INTRODUCTION TO CLIMATE AND WEATHER

•Air pressure: This is the pressure that air exerts as a result of the gravity of the earth
acting on the air. The air pressure at any location on Earth is equal to the mass of
the column of air resting on a unit area at that location.

Does air pressure only work downwards?

•No, it works in all directions. The print is vertical and horizontal.

Three important properties of air.

•Air has weight

•Air can be compressed

•Air can move

Where is the density of air pressure the highest?

•The fact that air has mass and can be compressed, causes the lower air layers to
be compressed by the mass of the upper air layers.

•The density will therefore be greatest on the earth's surface (sea level).

● Therefore, warm air is lighter than cold air and has the ability to rise, while
cold air therefore tends to descend.
•THUS AIR PRESSURE DECREASES WITH AN INCREASE IN ALTITUDE.

High pressure cell in SH Low pressure cell in SH

(Anticyclone) (Cyclone)

•Descending air Rising air

•Counterclockwise Clockwise

•Cold, dry air Warm, humid air

•Diverge (Outflow of air) Converge (Inflow of air)

Mid-Latitude Cyclones / Frontal Depression / Moderate Cyclone /

Extratropical cyclone

● Low pressure system accompanied by the inflow of hot and cold air
● The air masses are separated by a front
● Diameter varies from 1000 to 4000 km

Warm front:
Occurs where warm air rises and is forced to flow over cold air

Cold Front:
Occurs where rising cold air cuts under warm air

Front:
The transfer zone between air masses with a noticeable difference in temperature
and humidity over a relatively short distance of 50 to 100km

Cyclones:
Low pressure systems are also sometimes called depressions

Cyclogenesis:
The development or disturbance of cyclonic circulation in the atmosphere
General features / characteristics of Midlatitude Cyclones
● Also called frontal depressions/ extra-tropical cyclones/ temperate cyclones
● Formed when the warm tropical westerly winds (30 ̊ N/S) meet the cold polar
easterly winds (90 ̊ N/S) at the polar front.

● Where do midlatitude cyclones form?

o Occurs between 30 ̊ and 60 ̊ North and South of the equator.
o They move from west to east because they are found in the westerly wind belt
/ driven by the westerly winds.

● Occurs throughout the year, but affects South Africa's weather mainly in
winter.
● It lasts from 4 to 14 days.

What Conditions are needed for the formation of mid-latitude cyclones?

● Two large high pressure systems are in contact on the polar front.
● The warm, subtropical high pressure contains warm, moist sea air.
● The polar high pressure contains a cold, dry air mass.
● The air pressure converges from opposite directions, at the 2 sides of the
polar front.
● Disturbance on the polar front leads to an unstable situation, which creates a
local air pressure where air will flow in and around which air circulates.
What are the developmental stages and related orphan states of midlatitude
cyclones.
Beginning stage
● Warm moist subtropical air meets cold, drier air against a stationary polar
front
● There is no movement at the polar front.
● The air masses do not mix, but move parallel to each other in opposite
directions
● Both air masses retain their density and characteristics

2. Development or wave stage

● A disturbance occurs on the polar front due to one of the following reasons:
o Acceleration of one of the air masses
o Frictional resistance
o Disturbance in westerly wind belt
o Uneven surface or shape of coastline
o Different sea and land temperatures
● This results in a local drop in air pressure
● Warm less dense air is lifted
● The polar front now has a wave-like appearance.
3. Mature or warm sector stage
● Cold air moves in a northerly direction, a cold front develops
● Warm air moves in a southerly direction, a warm front develops
● Winds blow clockwise (in Southern Hemisphere) around low pressure
● Warm air rises above the cold, heavier air.
● After a few days a definite warm sector depression develops
● It is raining, especially down the cold front

4. Occlusion stage
● The hot sector narrows as it develops further
● The cold front overtakes the warm front
● Cold air wedges under the warm air,
● Lift it up and isolate the hot air from the surface
● The front that is formed is called an occlusion front

5. Decay stage
● Cold air completely isolates warm air from the ground
● All the hot air is lifted high off the ground
● Isobars become more equal
● Upper-level wind breaks up the cloud cover
● Rainfall decreases and eventually stops

What are the weather patterns associated with cold, warm and occlusion
fronts?

Again Behind Cold front Hot sector Warm front Cyclone is

cold F. moves approachi
over ng
Air Rise Sudden rise Even Fall stop Descend
pressure continues slowly
slowly
Wind South shrinking north west Shrinkage at Northwest
direction from west north west to
to west
southwest
Wind speed Take off Very strong take off Strong Increase
slowly to gale slowly
force
temp. Cold Sudden Warm to Sudden rise Cool
drop moderate
Relatively. Rapid High during Steady and High during Slow rise
Humidity decline precipitatio high precipitation
n
Cloud take off Very thick Low stratus Low and thick How and
cover. clouds thin clouds
Precipitatio First Short Intermittent Continuous No
n heavy, period of drizzle rain
then heavy rain
showers or hail
Visibility Good, but weak Often weak Takes off Good, but
poor quickly take off
during
showers
Cold and Warm Front Occlusions

Cold Front Occlusion Warm Front Occlusion

o Occurs when cold air replaces o Cool air moves faster in an area
warm air. where a warm front is present.
o The cold air moves a lot and lifts o The vane moving incoming air is
the warm air, as well as the cooler air in cold, but not as cold as the air mass
front of the warm front. ahead of the front.
o Clouds are still forming and o Therefore, the air mass that
showers will often occur. overtakes the warm front is not as cold
o The temperature difference is not as the air mass in front of the warm front.
significant because the air cools from o It moves over the colder air mass
cool to cold. as it lifts the warm air.
o Cold front occlusions occur more o A broad band of precipitation
often than warm front occlusions. therefore occurs.
Tropical Cyclones
What are the general characteristics / characteristics of tropical cyclones?
● Low pressure
● Emerges in late summer or fall
● Standing over ocean of at least 26° C
● Between 5° and 20° north and south of the equator
● Move from east to west
● Driven by west wind
● Names according to the letters of the alphabet
● Move 40 to 200km per day
● Rotate clockwise in southern hemisphere
● Source is rising warm, moist, tropical air that condenses /latent heat
● Heavy rain, storm surges and strong winds occur

Where do tropical cyclones occur?

Atlantic Ocean (West Indies, Gulf of Mexico,
south and east coast areas of the USA) – Hurricanes

Pacific Ocean( China Sea and Japan) – Typhoons

Indian Ocean (India, Madagascar, Mauritius

and southern Africa (Mozambique) – Tropical cyclones

Australia– Willy- Willies

What Factors are neededig for the formation of a tropical cyclone?

● sea temp. At least 26°C
● How humidity, latent heat is released during condensation
● Unstable air so that convection can take place
● Low surface friction like the sea
● Light variable winds, so vortices can form
● Air pressure must be low, less than 950 hPa
● Divergence of air at upper levels

Vortex :
Rotating swirling motion of air
What are their Developmental Stages?

1. Formation Stage (Tropical Depression)

● Air pressure still above 100 hPa
● High sea and air temperatures and humidity. Latent heat is introduced into
system
● Light rain occurs
● Winds in active quadrant reach gale force
● Small area is affected, like 20km

2. Development Stage (Tropical Storm)

● Air pressure drops below 100 hPa
● Heat is still being introduced into system
● Spiral cloud banks form and heavy rain occurs
● Hurricane winds within 50km of eye and gale force winds within 500km of eye
● A larger area is affected, such as 600km
3. Mature stage (Tropical Cyclone)
● Air pressure around 900 to 940 hPa
● Warm moist air converges at surface
● Heavy rain
● Hurricane force winds, approximately 117km/h to 300km from the eye
● Size of the storm increases
● Worst weather in the front left quadrant

4. Decay stage
● Air pressure in eye begins to rise
● Temperature drops
● Less humidity but heavy rain still falls
● Wind speeds decrease
● Area affected shrinks
Meteorologists classify tropical cyclones as follows:
● Tropical Depression
o A system of clouds and thunderstorms with defined circulation and sustained
winds of 61lm/h or less
● Tropical Storm
o Organized system of heavy thunderstorms with a defined circulation and
sustained winds of 61 to 117km/h
● Tropical Cyclone
o An intense tropical weather system with a particular circulation and sustained
winds of 118km/h

What are the paired weather patterns?

 Active Quadrant: Latent heat: Decay
(Dangerous Crescent) The amount of heat Lose energy, die; ;air
In the southern energy required to convert pressure rises;
hemisphere it is the water into water vapour; temperatures rise
forward left-hand quadrant the energy released when
of a tropical cyclone that water vapor condenses.
moves westward with two
speeds viz: propagation
speed and circulation
speed

How do you recognize tropical cyclones on a synoptic map?

● Low pressure system with circular isobar patterns between 5° and 30° North
and South of the equator.
● Symbol in the eye
● Name
● The date on the card should be late summer or early fall time

What is the impact of tropical cyclones on human activities and the

environment?
● Flooding
● Contamination of water supplies
● Injuries, illness and deaths
● Damage to structures
● Damage to ships or boats

Precautions
● Do not cross rivers
● Evacuate on time
● Take pumps away from rivers
● Boats must return to port.
Subtropical Anticyclones

Characteristics of High Pressures / Anticyclones

● Descending sky
● Air comes from drier upper atmosphere
● Descending air that heats at 1°C per 100m
● Fair weather conditions
● Move north in winter and south in summer
How does the Kalahari High Pressure / Inland High Pressure affect South
Africa's weather and climate

Winter:
● Descending air in the Kalahari causes moisture to evaporate and causes a
dry interior
● An inversion layer forms
● No clouds at night cause frost

Summer:
● Descending air from Kalahari high pressure is weaker
● Plates are very hot and air rises, bringing thermal low pressure systems
● The inversion layer is now higher
● Warm air can now flow in from the sea and this causes rain
Moving disturbances associated with anticyclonic air circulation in South
Africa

The movement of high ridges in high pressure systems and also the movement of air
between them cause moving disturbances. It creates weather phenomena. Some
occur more in summer and others in winter.

1. Disturbances that occur mainly in the summer

● Atlantic thunderstorms are caused by large-scale convergence against
the trough line or moisture front on the boundary between cooler dry air from
the Atlantic Ocean and warmer moist air from the Indian Ocean
o This is where thunderstorms and heavy rain develop.

2. Disturbances related to summer conditions

● Coastal pressure system
o Weak low pressure system
o 100km wide
o In the lowest layer of the atmosphere
o Occurs when the wind blows from the land to the sea
o Leads to warm, often strong mountain winds ahead of the Low Pressure and
cool onshore flow behind it.
o This causes fog
o It forms down the west coast
● Mountain winds
o Warm, dry offshore winds that descend from high elevations and blow
seaward
o Air pressure over the interior is high
o Offshore is low pressure
o The difference in air pressure creates a strong pressure gradient
o Winds are blowing from the high pressure
o Mountain winds heat adiabatically at 1°C per 100m
Satellite images and synoptic weather maps of subtropical anticyclonic
conditions.

Summer conditions

● West wind belt and depressions are far south of the country
● Temperature in general is high
● The South Indian High Pressure System is located towards the east
● Uplift against the escarpment can cause clouds and precipitation
● The South Atlantic high pressure system is closer to the west coast
● A moisture front forms between the Indian and Atlantic ocean air masses
● Thunderstorms develop along the moisture front
● Note the location of the tropical cyclone
● Heat layer pressure forms in the northwest
● A coastal low pressure system may develop on the west coast
Winter conditions

● All pressure belts shift north

● Westerly winds and cold fronts are closer to the mainland
● Temperature is generally lower
● Absence of a heat layer pressure over the continent
● The Kalahari anticyclone occurs over the interior
● Air flows from the high pressure over the interior to the coast
● Coastal low pressure systems occur

Valley climates

What is a microclimate?
● A microclimate, or local climate, refers to the climate of a small area such as a
valley or an urban area.
● Influenced by the characteristics of the place
● Humans can adapt to the microclimate, and change it as well.
How is the microclimate affected by Slope Direction / Aspect.

● Microclimate of an enclosed valley is called the valley climate.

● The location and direction of the hillslopes of the valley in relation to the sun's
rays is called the slope aspect
● North-facing slopes are warmer than south-facing slopes.
● Houses tend to be built on the northern slope, and are built higher up rather
than lower down

What weather phenomena are associated with the microclimate in valley?

Anabatic and Katabatic winds

● Valleys bring their own winds thanks to uneven heating of valley slopes.

1. During the day

● In the morning, air higher on the slope is heated more than the air down in the
valley
● Later in the day the air down in the valley becomes less dense and rises
● Pressure gradient force moves air from the high pressure at the bottom of the
valley to the low pressure at the top of the valley.
● This causes anabatic wind in the valley.
● The rising wind cools and sometimes forms clouds
2. During the night
● Due to earth radiation, air cools on the slopes. It becomes denser and flows
down the slopes.
● Later in the night, the air mass in the upper part of the valley cools, it
becomes denser and flows down
● This causes Katabatic wind
● If the flow is not fast, frost and fog can form.

Inversions
● It occurs where there is a rise in temperature with an increase in altitude.
● Warm air lies above the cooler air.
● Occurs on cloudless, still winter nights
● Air is less dense higher up the slopes.
● Leads to higher insolation higher on the slopes during the day
● More radiance at night
● When the cold air descends, it replaces the warm air down in the valley
● The warm air that rises is trapped between the 2 layers of cold air
● It forms a temperature inversion layer.

Frost cavities
● Occurs where cold air collects on the valley floor
● Cold air sinks to the bottom of the valley
● If the temperature there falls below freezing then frost forms
● This space where the worm ripens is called a frost cavity.

Radiation fog
● Forms when the air near the surface cools due to Earth radiation
● Form when the night is cold and cloudless.
● In this case, the low atmosphere and surface are cooled
● If it cools over a greater vertical distance than is necessary for the formation
of dew and the dew point temperature is reached, condensation takes place.
● Small droplets form that hang in the air.
● It disappears quickly when insolation occurs
What influence does local climate have on human activities?

1. Impact on settlements
● People prefer to stay on the north facing slopes
● People usually build in the hot belt halfway up the slope.
● Night temperatures are also warmer in the belt.

2. Impact on agriculture
● Vineyards are planted on the north-facing slopes
● Trees, bushes and shade plants are planted on the south slope.
● Soft fruit trees are planted at the bottom of the valley
● Citrus trees are planted on the slopes to escape frost

Urban Climates

What are the differences between rural and urban climates?

● Big cities have their own urban climates
● Urbanization has an effect on the microclimate
● Climates of large cities differ significantly from those of rural areas
● Urban microclimates are warmer in winter as well as in summer than in rural
areas
● Surfaces that are paved become warmer than places covered with vegetation

What are the reasons for these differences

Urban area
Element Compared to Factors
rural areas
Annual Avg. higher City has more heat absorbers, producers
Temperature and reflectors
Minimum higher
Temp.
Cloud cover more Pollution provides hygroscopic nuclei so that
Miss more condensation occurs more easily
Precipitation More Greater chance of cloud formation
Snowfall less Cities have a warmer temperature
Thunderstorms more More instability and strong convection
Wind speed lower More buildings offer resistance to wind
Relative less There is a lack of moisture sources
Humidity
Dust, pollution more Many more combustion processes in a city
Amount of less Lots of pollution blocks incoming sunlight
solar radiation

Hygroscopic Cores
Particles that attract water and promote condensation
Difference in temperature depends on the following
● Size of the city
● Number and types of industries
● Relief and elevation above sea level
● Distance from water sources
● Time of day and season
● Density of building

What is an Urban Heat Island?

● The city (SKB) has higher (warmer) temperatures than the surrounding rural
area.

During the day:

● Leads to increasing turbulence and therefore a decrease in stability of the
lower atmosphere.
● Heat islands grow vertically
● It is mushroom shaped
● Pollution is spread over a larger area

During the night:

● Increase in stability of lower atmosphere
● Vertical dimension decreases and the heat island becomes more
concentrated
● Takes a dome shape
● Pollution is concentrated in the dome
What are the causes of Urban heat islands
● Central heating in SSG heats the streets
● Street furrows remove rain quickly
● Warm air from SSG rises, leading to convection thunderstorms
● Rivers can provide cool areas
● Industries release large amounts of heat
● Large buildings reduce wind speed
● Traffic pollution creates dust zone

What effects do urban heat islands have?

● Discomfort
● Heat stress and heat deaths
● Increased conditions for the spread of disease
● Reduced visibility
● Increased energy consumption
● Increased use of air conditioning
● More urban smog
● Increased pollution
● Increased costs
● Less ice and snow

What is a Pollution Dome?

● It's a mass of polluted air in and above a city or industrial complex.

What causes Pollution Domes?

● The formations of are prevented by higher temperatures, with the pollution
trapped in the inversion layer can form a pollution dome.
● If the wind blows, the pollution will be carried along with the wind and will form
a pollution plume.
● The air above a city has more Sulfur oxide, nitrogen dioxide, hydrocarbon and
carbon dioxide gas

What are the consequences of a Pollution Dome for people and the
environment?
● Lead poisoning
● Breathing discomfort
● Pollution increases cloud cover
● In winter, more heat is generated and convection is not as active
● Insolation is reduced by pollution
● The pollution causes smog
● Acid rain
● Increased emissions of greenhouse gases

How can the effect of a heat island be reduced?

● Energy saving techniques
● Urban green spaces
● More suitable building designs
● Public transport