimizes the change in the rotor impedance with the rotation of the shaft; the signal conditioning circuit, therefore, sees a constant impedance Referring to the arrangement shown in Fig. 3.44, the voltages given in Eqns (3.38a)(3.38c) are im- pressed across the corresponding stator terminals of the control transformer. Due to the similarity in the magnetic construction, the flux patterns produced in the two synchros will be the same if all losses are neglected. For example, if the rotor of the transmitter is in its electrical zero position, the fluxes produced in the transmitter and in the control transformer are as shown in Fig. 3.45, When the rotor of the control transformer is in the position shown in the figure, the induced voltage at its rotor winding terminals is zero; the shafts of the two synchros are considered to be in alignment, and the control transformer is said to be in null position, Thus the null position of a control transformer in a servo loop is that position of its rotor for which the output voltage on the rotor winding is zero with the transmitter in its electrical zero position. AC supply Signal conditioning circuit Fig. 3.44 Servo loop using synchro error detector 5A synchro/digital (S/D) converter accepts the three ac voltages from the synchro as input and gives out a digital output, which isa measure of the magnitude and direction of rotor movement (refer [72] for details). There also exists a digital/ synchro (D/S) transmitter to convert digital data to synchro format voltages.The McGraw-Hill companies Models of Industrial Control Devices and Systems Let the rotor of the transmitter rotate through an oy angle 6 from its electrical zero position, and let the rotor of the control transformer rotate in the same direction through an angle from its null position (refer Fig, 3.45); the net angular separation of the | two rotors is then (90- 6+ @) and the voltage induced in the control transformer is proportional to the cosine of this angle: ra enlt) = K'E, c0s(90— 8+ ce) sin @.t Flux pattern Flux patter = K'E,sin(0- sin @,¢ where K’ is a proportional constant. For small values of (1) = (0) — a(t), en(t) = KE, 9(¢) sin ot The output voltage of the synchro error detector is thus a modulated signal with the carrier frequency c, equal to the frequency of the ac supply to the rotor winding of the synchro transmitter. The magnitude of the modulated carrier wave is proportional to $(2) = 6(¢)— a(t), and the phase reversals of the modulated wave depend on the sign of $(¢) (refer Fig. 3.42). Signal conditioning of the modulated output of the synchro error detector by an amplifier and a demodulator gives an output voltage “1 it ft \ ft ft Tr Fig. 3.45 Rotor positions and flux patterns e(t) = K, 0) 39) where K, = sensitivity of the synchro error detector in volts/deg, The transfer function of the synchro error detector is, therefore, of the form Eo) os) It must be noted that the signal-conditioning circuit will not include the demodulation process if the synchro-output signal is connected to an ac device (e.g., ac servomotor). The transfer function model given by Eqn. (3.40) is applicable in these situations also, with the only difference that the output variable of the model is not the synchro-output voltage itself but rather its envelope. This is in order as the information about the angular separation of the two shafis is stored in the envelope of the synchro-output voltage; the frequency of the voltage is governed only by the operational frequency range of the synchro device. Compared with potentiometers, the synchros offer higher sensitivity, longer life, ruggedness, and con= ‘tinuous rotation capability 3.7.4 A Carrier Control System A heavy telephoto camera can be controlled by the system shown in Fig. 3.46a. The camera is driven by an ac motor through a gear train and is designed to follow the movement of the spotting scope. This system employs ac components and all the signals other than the input and output shaft positions are suppressed- carrier modulated signals, Such systems are known as carrier control systems and are designed so that the signal cut-off frequency is much less than the carrier frequency. It is then sufficiently accurate to analyze these systems on the basis of modulating signals only. In the system of Fig. 3.46a, a pair of synchros with sensitivity K, is used as an error detector to generate the error signal e= K,(8x — 6,). An ac amplifier of gain K;, is used to amplify this signal. The output e, of the amplifier drives the ac servomotor. The torque developed by the motor is transmitted to the load shaft (3.40) through a gear train with gear ratio n (1 = N,/N; = load shaft speed 8, /motor shaft speed 6, ).