Henry I.

Christ

Building
Power
in
Reading
and
Writing
An Amsco Publication
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Building Power
in Reading
and Writing

HENRY I. CHRIST

Amsco School Publications, Inc.,

a division of Perfection Learning®
For the typing and preparation of the manuscript; for many
valuable suggestions and usable materials; for her good
judgment and common sense; and above all for her
unwavering and optimistic support, I am, as always, deeply
indebted to my wife, Marie E. Christ, who has shared with
me a lifetime of schedules and deadlines.
Henry 1. Christ

© 1989 by Amsco School Publications, Inc.,

a division of Perfection Learning®
www.perfectionlearning.com

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored

in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without
the prior permission of the publisher. For information regarding
permissions, write to: Permissions Department, Perfection Learning,
2680 Berkshire Parkway, Des Moines, Iowa 50325.

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 PP 20 19 18 17 16

13570

ISBN: 978-0-87720-778-8

Printed in the United States of America

 *

TO THE STUDENT
Life, it seems, is just one test after another. Reading tests, language tests,
competency tests—the list seems endless. There are tests outside school, too: driving
tests, Civil Service tests, aptitude tests. The best way to face a test, any test, is with
confidence born of preparation.
Test preparation is an important consideration in reviewing your English
studies. If you are taking a competency test, you hope to begin with confidence
born of intelligent preparation. But there is more. You have invested a great deal
of time and energy in acquiring reading and writing skills. Now and then, it’s a
sound idea to take stock, to review and consolidate the gains you have made.

Whether you are preparing to take an English test of some kind or whether
you hope merely to review your English skills, this book will help. Its four major
sections have been designed to review thoroughly all the skills you have acquired
thus far.

Part One reviews all the reading skills you will need either to take tests, to
prepare for college, or to become a literate, responsible adult. It starts with a discus¬
sion of context clues and then reviews all major reading skills, like finding the main
idea, drawing inferences, and studying the author’s role. A special chapter on
informational reading concentrates on the many practical challenges in your life.

Part Two reviews common usage errors. It starts with problems of sentence
structure and then takes up all the common errors. Punctuation, capitalization,
and spelling round out the section.

Part Three reviews writing skills. It puts to work the usage skills you reviewed
in Part Two. But there is more to writing than correctness. You must have organi¬
zation and sound content. The section begins with emphasis on writing good English
sentences, the heart of all composition. It discusses the organization of the
paragraph, with abundant examples. Then it takes you, step by patient step,
through six representative writing challenges: the expository composition to
persuade, the composition to explain, the business letter, the friendly letter, the
report, and the summary, or precis.

iii
 Part Four is a thorough review of both reading and writing skills. Four reading
tests of 50 items each provide comprehensive practice in handling reading
challenges. The passages have been chosen to interest you and to be fun on their
own. Two writing tests enable you to practice all six of the different types of exposi¬
tory writing discussed in Part Three.

If you follow the steps outlined in this book, you will face future tests with
confidence. More important, you will develop reading and writing skills for many
different tasks ahead.

Henry I. Christ

iv To the Student
 CONTENTS

PART I
' Reading Skills

1. Using Context Clues 1

Context Clue 1: Words with the Same

Meanings 3
Context Clue 2: Related Words and Ideas
Context Clue 3: Grouped Words and Ideas
Context Clue 4: Opposed Words and Ideas
Context Clue 5: The Whole Sentence 4

2. Getting the Main Idea 8

3. Finding the Best Title 15
4. Finding Details 20
5. Drawing Inferences 31
6. Using Synonyms and Associated Ideas 40

Pairs of Words with Similar Meanings 40

Using Associated Ideas 44

7. Using Antonyms and Opposed Ideas 49

Pairs of Words with Opposite Meanings 4

Using Opposed Ideas 56

8. Choosing Words That Summarize 65

9. Studying Cause and Effect 71
10. Studying Sequence 78
11. Understanding Figurative Language 85
12. Distinguishing Fact from Opinion 95
13. Recognizing Propaganda 105
14. Studying the Author’s Role 113
15. Reading for Information 127

Table of Contents 127

Index 127
Card Catalog 129
Readers3 Guide to Periodical Literature 131
Dictionaries 133
Maps 135
 Recipes 136
Charts 138
Statistics 139
Want Ads 140
Job Applications 141
Where to Look for Information 142

PART II
Review of Common Usage Errors
1. Problems with Sentence Structure 146
Simple Sentences 146
Compound Sentences 148
Complex Sentences 149
Sentence Fragments 153
Run-on Sentences 157
2. Problems with Nouns 162
Plurals of Nouns 162
Possessives of Nouns 165
3. Problems with Verbs 168
Using the Correct Tense 168
Principal Parts of Verbs 170
Agreement of Subject and Verb 173
4. Problems with Modifiers 179
Adjectives and Adverbs Confused 179
Double Negatives 180
Other Common Errors 181
5. Problems with Pronouns 183
Personal Pronouns 183
Indefinite Pronouns 186
Possessive Pronouns 189
6. Problems with Punctuation 191
End Punctuation 191
The Comma 192
Quotation Marks 196
Punctuating Titles 198
Contents
7. Problems with Capitalization 201
8. Problems with Spelling 207
Seventy-six Hard/Easy Words 207
Words Commonly Used in Letter Writing 208
Words Often Confused 209
Seven Helpful Spelling Rules 210

PART III
Review of Writing Skills
1. Writing the Single Sentence 216
2. Writing the Paragraph 222
3. Writing the Composition to Persuade 225
4. Writing the Composition to Explain 234
5. Writing the Business Letter 242
6. Writing the Friendly Letter 249
7. Writing the Report 258
8. Writing the Summary, or Precis 267

PART IV
Practice Tests
Reading Practice Test 1 -274
Reading Practice Test 2 287
Reading Practice Test 3 302
Reading Practice Test 4 315
Writing Practice Test 1 330
Writing Practice Test 2 336

Index 343

Contents vii
 . - '.

v
 PART I
Reading Skills
1. Using Context Clues

“You are known by the company you keep.”

Probably you have heard this saying before. Now let’s change it a bit to help
you look at words in a new way.

“A word is known by the company it keeps.”

When you meet a word, it is seldom alone. Usually it is surrounded by other

words. The meaning of a word can often be known by looking at these other words.
Here’s an example.

The author used a pseudonym, keeping his real name a secret.

Getting the Meanings of Words

Through Context

The word pseudonym may be new to you. You may not even know how to
pronounce it. Keep in mind, though, that a word is known by the company it keeps.
All the other words in the sentence help to tell you what pseudonym means. The other
words provide clues. If the author is “keeping his real name a secret,” then a
pseudonym must be a false name.

There is a word used to describe the words surrounding another word: context.
The context of pseudonym is all the other words surrounding it in the sentence.

1
 The word context may be new to you, but you have been using context and
context clues since you were a child. Context can be just words, or it can be more
than words. Context can also be what is happening in the world around you. For
example:

Would you like this cookie?

When your mother gave you a cookie as a child, you soon learned the meaning
of the word cookie. You learned the names for all the objects in your house the same
way. For instance, you never looked up the word table, rug, or spoon in a dictionary.

When you began to read, you learned more words. You didn t look up most
of these words in the dictionary either. Y ou learned their meanings through context,
just as you discovered the meaning of the word pseudonym in the example.

Do the following Practice to help you understand context clues.

Practice 1: Context Clues

Write the letter of the word or expression that has the same meaning as the
underlined word in each sentence.

1. My affairs are in such a muddle, I can’t straighten them out.

(a) mess (b) order (c) surprise

(d) dream (e) file 1.

2. Be neutral in an argument between friends; don’t take sides.

(a) strong (b) silent (c) fair

(d) interested (e) active 2.

3. San Antonio has diverse groups of people that are quite different
from one another.

(a) many (b) unlike (c) highly educated

(d) few (e) generous 3.

4. The recipe called for cloves, pepper, ginger, cinnamon, and celery
seeds.

(a) a hot oven (b) a dish (c) a kind of spice

(d) a recipe (e) a liquid 4. _

5. If you build a cabinet, good plans are essential.

(a) overlooked (b) confusing (c) difficult

(d) necessary (e) simple 5, _

Check your answers on the next page. Then read the explanations to be sure
you understand the correct answers.

2 Building Power in Reading and Writing

Answers

1. (a) If your affairs can’t be straightened out, they must be in a mess.

2. (e) When you don’t take sides, you are being/air to both sides.
3- (b) If the groups are different, they must be unlike.
4. (c) Since cloves are grouped with other spices, the answer must be a kind of spice.
5. (rf) To build a cabinet, you’ll find it necessary to have good plans.

Context Clue 1: Words with the Same Meanings

Context'clues work in different ways. Sometimes a context clue comes from
a single word in the sentence. That one word means almost the same thing as the
word being defined.

The mayor’s inquiry followed the same line of questioning as

the judge’s.

Since questioning seems to mean the same thing as inquiry (and you know what
questioning means), you have a good clue to the correct answer.

In Practice 1 on page 2, the word different in sentence #3 provides a clue to the

meaning of diverse.

Context Clue 2: Related Words and Ideas

Sometimes a word in the sentence doesn’t mean exactly the same thing as the
word being defined. Instead, it means something similar.

The visitor from Tibet stared with open mouth at the busy traffic
in Houston and gawked at the flashing advertising signs.

The word gawked is paired with stared. So you can guess that gawk means ‘ ‘ stare
in astonishment.”

Context Clue 3: Grouped Words and Ideas

A word may also be grouped with other words in the same general class.

In the truck, she had a hammer, a screwdriver, an electric drill,

three kinds of saws, and a spokeshave.

You may not know what a spokeshave is. By looking at the other words in the
group, though, you can safely guess that it is some kind of tool.

In Practice 1 on page 2, you can guess in #4 that cloves are a kind of spice.

Part I. Reading Skills 3

 Context Clue 4: Opposed Words and Ideas

If words or ideas are opposed to each other, they are nearly opposite in
meaning. Look at the following example.

Sometimes bad luck can energize people, not weaken them.

The word not shows that energize is opposed to weaken. Energize means the
opposite of weaken. Therefore, energize means “to give power to.

Let’s look at another example.

Most fads last only a short time, but great art endures.

The word but tells you that the two ideas are opposed. Great art is opposed
to fads. If fads last a short time, then something that endures must last a long time.

Context Clue 5: The Whole Sentence

Now look at the next sentence.

Sue awaited the outcome patiently, for she wanted to see what
would happen.

Here the clue is in the whole sentence. If Sue wanted to see what would
happen, the word outcome must mean “something that happens as a result. For
instance, when you take pictures with your camera, you re interested in the
outcome.

In Practice 1 on page 2, the whole sentence in #5 provides a clue to the meaning

of the word.

Practice 2: Context Clues Continued

Write the letter of the word or expression that has the same meaning as the
underlined word in each sentence.

1. Bert was a moody person, cheerful one moment and gloomy the
next.

(a) changeable (b) sweet (c) cruel

(d) friendly (e) bitter 1. -

4 Building Power in Reading and Writing

2. Don’t cram for a test, but instead study over a long period before
taking it.

(a) be late (b) prepare (c) forget your

book
(d) study in a (■e) take too much
hurry time

3. Myra has the ability to think clearly and the capacity to get a job
done promptly.

(a) skill (b) courage (c) weakness

(d) sweetness (e) slowness

Answers

1. (a) If Bert is cheerful one moment and gloomy the next, he is changeable. The sentence
as a whole provides the clue.
2. (d) The use of not (in Don ’t) and but instead shows that two ideas are opposed—cramming
and studying over a long period.
3. (a) The word ability seems to have almost the same meaning as capacity. Both words
mean skill.

On Your Own

Write the letter of the word or expression that has the same meaning as the
underlined word in each sentence. Take your time and work carefully. The answers
to On Your Own exercises are not in this book. Your teacher will help you correct
your work.

1. When my brother completed the course, his high marks

surprised me and astounded our parents.

(a) annoyed (b) confused (r) astonished

(d) amused (e) depressed

2. Max is usually shy, not rash.

(a) bold (b) quiet (c) likable

(d) athletic (e) boring

3. Their suggestion was the silliest, most nonsensical idea I’ve

ever heard.

(a) brilliant (b) sound (c) senseless

(d) cruel (e) proud

4. By his foolish use of money, Wesley showed himself to be a

spendthrift.

(a) leader (b) joker (c) penny-pincher

(,d) friend (e) money-waster

Part I. Reading Skills 5

5. Allison dissociated herself from her former friends and joined
a group of more serious students.

(a) connected (b) separated (c) invited

(d) called (<?) lost

6. Although Dorothy’s sister was distinguished as a scientist,

Dorothy remained unknown.

(ia) strange (b) easily upset (c) likable

(d) famous (e) clever

7. Mel was confident and always felt it was his destiny to become
a famous writer.

(a) loss (b) fate (c) misfortune

(d) worth (e) coincidence

8. The telltale mud stains showed that the twins had walked on
the new rug with muddy shoes.

(a) ugly (b) dark gray (c) attractive

(d) common (e) revealing 8.

9. Dr. Ortega cleaned the wound and then used antiseptic powder
for extra safety.

(a) soothing (b) time-saving (c) infection-

fighting
(d) poisonous (e) sweet-smelling

10. The winners were chosen not randomly but very carefully.

(a) wisely (b) slyly (c) by voting

(d) by chance (e) by judges 10.

Now try your skill on a more difficult exercise. The Bonus is designed to intro¬
duce you to harder words and more challenging ideas. The answers to Bonus
exercises are not in this book. Your teacher will help you correct your work.

Bonus

Write the letter of the word or expression that has the same meaning as the
underlined word in each sentence.

1. If you wish to encourage someone, commend his or her actions.

Do not criticize harshly.

(a) belittle (b) report (c) duplicate

(d) praise (e) try

6 Building Power in Reading and Writing

2. The wound was superficial and barely scratched the surface of
the skin.

(a) slightly (b) badly infected (c) not deep

inflamed
(d) not visible (ie) unexpected

3. The stress of working long hours without proper rest exhausted

Ben. Therefore, he quit the job.

(a) relaxation (b) confidence (c) complications

(d) disgust (e) strain

4. Because the judge was dubious about the defendant’s sincerity,

she refused to set bail for his release.

(a) enthusiastic (b) doubtful (c) certain

(d) angry (e) careful

5. Many young people seek the commitment of marriage, the

promise to stay together for the rest of their lives.

(a) pledge (b) hope (c) refusal

(d) attempt (^) deception

6. The Norse believed that the world would end in revolts, war,
and universal strife, with even the gods defeated at last.

(a) agreement (b) conflict (ic) indifference

(d) irritation (e) questioning

7. For her report, Charlene delved into many books and mined
a great many nuggets of information.

(a) gazed (b) stared (0 dug

(d) glimpsed (e) cut

8. The strikers and their employer were in a deadlock; neither side

would give an inch.

(a) conference (b) debate (r) solution

{d) rage (e) standstill 8.

9. The teacher urged us to be terse, not wordy, in our reports.

(a) humorous (b) complete (c) entertaining

(d) brief (e) sincere

10. The defense attorney conceded that her client had lied and
admitted that his lies had surprised her.

(a) agreed (b) denied (c) shouted

(d) whispered (e) proved 10.

Part I. Reading Skills 7

 2. Getting the Main Idea
“You can’t see the forest for the trees.”

Have you ever heard this saying? It means that you can’t see the big picture.
You can see the “trees” (the separate details), but you miss the “forest” (the main
idea).

The saying makes an important point about reading. Some students can find
the details in what they read, but they don’t understand the main idea. That can
be a problem, because the details don’t mean much unless you get the main idea.

The Main Idea and the Details

of a Paragraph

The main idea of a paragraph is what the entire paragraph is about. For
instance, the main idea of a paragraph might be this: “A number of American
cities have well-known festivals.”

A detail is any fact, example, or other statement that supports the main idea.
It may be expressed in one or more sentences. In the paragraph about festivals,
a detail might be, “The Mardi Gras in New Orleans is famous throughout the
world. ’ ’ Other details could include information about the Cherry Blossom Festival
in Washington, D.G., and the Tournament of Roses in Pasadena, California.

Practice: Getting the Main Idea

Read the following passage and answer the question at the end.

What is a television miniseries? Is it a weekly comedy

show, with the same comedian as the star? Is it a news
program that covers parts of the same news story on
different nights? Is it a soap opera in which the same
characters get into and out of trouble week after week?
No, a miniseries is none of those. It is a special kind of
program. A miniseries presents a single story that is
broken down into parts. These parts are shown on
separate nights. Usually, the story is completed within
a week. The story may be based on real events or people,
such as the Civil War or George Washington. Or it may
be entirely make-believe. It may be serious or humorous.

KNOW THESE WORDS

characters: persons in a story

special: different; not like others
events: happenings

8 Building Power in Reading and Writing

 Write the letter of the statement that best expresses the main idea.

(a) Television handles sports programs very well.

(b) Television offers many different kinds of programs.
(c) A miniseries was made about George Washington.
(■d) A television miniseries is a special kind of program.

Your answer:

Answers ✓

Let’s examine the possible answers.

(a) This answer is completely off the topic. The passage doesn’t mention sports programs.
(b) Although this statement is true, it says nothing about a miniseries. Since the passage
sets out to define a miniseries, you are almost sure to find the word miniseries in the
answer.
(c) This is a detail within the passage. It is not the main idea. (In fact, the passage gives
George Washington only as the possible subject of a miniseries. It does not say that
such a miniseries was ever made.)
(d) This is the correct answer. It expresses the main idea well. The passage says that a
miniseries is a special kind of program. The purpose of the passage is to define miniseries.

There are a number of hints that can help you find the main idea of a passage.
Study the following Question and Answer sections to learn more about finding
main ideas.

Question 1: How Do You Find

the Main Idea?

What is the main idea of the following passage?

The famous inventor Thomas A. Edison owned a

house in the country. He liked to show visitors around
his property. He had invented many labor-saving
devices and enjoyed talking about them. At one place
in the garden, he had installed a heavy turnstile. This
is a kind of metal gate with arms that a person has to
push in order to get through. Every visitor had to move
these heavy arms while walking through Edison’s
garden.

“You have so many clever gadgets around,’’ one

visitor commented; “why do you have such a heavy
turnstile?’’

“Well, you see,’’ Edison replied, “everyone who

goes through the turnstile pumps eight gallons of water
into the tank on my roof.

Part I. Reading Skills 9

 KNOW THESE WORDS

devices: things invented for special uses

gadgets: another word for devices
installed: put
commented: said something

Write the letter of the statement that best expresses the main idea.

(a) Edison invents a clever labor-saving device.

(b) A good invention is rare indeed.
(c) Edison’s visitors were annoyed by the turnstile.
(d) Edison owned a house in the country.

Your answer 1: -
Answers
You have four choices. One of them has to be correct. If you think carefully about
each one of the four, you should get the right answer.
Only (a) expresses the main idea of the passage. Edison’s turnstile used people power
to pump water! Let’s see what’s wrong with the other three answers.
(b) Watch out for statements like this one. It is too general. It is not clear and exact for
the passage. Besides, the passage doesn’t really say this.
(c) There is no suggestion that Edison’s visitors were annoyed. The visitor who asked
about the turnstile seemed to be simply looking for information.
(d) Don’t be misled because this is what the first sentence says. In this case, the first sentence
does not state the topic, or main idea, but only a detail.

Question 2

What is the main idea of the following passage?

How do you think people catch colds? If you get

your feet wet, will you come down with a cold? If you
go outdoors on a chilly day without a sweater, will you
catch a cold? Perhaps, but a greater danger lies
elsewhere, according to scientists. A recent study says,
“Don’t shake hands with a person who has a cold. If you
do, wash your hands soon and thoroughly. Don’t rub
your nose and eyes before washing.” The study points
out that viruses of the common cold remain dangerous
for at least three hours on dry hands. Hand contact may
be even more dangerous than coughing or sneezing.

KNOW THESE WORDS

according to: as said by

viruses: tiny germs that may cause disease
contact: touching

10 Building Power in Reading and Writing

 Write the letter of the statement that best expresses the main idea.

(a) You will surely catch a cold if you have wet feet.
(b) Scientists are studying many kinds of diseases.
(<?) Hand contact ca,n easily spread colds.
(■d) Scientists have studied the common cold.

Your answer 2:

Answers

Only (c) expresses the main idea of the passage. Many colds are spread by hand
contact. The other answers are faulty.
(a) This is not stated as a fact—only as a question—in the passage. If stated, it would
be a detail.
(ib) Although the statement is true, it is much too broad. The passage deals only with colds,
not with other diseases.
(d) This is a detail, not the main idea.

On Your Own 1

Read the following passage and answer the question at the end.

What did Babe Ruth and Benjamin Franklin have

in common? They were both left-handed. So were
Michelangelo and Johann Sebastian Bach, two of the
world’s greatest geniuses. If you are a lefty, you are in
good company. You also have certain advantages. If
you play baseball, you have a slight advantage in hitting,
because you stand closer to first base and can run there
faster than a right-hander. If you play tennis, you face
mostly right-handers. Therefore, you know how to play
against righties, but they may have trouble playing
against you. As a lefty, you have a slight edge. Once
upon a time, left-handedness was frowned upon. Today,
however, more than ever, lefties go on to great achieve¬
ments in sports and other fields.

KNOW THESE WORDS

in common: (that they) shared together

geniuses: artists, composers, writers, etc. having
great ability
achievements: successes in doing things
frowned upon: believed to be a fault

Parti. Reading Skills 11

 Write the letter of the statement that best expresses the main idea.

(a) Benjamin Franklin was left-handed.

(b) Tennis is more popular with right-handers than with left-handers.
(r) Left-handedness was once frowned upon.
(d) Left-handedness is not always a disadvantage and can even be an advantage.

Your answer 1: -

On Your Own 2

Read the following passage and answer the question at the end.

Caffeine is a popular stimulant found in many

products. Perhaps the most obvious product containing
caffeine is coffee. But caffeine is also present in tea,
cocoa, and chocolate bars. Many soft drinks, especially
colas, have caffeine. There may be as much caffeine in
a 12-ounce bottle of cola as in four cups of instant coffee.
Some people don’t realize how much caffeine they’re
taking. Caffeine provides an instant jolt to the nervous
system. It also can cause nervousness and sleeplessness.

KNOW THESE WORDS

stimulant: something that excites or makes more active

obvious: easy to see
provides: gives
jolt: sudden bump

Write the letter of the statement that best expresses the main idea.

(a) Caffeine is a stimulant.

(b) Caffeine jolts the nervous system and can cause sleeplessness.
(c) A number of familiar products contain the stimulant caffeine.
(d) Colas have a surprising amount of caffeine.

Your answer 2: _

Now try your skill on a more difficult challenge. The Bonus is designed to
introduce you to harder words and more challenging ideas. Here, too, you are on
your own because answers are not given.

Bonus 1

Read the following passage and answer the question at the end.

12 Building Power in Reading and Writing

 How many Presidents of the United States were
related to other Presidents? Most people know that John
Adams and John Quincy Adams were father and son.
Many know that William Henry Harrison and
Benjamin Harrison were grandfather and grandson.
Many also know that Theodore Roosevelt and Franklin
D. Roosevelt were distant cousins. Few people,
however, know that Harry Truman was a distant cousin
of John Tyler. Can these surprising relationships be
explained by coincidence? Or does the Presidential fever
run in the blood of certain families? Whatever the expla¬
nation, four pairs of Presidents show surprising
relationships.

KNOW THESE WORDS

related: in the same family

distant: far; not closely related
relationships: connections
coincidence: happenings that seem connected

Write the letter of the statement that best expresses the main idea.

(a) John Adams and John Quincy Adams were father and son, the first of four
pairs of Presidents.
(b) Truman and Tyler became President on the death of the then current Presi¬
dent.
(c) There is a blood relationship between the individuals in four Presidential pairs.
(d) Four pairs of American Presidents have the same name.

Your answer 1: _
Bonus 2

Read the following passage and answer the question at the end.

The great Greek philosopher Aristotle was famous

for his work in physics, astronomy, drama, poetry,
politics, ethics, and logic. Yet, according to science
writer Isaac Asimov, Aristotle was primarily a biologist.
Somehow this important part of his work was generally
ignored, while other parts were studied. There were
exceptions. Charles Darwin praised Aristotle as one of
the most important biologists. Linnaeus, who developed
modern scientific classification, owed Aristotle a great
debt. Cuvier, a pioneer in comparative anatomy, was
greatly influenced by Aristotle. Without Aristotle, the
course of biology would have been different.

Parti. Reading Skills 13

 KNOW THESE WORDS

ethics: study of right and wrong

logic: science of reasoning
comparative: studying similarities and differences

Write the letter of the statement that best expresses the main idea.

(a) Aristotle’s work as a biologist is unfairly overshadowed by his work in other

fields.
(£) Charles Darwin could not have achieved the worldwide success he earned
without Aristotle.
(c) In their studies of biology, Linnaeus and Cuvier owed a tremendous debt to
Aristotle.
(d) Aristotle was famous in physics, astronomy, drama, poetry, politics, ethics,
and logic.

Your answer 2: -

14 Building Power in Reading and Writing

 3. Finding the Best Title

CONGRESS PASSES NEW TAX BILL

You see dozens of headlines like this one every day in your newspaper. A
headline tries to capture the main idea of the story that follows. In some reading
tests, you are asked to judge headlines, though in tests the headlines are called
titles. You are given a number of choices and asked to select the title that best
summarizes the main idea. In these test items, main ideas are often not expressed
as complete sentences. Like many headlines, they may be sentence fragments (pages
153-156), but they must still include the central idea of the passage.

Practice: Finding the Best Title

Read the following passage and answer the question at the end.

Henry Augustus Rowland was an American physi¬

cist who was famous for his modesty. Since experts are
often called as witnesses at trials, Rowland once found
himself in the witness chair. While he was being cross-
examined, the lawyer asked him, “Who is the greatest
living American physicist?”

Without hesitation, Rowland answered, “I am.”

After the trial, a friend who was shocked at this

unexpected answer asked, “How could you give such
a conceited answer?”

“I couldn’t help myself, ’ ’ Rowland replied, “I was

under oath.”

KNOW THESE WORDS

physicist: science specialist in physics

cross-examined: questioned closely
conceited: having a high opinion of oneself
under oath: required to tell the truth

Which of the following titles best summarizes the content of the passage?

(a) The Dangers of Cross-Examination

(b) A Funny Story
(c) Honesty Before Modesty
(d.) The Importance of Telling the Truth

Your answer: -

Parti. Reading Skills 15

Answers

Let’s examine the possible answers.

(а) This is a detail in the passage, not the central idea.

(б) This is much too broad. It could apply to thousands of passages.
(c) This captures the point of the paragraph. Though modest, Rowland felt he had to
tell the truth as he saw it. This is the correct answer. It also suggests the humor of
the passage.
(d) Rowland’s insistence on telling the truth is not the main idea but the punch line, the
surprise line that gives the point of a joke. The title also leaves out any reference to
modesty, an important part of the passage.

Question 1: How Do You Find the Best Title?

Read the following passage and answer the question at the end.

Where is all the world’s land ice stored? Almost

four million square miles of the earth’s land surface are
permanently under ice. Antarctica holds 80 % of all that
ice. Greenland stores about 12% . The remaining 8% ,
a very small percentage, is stored on mountain peaks
and polar islands. These percentages refer to a perma¬
nent ice cover, not to the ice that forms around the world
during winter and melts during summer. Because the
ice at the North Pole covers a sea, not any land surface,
this polar ice does not figure in these percentages.

KNOW THESE WORDS

permanently: lasting indefinitely

polar: concerning the North or South Pole

Which of the following titles best summarizes the content of the passage?

(a) The Extent of Polar Ice

(b) Greenland, the Icebox of the World
(c) A Cold Story
(d) The Earth’s Permanent Land Ice Cover

Your answer 1:

Answers

You have four choices. One of them has to be correct. Sometimes the best method
is to eliminate (get rid of) unsuitable answers first.

(a) Polar ice is mentioned in connection with the North Pole, but this is sea ice, not ice
covering a land surface.
([b) This is a detail only. Greenland is mentioned as only one place where some of the
world’s land ice is stored.

16 Building Power in Reading and Writing

(V) This'is much too broad. It does not tie specifically into this passage.
0d) The passage deals with the permanent land ice cover by giving percentages of areas
involved and excluding both temporary ice and sea ice. This is the best title.

Question 2:

Read the following passage and answer the question at the end.

From time to time, the idea of a tunnel between

France and England has been seriously considered.
There is a favorite joke about a man who volunteered
to dig the tunnel for 5,000 pounds. He said that he and
his son could do the job and do it well.

“How will you do it?” he was asked.

“My son will start in France and I’ll start in

England. We’ll dig toward each other and meet in the
middle. ”

“Suppose you miss?” he was asked.

“Then you’ll have two tunnels,” he replied.

Which of the following titles best summarizes the content of the passage?

(a) Two Tunnels for the Price of One

(b) A Wild Idea
(c) A Plan for Joining France and England Together
(d) Tunnel Technology: The Wave of the Future

Your answer 2: _

Answers

The tone of this passage is humorous. Therefore, the title should not be serious. It
should be in keeping with the light touch of the passage.

(a) This is the best title. It perfectly captures the content and tone of the passage. The
“two tunnels for the price of one” is a good title on two levels. First, the passage is
indeed about building a tunnel between France and England. Second, the humor is
the absurdity of the entire concept, which the suggested title catches.
(b) This is much too general, suitable for all kinds of passages other than this one.
(c) This is much too serious a title for this lighthearted joke.
(d.) This is also too serious, taking seriously what is obviously an absurdity.

On Your Own

Read the following passage and answer the question at the end.

Part I. Reading Skills 17

 One of the strangest stories in the history of metal¬
lurgy concerns aluminum. This is the most common
metal in the crust of the earth, more common than iron,
copper, or any other metal. Yet it is only fairly recently
that aluminum has been extracted in useful form.
Because it always occurs in combination with other
minerals, it must be freed from its partners in order to
be useful. It wasn’t until 1886 that a good method was
discovered for extracting the metal economically. Since
that time, aluminum has played a major role wherever
metals are used.

KNOW THESE WORDS

metallurgy: science of metals and metalworking

extracted: separated; taken out
economically: cheaply

Which of the following titles best summarizes the content of the passage

(a) Aluminum and Its Brother Metals: Iron and Copper

(b) The Joys of Metalworking
(c) Aluminum: A Recently Useful Metal
(d) Problems with an Important Metal

Your answer:

Bonus

Read the following passage and answer the question at the end.

A visit to an old graveyard reveals some sad infor¬

mation. The number of tombstones for infants and
young children is enormous. But in the past, even adults
tended to die young. In movies of life in 18th-century
America, we are used to seeing pictures of happy, white-
haired old people, but these were the exceptions. Few
people lived long enough to see their children grown.
A handful survived to see their grandchildren married.
How short was the average life span in 1790? Dr.
Benjamin Rush, a famous doctor, wrote that of a
hundred people born in a given year in Philadelphia,
more than a third died before the age of six. Only one
quarter reached their twenty-sixth birthday. We owe a
great debt to modern medicine and sanitation.

18 Building Power in Reading and Writing

 Which of the following titles best summarizes the content of the passage?

(a) A Report by Dr. Rush

(b) Life Spans in the Eighteenth Century
(c) How to Prevent Infant and Child Death
(d) The Story the Tombstones Tell

Your answer:

Part I. Reading Skills 19

 4. Finding Details

Details Support the Main Idea

Now that you have worked with getting the main idea, you are ready for the
next step—finding details. You will not be looking mainly at the big picture.
Instead, you will be trying to locate and understand particular items of information
that support the main idea.

Before beginning the Practice that follows, you may wish to review the topics
of main idea and details on page 8.

Practice: Finding Details

Read the following passage and answer the questions at the end.

Television programs change as the tastes of viewers

change. Westerns are popular for a while. Then they
give way to detective stories. Situation comedies seem
.to be always available, but the number of people viewing
them varies over time. Talk shows and variety shows
have their ups and downs in popularity, too. But game
shows seem to remain popular year after year. Game
shows have tempting titles like Wheel of Fortune and The
$25,000 Pyramid. Weekday morning game shows include
The Price Is Right, Tic Tac Dough, Scrabble, Headline Chasers,
and Joker’s Wild. Some programs, like Jeopardy, challenge
the knowledge of the contestants. Others are based more
on luck. All game shows have their special fans, viewers
who tune in day after day. Other television programs
come and go, but game shows seem to go on forever.

KNOW THESE WORDS

available: able to be seen

popularity: being well liked by most people
challenge: put to a test
contestants: persons who appear on game shows

Write the letter of your answer on the line at the right.

1. The programs that are said to be always available are

(a) westerns (b) situation comedies

(c) detective stories (d) talk shows 1.

20 Building Power in Reading and Writing

2. A program that challenges a contestant’s knowledge is

(a) Jeopardy (b) Headline Chasers

(c) Tic Tac Dough (d) Joker’s Wild 2. ___

3. A program that is NOT identified as a morning show is

(a) Joker’s Wild (/;) Jeopardy

(c) Headline Chasers (d) Tic Tac Dough 3. _

4. Which of the following sentences best expresses the main idea of

the passage?

(a) Situation comedies seem to have longer-lasting appeal than

westerns or detective stories.
(■b) Other television programs come and go, but game shows seem
to go on forever.
(c) Talk shows and variety shows may be popular one year and
unpopular the next.
(d) Westerns were very popular for a long time. 4. _

5. Which of the following titles best summarizes the content of the

passage?

(a) What to Watch on Television

(b) Situation Comedies: The People’s Choice
(c) Changing Fads on Television
(d) The Popularity of Game Shows oh Television 5. _

Answers
When you choose an answer for a reading passage, be sure you base your answer
on the passage as it appears in the test. Do not give your own opinion. Do not rely on
a fact that you know but that does not appear in the reading. Stick to the passage as it is
written—even if you think a fact is wrong. You might be sure from your own personal
experience, for example, that one of the programs mentioned in #3 is an evening show,
even though it is called a morning show in the passage. Don’t base your answer on other
information you might have. Stick to the passage. In this passage, Jeopardy is not identified
as either a morning or an evening show. Now, let’s look at the answers.

1. (b) With this kind of item, you must look back at the exact words in the passage. You
find the sentence that contains the words always available. That sentence talks about
situation comedies, and so (b) has to be the correct answer.
2. (a) Once again, the answer can be found in a single sentence. The key sentence begins,
“Some programs, like Jeopardy ....’’
3. (c) Sometimes you will have to tell what something is NOT. Here all the programs
except one are included in the sentence beginning. “Weekday morning game
shows ....’’ The show not in this sentence is (b) Jeopardy.
Notice that the letter of the answers to #3 and #4 is the same. That will
sometimes happen. Never try to second-guess the tester. Don’t think, for instance,
that a certain answer is “overdue” or that “three c’s in a rqw are impossible.”
4. (b) This question is a review of Section 2, “Getting the Main Idea.” Other types of
programs are mentioned in the early sentences, but the passage deals mainly with
game shows. Except for (b), the suggested answers are details.

Part I. Reading Skills 21

5. (d) Choice (a) is too general. Situation comedies (b) are mentioned as having changes
in popularity. Fads (c) fails to mention the heart of the paragraph: game shows.
Only (d.) accurately suggests the central point of the passage.

Next, let’s use the Question and Answer method again to find details in a
passage.

Question: How Do You Find Details?

Read the following passage and answer the questions at the end.

“Do you want the job?’ \ the interviewer asks.

“You’ll have to take care of 16 acres of lawn. You’ll also
have to care for 600 trees and hundreds of shrubs.”

“That’s all?” you ask.

“No. There’s more. You’ll have to tend two large

gardens filled with flowering plants.”

Just as you start to say, “No, thanks,” the inter¬

viewer adds, “You won’t have to do all the work
yourself. You’ll have a staff of 13, including gardeners,
electricians, and janitors. ”

“That’s better.”

“And you’ll have millions of people to check your

skill. You’ll be in charge of the White House lawn in
Washington, D.C.”

Actually, the job is already filled. The person in

charge of the White House lawn is Mike Lawn. That’s
his real name, Lawn, which seems highly appropriate for
his duties. Still, he has to spend about 40 percent of his
time working at a desk. He can’t wait to get outside and
work along with his gardeners. The job isn’t easy. He
has to fight the same battles that homeowners face. Like
home gardeners, he is bothered by fungi, insects, and
drying out of the White House lawn. He provides fertil¬
izer three times a year and soaks the ground in the
growing season. Mike Lawn takes pride in his work and
gets a lot of satisfaction from it.

If you visit the White House, be sure to notice the

White House lawn and gardens.

KNOW THESE WORDS

interviewer: person who asks questions

tend: take care of

22 Building Power in Reading and Writing

 staff: group of helpers
appropriate: well-suited; right
fertilizer: chemicals that help plants grow

Write the letter of your answer on the line at the right.

1. The number of people on Mike Lawn’s staff is

0) none (£) 13
(c) 40 (</) not mentioned 1. _
*

2. Mike Lawn most enjoys

(a) working with the gardeners

(ib) sitting at his desk
(c) soaking the ground in the growing season
(d) winning the fight against insects 2. _

3. According to the passage, the two gardens are

(a) heavily planted with trees

(b) filled with flowering plants
(c) covered with grass
(d) located far from the lawn area 3. _

4. Mike Lawn applies fertilizer to the White House lawn

(a) every other day

(b) when the lawn is dried out
(r) when he is not too busy
(d) three times a year 4. _

5. Which of the following sentences best expresses the main idea of

the passage?

(a) Mike Lawn is an employee of the U.S, government.

(b) All lawns take a lot of work.
(c) Mike Lawn has the perfect name because he works on lawns.
(d) The White House lawn demands a lot of attention. 5. _

Answers

Be sure to base your answers only on what the passage says. Find specific sentences
to prove your answers.

1. (b) The imaginary interviewer says, “You’ll have a staff of 13.” Since the interview
is for Mike Lawn’s job, all the facts in the interview apply to Lawn’s job. Therefore,
the correct answer is (b).
2. (a) Mike Lawn “can’t wait to get outside and work along with his gardeners.”
3. (b) The passage mentions “two large gardens filled with flowering plants.” That is
the only specific mention of the gardens.

Part I. Reading Skills 23

4. (d) Mike Lawn “provides fertilizer three times a year.”
5. (d) In #1 through #4, the correct answer could be found and quoted. When you are
looking for the main idea, however, you will seldom find a direct quote. You will
have to keep the whole passage in mind. If you do, you will see that only (d) expresses
the main idea. The other choices are faulty.
(a) This is probably true, but it is not the main idea. In fact, Lawn s employer
is not mentioned in the passage.
(b) This statement is much too broad. The passage is not about all lawns, but
about the White House lawn.
(c) Although this is an interesting point, it is not the main idea of the passage.

Remember:

1. Details support the main idea, but details cannot be main ideas.
2. When answering a question calling for details, go back to the passage. Find the sentence
that is directly related to the test item. Forget any ideas you may already have on the
subject. Stick to the passage.
3. When answering a question calling for the main idea, be sure the idea suggested covers
the passage as snugly as a roof covers a house. It should be neither too broad nor too
narrow. It should not be wholly or partly off the topic.

On Your Own

Read the following passage and answer the questions at the end.

Our beaches are restless. They are on the move.

During a strong wind or a storm, they may shift. Tons
of sand may be moved in a short time. A house that stood
a hundred feet from the ocean may find the water lapping
at the door. In a few hours, a long, lovely beach may
be gone. From Maine to Texas, our beaches are under
attack.

A major cause of beach loss is a rise in the sea level.

In the last century, the sea level has risen about a foot.
In the next hundred years, it will rise at least two more
feet, and perhaps as much as ten feet.

Nature is cruel to Eastern beaches, but people cause

damage, too. Without thinking about what they are
doing, they destroy beach grass. This is unfortunate,
because beach grass is nature’s ally in holding back the
sea. Beach grass helps to anchor sand dunes in place,
and the dunes provide protection. Yet people often
trample beach grass. They run vehicles over the dunes,
killing the vegetation. When the beach grass goes, there
is no natural way of keeping the sand in place.

Many people build houses too close to the water.

They are asking for trouble, because the movement of
the sea is hard to stop. Sometimes they bring in new sand
to help keep the sea away. But sand without beach grass

24 Building Power in Reading and Writing

 soon washes out to sea. Sometimes they build concrete
walls to protect their property. But the rolling, often
violent sea cuts away the land beneath the wall. When
the sea begins to approach buildings that are too close
to the water, there is no protection that really works.

What should be done? Most experts agree that a

first step is banning the construction of new buildings
on threatened beaches. Federal and state governments
are trying to stop new beach development, especially on
barrier beaches. These are the narrow, sandy strips of
land that lie off the East Coast mainland and help to
protect it from the open ocean. Many expensive seaside
homes have already been lost to the sea. Many more will
follow.

KNOW THESE WORDS

major: chief; important

ally: helper
anchor: to hold in place
dunes: small hills of sand

Write the letter of your answer on the line at the right.

1. In the past century, the level of the sea has risen

(a) not at all (b) one foot

(c) two feet (d) five feet 1.

2. A natural ally in the fight against beach destruction is

(a) the wind (b) tiny sea creatures

(c) home builders (d) beach grass 2.

3. When a concrete wall is built to protect a building, the usual result

is that

(a) the sea cuts away the land beneath the wall
(b) neighbors object to the ugly appearance
(c) beach grass grows at the base of the wall
(d) the sea does no more damage 3.

4. A barrier beach is a

(a) park for recreation

(b) beach where swimming is not allowed
(c) narrow, sandy strip of land
(d) beach without houses 4.

Part I. Reading Skills 25

5. Which of the following sentences best expresses the main idea of
the passage?

(a) Houses are often built too close to the water.

(ib) The barrier beaches are beautiful areas.
(c) The sea is constantly threatening the shoreline from Maine
to Texas.
(d) Federal and state governments are trying to find ways of
handling the problem of beach destruction. 5. -

Now try your skill on a more difficult challenge. The Bonus is designed to
introduce you to harder words and more challenging ideas.
V

Bonus 1

Read the following passage and answer the questions at the end.

Ever since the coming of the Industrial Revolution,

machines have taken over more and more of the jobs
formerly performed by farmers and their animals. Third
World countries have watched their industrialized
neighbors and have tried to imitate them, transferring
more jobs to machines. Yet the transfer has not been
entirely successful. Many countries now realize that
machines are too expensive and are beginning to appre¬
ciate once more the use of animals for transportation and
other tasks.

Modern technology can, however, help improve

the output of animals. Experts are finding ways to make
the work of animals more effective. By changing the
design of yokes and harnesses, they have increased the
work ability of animals like oxen, donkeys, water
buffaloes, and horses.

J. K. Garner visited Thailand in 1958 to help village

farmers. He was shocked to see water buffaloes burdened
with a wooden beam across the tops of their necks. The
wood cut deeply into the flesh of the animals and the
yoking was most inefficient. Garner strapped a horse
collar onto a water buffalo and increased its pulling
power amazingly. A breast strap improved efficiency
even more.

In Latin America, improvements can be even

greater. Latin American farmers yoke their cattle by the
horns. Thus all the pulling is done by the animal’s head,
a weak part of the body. This procedure must be
changed.

26 Building Power in Reading and Writing

 Improvements also need to be made in the vehicles
pulled by the animals. Two-wheeled carts, for example,
are especially difficult for animals. An unfortunate
animal pulling a two-wheeled cart often has to carry 100
pounds of weight on its neck. The neck takes the shock
of braking and turning. Potholes, bumps, stones—all
make the life of the animal miserable.

There are opportunities for improvement all

around the world. At first, tractors seemed a wise
solution. Tractors can outpull draft animals. They don’t
need food. Unfortunately, they require a lot of mainte¬
nance. And they’re expensive to begin with. They do
not fit into the village life as efficiently as draft animals.
It will be generations, if ever, before all draft animals
are replaced by machines. Meanwhile, the world can
make more humane, more efficient use of the animals
that are available.

KNOW THESE WORDS

Industrial Revolution: the time in history when machines

began to be widely used
technology: use of science
yokes: wooden frames placed on animals
harnesses: pieces of leather attached to metal rings that
make it possible for animals to pull heavy objects
burdened: weighed down
draft animals: animals used to do heavy work
humane: merciful; civilized

Write the letter of your answer on the line at the right.

1. All the following animals were mentioned in the passage EXCEPT

(a) horses (b) camels
(c) water buffalo (d) oxen 1.

2. The wooden-beam yoke is

{a) efficient but uncomfortable for the animal

(b) inefficient but comfortable for the animal
(c) better than a horse collar for pulling loads
{d) inefficient and uncomfortable for the animal 2.

3. Farmers in Latin America use

(a) a yoke by the horns (b) a modified horse collar

(c) the traditional wooden (d) a crisscross breast strap
beam 3.

Part I. Reading Skills 27

4. Tractors are superior to draft animals in

(a) appearance (b) maintenance

(c) pulling power (d) fitting into village life 4

5. Which of the following best expresses the main idea of the passage?

(a) The Third World should industrialize immediately.

(b) In general, draft animals are superior to machines.
(c) J. K. Garner revolutionized farming techniques around the
world.
(d) Animals can play a major role in solving Third-World energy
problems. v 5

6. Which of the following titles best summarizes the content of the

passage?

(a) Using Oxen for Farm Work

(b) Helping Our Poorer Neighbors to the South
(c) Solving Third-World Problems by Animal Power
(d) Modern Technology vs. Village Ways 6

Bonus 2

Read the following passage and answer the questions at the end.

At intervals, the world seems to experience energy

crises. Reliance upon oil has made many nations vulner¬
able to a reduction of supplies or sometimes a cutoff.
Wars in the Middle East have threatened the energy
lifelines of industrialized nations throughout the world.
Rising prices have brought dangerous inflation.

Scientists have long sought alternatives to oil.

Fortunately, wood, coal, and natural gas have helped
during periods of oil shortages. Tidal power and wind
power have their advocates. Hydroelectric plants have
provided inexpensive energy for many areas. Solar
energy is the cheapest and most abundant of all energy,
but it is not easy to capture and tame. In some parts of
the world, solar energy is completely impractical.
Energy from the earth’s internal heat, geothermal
energy, is suitable for only a few areas.

Now scientists are seeking a new energy source:

ocean power. This is not the power of waves, tides, or
waterfalls. This procedure extracts energy from ocean
water. It depends upon the differences in temperature
between water deep down and water at the surface. It
is based on the principle that a turbine can be powered

28 Building Power in Reading and Writing

by the difference in temperature. It works best in the
tropics where the difference is at least 40 degrees.

To run the turbine, engineers need a continuous

flow of both warm and cold water. The warm water runs
through an evaporator and returns to the sea. The cold
water runs through a condenser and returns to the sea.
Here, in a nutshell, is how the procedure works in an
experimental station in Hawaii.

Warm surface water is pumped into an evaporator.

This evaporator contains a fluid with a low boiling point,
like ammonia or Freon. The warm surface water causes
the fluid to boil and vaporize. This energy outburst spins
a turbine and generates electricity. But this is only half
the process. Otherwise, the energy production would
halt after this first step. The cycle must be closed. The
ammonia or Freon must be cooled again.

How can the evaporating fluid be cooled, so that

it can go back to the evaporator and be vaporized again?
Cold ocean water is needed. To get this cold water,
engineers pipe it through a long tube. This tube runs
5,000 feet offshore to a depth of 2,000 feed, where the
water is quite cold. The cold water runs, through a
condenser, where it meets the ammonia or Freon vapor.
The cold water cools the ammonia or Freon and sends
it back on its way to repeat thexycle all over again. The
fluid moves from evaporator to condenser and back to
evaporator again. The change in temperature has done
the work.

Does this all sound too good to be true? Unfor¬

tunately, there are some problems. Land locations are
costly and hard to find. The conversion plant is also
expensive. There are other costs that threaten the practi¬
cality of the idea. Still, with oil in ultimately limited
supplies, nations must keep looking for a source of
energy that is renewable and nonpolluting. Other,
similar ocean installations may find ways to reduce costs
and make the project more manageable, like floating
barges anchored at sea.

The world cannot afford to overlook any possible

energy source. Current sources may just not meet our
needs. Those who advocate wind power, for example,
overlook one important fact. If we took all the available
space and put windmills everywhere, we’d get less than
1% of our energy needs. Energy requirements in the
coming decades will be staggering. Every possibility
must be explored. The oceans are a new energy frontier.

Part I. Reading Skills 29

 KNOW THESE WORDS

intervals: time or space between

vulnerable: open to injury
inflation: sharp rise in prices
alternatives: choices between things
advocates: those in favor of something
hydroelectric: producing electricity from water power

solar: of the sun

geothermal: providing heat from the earth
turbine: kind of engine
condenser: machine for changing gas into liquid

conversion: act of changing

practicality: usefulness; workability

Write the letter of your answer on the line at the right.

1. All the following sources of energy were mentioned in the passage

EXCEPT

(a) wind (b) tidal

(r) chemical (d) solar 1•

2. The experimental plant in Hawaii gets cold water from a depth

of

(a) 40 feet (b) 200 feet

(c) 2,000 feet (d) 5,000 feet 2.

3. The energy source that could give us, at best, about 1 % of our
energy needs is

(a) wind (b) coal

(c) natural gas (d) tidal 3.

4. According to the passage, electric energy is gained from

(a) cold water by itself (b) the vaporization of

ammonia or Freon
(c) the condenser (d) rainfall 4.

5. Which of the following best expresses the main idea of the passage?

(a) The ocean will replace oil as a source of energy within the next
decade.
(b) Oil crises may trigger dangerous inflation.
(c) Plants that convert differences in ocean temperatures to energy
are expensive.
(d) Ocean-water-power conversion plants are worth exploring as
a good source of energy. 5.

30 Building Power in Reading and Writing

 5. Drawing Inferences

Up to now, you have been finding specific details in reading passages. The
writer has presented these details directly. There is no mystery about them. If you
look hard enough and carefully enough through the passage, you will find them.

But when you take a reading test, you will also be asked to draw inferences.
That means you will be asked to infer certain answers from the information you
are given. /

“Inferences?” you ask. “Infer? I don’t even know what the words mean.”

The words may be unfamiliar, but don’t worry. You have been drawing infer¬
ences all your life. You began to make a kind of inference when you were a baby.
You have been getting better at the skill all the time. Yet many students panic when
they are asked to draw inferences on a reading test. They don’t know how to go
about the task. The sections ahead will show you how to draw inferences from what
you read.

What Are Inferences?

■v

When did you first learn to draw inferences? Long ago—even before you can
remember. Your first inferences were probably about food. When you saw an adult
coming toward you with ajar of baby food, you knew it was time to eat. No words
had to be spoken. Y ou knew you were hungry. You recognized the jar and the label.
Dinner! You had learned how to draw the'right inference.

Today you use this skill on many occasions. If you see smoke, you infer that
there is a fire. If you hear an ambulance siren wailing on the highway, you infer
that there has been an accident. If you see a black cloud approaching from the west,
you infer that there will be a storm. You don’t think about the process each time.
You don’t say, “Wow! I’m drawing an inference!” But that’s what you’re doing.

An inference is a conclusion reached without a direct statement or explanation. If

your friend says, “The Red Sox lost 11-2 last night, ’ ’ she has made a direct state¬
ment. But suppose that, rather than making a direct statement, she says, “Those
poor Red Sox. Weak pitching. Three errors. Will they ever start winning again?”
You may infer that the Red Sox lost last night, even though she hasn’t said it.

Inferences need to be checked for accuracy. For example, the wailing

ambulance siren on the highway may not mean an accident. The ambulance might
be answering a false alarm. Or perhaps someone who is ill is being rushed to a
hospital. All you can do is to try to draw correct, accurate inferences and then check
them later if you can.

Part I. Reading Skills 31

Strong and Weak Inferences

Inferences can be either strong or weak. Let’s look at both kinds.

1. Statement: When the game was over, the home fans loudly cheered the players.

Inference: The home team won.

2. Statement: Joe didn’t arrive at our house on time.

Inference: Joe dislikes our family.

One of these inferences is more likely to be accurate than the other. The first
is a strong inference. Since the home fans are happy, their team probably won. You
cannot be completely sure until you check further. However, the inference seems
to be a sound one.

The second is a weak inference. There may be many reasons for Joe s lateness.
He may have been caught in traffic. He may have gotten the time wrong. He may
have stopped to buy a present for the family. He may be forgetful. All of these are
possibilities. Joe may like the family very much, but he may still be late in arriving.

Practice: Strong and Weak Inferences

Classify each of the following inferences by writing strong or weak on the line
at the right.

1. Statement: The potatoes taste burnt.

Inference: They were^cooked too long or at too high a

heat. 1.

2. Statement: Beth isn’t going out for girls’ basketball.

Inference: She’s afraid of not making the team. 2.

3. Statement: All the lights in our neighborhood went out

at once.

Inference: There’s a general outage, or loss of electrical

power. 3.

4. Statement: The newspaper wasn’t delivered to our

doorstep this morning.

Inference: The workers at the newspaper have gone on

strike. 4.

5. Statement: He failed the spelling test.

Inference: He didn’t study the words to be tested. 5.

32 Building Power in Reading and Writing

 Statement: He failed the spelling test.

Inference: He had bad luck because of walking under

a ladder. 6.

Statement: It’s 3:00 A.M., and the factory seems closed.

Inference: The factory doesn’t operate 24 hours a day. 7.

Statement: This is the fifth time I’ve gotten poison ivy

after picking blackberries in the woods.
4

Inference: There must be poison ivy in the woods. 8.

Statement: I can’t find my science textbook.

Inference: It was stolen on the bus. 9.

Statement: Maria isn’t coming to the dance.

Inference: She has no friends at school. 10.

Answers

1. Strong. These are good reasons for potatoes tasting burnt.

2. Weak. Beth may have other reasons: lack of time, family responsibilities, desire for
another activity.
3. Strong. Since all the lights have gone out, there is probably a general outage.
4. Weak. There are many possible reasons for not getting the paper: the delivery person
didn’t get up in time; the delivery person quit; the papers didn’t reach the
delivery person.
5. Strong. Failing to study is a common cause for failing a test.
6. Weak. There is no connection between failing a test and walking under a ladder.
7. Strong. If the factory is closed at 3:00 A.M., it seems clear that it does not operate
around the clock.
8. Strong. Getting poison ivy five times in a row strongly suggests that there is poison
ivy in the woods.
9. Weak. There are many other possible explanations: carelessness, leaving the book
at home or at school, borrowing by someone else.
10. Weak. Maria may not be coming because she is ill, has something else planned,
doesn’t like dancing, or for some other reason.

Choosing the Strongest Inference

You have now worked with strong and weak inferences. Sometimes on tests
you will be asked to pick out the strongest of a number of inferences. U se the Question
and Answer method to explore this kind of test question.

Question 1: What Are the Clues

to Drawing Inferences?

The following type of slot-completion passage is called a cloze exercise. In

the blank space, write the letter of the phrase that makes the best sense in the context.

Part i. Reading Skills 33

 There were no cars in the parking lot. The (a) put out the lights

restaurant shades were drawn. An automobile (b) honked the horn

with two couples drove into the parking area, (c) dropped off three

paused a moment, and then- passengers (d) drove

off (e) blocked the
restaurant door

Answer
The people in the car probably intended to eat at the restaurant. When they got to
the parking lot, they found no cars there. Then they saw that the shades were drawn. They
inferred that the restaurant was closed. You can probably infer that they left. The best
answer is (d) drove off.

Inferring a Single Word

Some tests ask you to choose a single word to fill a blank. Study the example
in Question 2.

Question 2

In the blank space, write the letter of the word that makes the best sense in
the context.

When Brenda returned from the long hike, (a) happy (b) weary
her steps were slow, and her shoulders drooped. (c) bright (d) bitter
It was clear that she was_from her experi- (e) bored
ence.

Answer
There are three main clues here: the long hike, Brenda’s slow steps, and her drooping
shoulders. What do these clues, taken together, tell you? Let’s look at the five possibilities.
It’s true that under certain circumstances, any one of the answers could fit. But you are
asked to infer the best answer.
The answers (a) happy and (.c) bright seem completely out of place. The words are too
cheerful to fit Brenda’s appearance. On the other hand, (d) bitter and (e) bored, while less
cheerful, don’t fit either. Both suggest what Brenda’s feelings were, but there is nothing
in the two sentences about feelings or emotions. You don’t know what Brenda’s feelings
were—and you can’t read into the sentences more than is suggested. From what is written,
you can only infer that Brenda was tired. Therefore, the best answer is (b) weary.

34 Building Power in Reading and Writing

On Yotir Own

In the blank space, write the letter of the correct answer for each numbered
item.

1. A trademark is a name, a sign, or a picture that appears on a product to make

it easy for a customer to_the product.

(a) overlook (b) sell (c) remember

(d) carry (<?) eat

2. Spring rains and melting snow had made the country roads difficult to drive

on; there was_everywhere.

(a) grass (b) advertising (c) ice

(d) sleet (e) mud

3. When Marilyn got on the scale, shook her head, and said “Oh, no!” I could

tell that she was_

(a) delighted (&) afraid (c) unkind

(d) thoughtful (e) disappointed

4. Since Julie has been given a surprise party every year for the past three years,

we think she_one this year.

(a) expects (b) forgets (c) dislikes

{d) enjoys (e) prepares

5. Traffic is so heavy on Route 52 that the county has decided to_the road.

(a) widen (b) close (c) beautify

(d) renumber (e) narrow

Inferences in Longer Passages

You may be asked to draw inferences about the correct words to fill blanks
in a longer passage. Use the Question and Answer method to study this kind of
test question.

Part I. Reading Skills 35

Question 3

Read the following passage. Then write the letter of the correct answer in each
numbered blank.

Winston Churchill was the great British 1. (a) ran (b) walked
leader in the Second World War. After the war, (c) retired (d) fled
he 1. _to a quiet life of reading and (e) stumbled
painting. But he was still 2._On his 80th
birthday, a young photographer came to take his 2. (a) friendly
picture. After the young man had finished, he (b) calm
made a 3._remark. He said he hoped he (c) unknown
would photograph Churchill on his 100th (<d) likable
birthday. (e) famous

Churchill replied, “I don’t see why not,

3. (a) grim (b) polite
young man. You look reasonably fit to me.”
(c) loud (d) stupid
(e) wicked

Answers
First read the entire passage. Then you will have an idea of what it’s all about. This
passage tells a humorous story about Winston Churchill. Churchill playfully turns the
tables on a young photographer. The young man says he hopes he’ll photograph Churchill
on Churchill’s 100th birthday. Churchill jokes that he sees no reason why the young man
shouldn’t be around for that occasion.

When you have thought about the entire passage, you should be able to handle the
parts.

1. (c) The best choice is (c) retired. The words ran, walked, and stumbled suggest physical
action. Such action is out of place here. Nor is fled correct. There is no suggestion
that Churchill was running away.
2. (e) Since Churchill was a famous wartime leader, you can infer that he was still famous
at 80. There is no reason to make any choice except (e).
3. (b) You can infer that the young man was being kind when he spoke. Therefore, (b)
polite is the only possible answer. The other choices do not make good sense.

On Your Own

Read the following passage and answer the questions at the end.

Once upon a time, you could buy an entire house

through a mail-order catalog. It would cost you less than
$2,000. No, this isn’t a fairy tale. In 1908, Sears,
Roebuck & Co. began selling houses by mail. If you
were interested in buying, you would glance through a
special pamphlet at pictures of attractive houses. You
would then send in an order and wait for the house.

36 Building Power in Reading and Writing

 The house arrived in sections, of course. Every
board had been cut to size. All parts were numbered to
fit. A 76-page instruction booklet gave you all the help
you needed to complete the house yourself. Or you might
hire a builder to put the numbered parts together.

These Sears houses have become precious museum

pieces. Today’s owners are proud of their treasures. One
house that cost $2,000 in 1913 is now worth $148,000.
There is a movement to keep these houses from being
torn down.

Sears kept its Modern Homes Department until

1937. Then it stopped selling complete homes through
the catalog. Sears could no longer make a profit from
the sales.

1. Write the letter of the statement that best expresses the main idea.

(a) Sears once sold attractive houses through the mail-order

catalog.
(b) Some owners hired a builder to put the house together.
(r) Sears dropped mail-order house sales because of a loss of profit.
{d) House owners should always see a picture of the house they
plan to build. 1.

2. Which of the following titles best summarizes the content of the

passage?

(a) The True Story of Sears, Roebuck & Co.

(b) An Interesting Story About Houses
(c) The Importance of Following Instructions
(d) Houses by Mail 2.

3. The $148,000 house cost $2,000 in (a) 1908 (b) 1913 (c) 1937 (d)
1976. 3.

4. The parts of the mail-order house can best be compared with (a)
the pieces of a jigsaw puzzle (b) a 76-page instruction booklet (c)
a carpenter’s toolbox (d) an illustrated mail-order catalog. 4.

5. In the expression “Today’s owners are proud of their treasures,’’

the word treasures applies to (a) jewelry (b) furniture (c) carpets (d)
houses. 3.

6. There is a movement to keep the Sears houses from being torn

down because the houses are (a) more comfortable than modern
homes (b) owned by people who bought them many years ago (c)
museum pieces (<7) as bright as the day they were built. 6.

Part I. Reading Skills 37

 Now try your skill on a more difficult passage. The Bonus is designed to intro¬
duce you to harder words and more challenging ideas.

Bonus

Read the following passage and answer the questions at the end.

Scientists have created new and improved varieties

of fruits and vegetables. The changes in sweet corn, for
example, have been almost miraculous. Most changes
in plants provide larger fruits or vegetables.

Recent changes include a dark green seedless

cucumber, a round eggplant, and a pencil-thin aspar¬
agus. A newly developed tomato is said to keep its flavor
all winter at room temperature. There are differences
in size and appearance, too. Experimenters have devel¬
oped a pumpkin the size of one’s fist and a 40-pound
watermelon with beautiful yellow stars on its skin.

The strangest changes of all, though, involve new

colors. Would you eat blue potatoes, purple beans, or
pink cabbages? These exotic vegetables are not in most
supermarkets, but they do appeal to gardeners who are
looking for something different. A new kind of radish
reverses the usual coloring. It is red inside and white
outside. One grower is raising white beets. A new lima
bean has an ivory pod streaked with red.

Some of the innovations will probably survive,

while others will not. Blue potatoes, for example, are not
very popular. They seem to repel many people, not
attract them.

KNOW THIS WORD

innovations: new ideas

1. Write the letter of the statement that best expresses the main idea.

(a) Changes in fruits and vegetables have not been popular with
the public.
(<b) Plant experimenters have made many surprising changes in
vegetables and fruits.
(c) A well-balanced diet is a basic element in good nutrition.
(d) Creation of a hardy tomato will probably change the way in
which tomatoes are grown and harvested. 1.

38 Building Power in Reading and Writing

2. An important ingredient in the changes made in fruits and vegeta¬
bles is (a) greater public acceptance (b) better taste (c) curiosity (d)
ease of cooking. 2.

3. A round eggplant and a pencil-thin asparagus differ from the tradi¬

tional vegetables in (a) shape (b) color (c) size (d) taste. 3.

4. The passage suggests that some plant changes are made merely
for the sake of (a) convenience of farmers (b) foreign markets (c)
novelty (d) advertising. 4.

5. Blue potatoes probably repel people because the color is so (a) dark
(b) bright (c) commonplace (d) unnatural. 5.

6. As used in paragraph 3, exotic means (a) tasty (b) unusual (c)

nourishing (d) expensive. 6.

7. As used in paragraph 4, repel means (a) win over (b) bore (c) drive
away (d) influence. 7.

Part I. Reading Skills 39

 6. Using Synonyms and Associated
Ideas
In the previous section, you drew inferences from the wording of entire
sentences, or even paragraphs. Often, however, you will get more direct help. You
will still be drawing inferences, but in doing so, you will use specific clues built
into the passages.

Pairs of Words with Similar Meanings

What Are Synonyms?

A synonym is a word that has nearly the same meaning as another word. Here are
ten examples of paired synonyms:

agree—consent courage—bravery
boast—brag near—close
break—smash observe—watch
cheerful—happy powerful—strong
complain—gripe stumble—trip

Practice 1: Using Synonyms

In the following list of paired synonyms, the less common word is at the right.
Complete each sentence after the list by inserting one of the underlined words. If
you are unsure, use the synonym clue to help you.

acceptable—suitable desire—crave

better—superior high—lofty

blue—indigo honest—upright

clear—evident inventive—creative

cruel—ferocious stop—cease

1. My old tennis shoes were good, but my new ones are_

2. The eagle had built its nest in a_tree.

3. Her workroom was decorated in striking shades of red and_

4. Sally, who is very-, wrote a prize-winning poem about

celery.

40 Building Power in Reading and Writing

 5. Do you. chocolate if you haven’t had it for some time?

6. All writing must_

-when the bell rings.

7. The villain in the story is a__

- pirate.

8. Your new party dress will be_

-to wear to the wedding

reception.

9. The defendant smiled and tried to sound on the

witness stand, despite the strong case against him.

10. It was---to the jury that he had lied.

Answers

1. superior 6. cease
2. lofty 7. ferocious
3. indigo 8. suitable
4. creative 9. upright
5. crave 10. evident

Next, let’s use the Question and Answer approach to see how the pairing of
synonyms can help you in sentences and longer passages.

Question 1: How Do Synonyms Provide

Clues to Meaning?

Try to use the pairing of synonyms to fill in the blank below. The words to
be paired can appear in the same sentence or in different sentences.

A motorist asked Ted and me to help start (a) tease (b) copy
his engine. We knew nothing about his problem (r) assist (d) anger
and could not_him. (e) control

Answer

The two words that must be paired are these:

• help in the first sentence

• the word to fill the blank in the second sentence

What is needed in the blank is a synonym for help. It isn’t tease, copy, anger, or control.
The correct answer is (c) assist.

Part I. Reading Skills 41

Question 2
Study the use of pairing in the following sentences.

The day was wet, and the farmer did not permit (a) prevent (b) chase
us to pick strawberries. He promised, however, (c) deny (d) enjoy
that the next day he would_us to fill our (e) allow
buckets.

Answer
The paired words are permit and the word needed to fill the blank. Since only allow
is a synonym for permit, (e) is the correct answer.

Question 3
Note how paired synonyms help reading comprehension.

Alfred Hitchcock was a master at making 1. (o) funny

scary movies. The Birds is an example of a (b) forgotten
1._film. In it, familiar ideas are turned (c) loud (d) sad
upside down. Birds that are usually peaceful are (e) frightening
no longer 2_, but dangerous. They attack
human beings in great flocks. 2. (a) wild (b) gentle
(c) smart
Hitchcock was pleased with his achieve¬
(d) colorful
ments and 3. _of his fame. Once in a
(e) noisy
French airport he introduced himself as a
producer.
3. (a) proud
“What do you produce? ’ ’ asked the official. (b) doubtful
(c) ashamed
Hitchcock replied, “Gooseflesh! ”
{d) fearful
(e) unafraid

Answers

Always read the entire passage before starting to choose any answers. This passage
is about Alfred Hitchcock, the movie director and producer. It begins by describing one
of his films. It then mentions Hitchcock’s opinion of his work and ends with a joke that
Hitchcock made at a French airport.

After you have thought about the whole passage, turn to the individual items.

1. (e) The best choice is (e) frightening. It is paired with its synonym, scary. The other
choices do not make sense.
2. (b) Although (b) gentle is not an exact synonym for peaceful, it is the best answer.
Sometimes you will find that no answer seems perfect to you. When that happens,
think carefully about the choices and pick the one that seems most nearly right.
3. (a) If Hitchcock was pleased with his achievements, he was (a) proud. The other choices
are negative, except for unafraid, which doesn’t make good sense.

42 Building Power in Reading and Writing

On Your Own

Read the following passage and answer the questions at the end. Note the use
of helpful synonyms throughout the passage: located—situated; wide range—variety, do
well—thrive; hot—Jiery; dangerous—destructive.

Big Bend National Park is located along the Rio

Grande in southern Texas. It is situated in the curve of
the river, far from any cities. The park provides a wide
range of plant and animal life. This variety occurs
because Big Bend includes both high mountains and
low-lying deserts.

Trees do well in the higher altitudes of the Ghisos

peaks. Many beautiful shrubs also thrive in the
mountains. The desert floor is hot, especially in the
summer. Temperatures often reach a fiery 100 degrees
along the river itself.

In summer, heavy, dangerous thunderstorms

sometimes strike the Big Bend region. These destructive
cloudbursts can quickly fill dry river beds and destroy
bridges many miles away.

1. Write the letter of the statement that best expresses the main idea.

(a) Big Bend National Park is a place of beauty, variety, and

sometimes turbulent weather.
(b) Trees grow well in the higher altitudes of Big Bend National
Park.
(c) Big Bend is an isolated park, far from any cities.
(d) Both mountains and desert show a rich abundance of plant
and animal life. 1.

2. Big Bend got its name because of its location

(a) in the Chisos mountains

(b) in a curve of the Rio Grande
(c) near a bend in the borderline with New Mexico
(d) near important highway bridges. 2.

3. Temperatures of 100 degrees are common

(a) in late spring

(b) in the dry riverbeds
(c) on the lower Chisos peaks
(d) along the Rio Grande. 3.

Part I. Reading Skills 43

4. Summer weather in the Big Bend region can be characterized as
(a) quiet (b) surprisingly cool (c) consistently dry (d) sometimes
dangerous.

5. As used in paragraph 2, thrive means (a) die (b) flourish (c) barely
survive (d) dry up.

Using Associated Ideas

Another kind of clue to the word needed to fill a blank is less obvious than
paired synonyms. Sometimes you have to lqok for a word that is associated, or
connected, with a previous word or idea. The word is not a synonym, but it does
follow logically from what has already been said. Here’s an example.

The new library has increased its circula- (a) boys (b) girls
tion. All the _ seem to like the new (c) athletes (d) readers
building. (e) merchants

You think of readers with libraries. All the other choices name groups that may
use the library, but nothing in the two sentences points specifically to them. There¬
fore, you need a word directly connected to the idea of a library. The answer must
be (d) readers.

Practice 2: Using Associated Ideas

In the blank space, write the letter of the correct answer.

1. Can you keep a_? Promise that you won’t tell anyone else.

(a) joke (b) coin (c) credit card

(d) secret (e) news story

2. Many people from the area submitted paintings, drawings, sculpture, and craft
projects. The_seemed more skilled than ever before.

(a) officials (b) sketches (c) hostesses

(id) electricians (e) artists

3. The lawn was beautifully cut. The plantings around the house looked well-
tended and healthy. The_had done an excellent job.

(a) farmers (b) swimmers (c) gardeners

(d) butlers (e) doctors

44 Building Power in Reading and Writing

Answers

1. (<f) A promise not to tell anyone is associated with a secret. Notice, too, that the word
keep goes with the word secret. You don’t “keep” a joke, for example. Any connec¬
tions of this kind that you can make will help you get the right answer.
2. (e) Any answer might make sense under some circumstances, but you have to go by
what is actually written. The officials, hostesses, and electricians may all have been
skilled. However, there is nothing to relate them to the sending in of artwork. The
only choice you can associate with the four kinds of art that are named—“paintings,
drawings, sculpture, and craft projects”—is artists.
3. (c) Of the choices that are given, only gardeners cut lawns and tend plantings.

Use the Question and Answer method to look for associations in the following
brief passage.

Question 4: How Do Associated Ideas Provide Clues to

Meaning?

Write the letter of the word that best completes the sentence.

An unusual material had been used for the roof of

the indoor tennis court. The builder had used canvas
to fabricate the roof. Air pressure held the structure up.

As used in this passage, fabricate means (a) uncover (b) construct (r) decorate
(d) paint.

Your answer 4:

Answer

First read the passage carefully and think about it. Then try each choice to see which
one makes the best sense. You don’t use canvas to paint a roof. You might use canvas to
decorate it, but the passage as a whole suggests that the entire roof is being discussed. Uncover
makes no sense at all. The passage deals with putting a roof on, not taking it off. The correct
answer is (b) construct.

Part I. Reading Skills 45

On Your Own

Read the following passage and answer the questions at the end. Note how
associated ideas help reading comprehension.

Many birds migrate twice a year. When these birds

fly to their winter homes, they often cover great
distances. Nearly half of our songbirds spend eight or
ten weeks in the Northeast, building nests and raising
their young. After a few months, they relinquish their
nests, leave the familiar areas, and then head south.
Some birds fly to Central or 'South America for the
winter. There they look for familiar areas and spend six
or seven months before returning north. They also spend
months making the dangerous journeys between their
summer and winter homes.

What happens if their wintering grounds are

destroyed? If the birds cannot find suitable homes, they
will not live through the winter. Many worldwide
programs have been set up to protect migrating birds’
northern and southern homes so that these birds will
continue to survive.

KNOW THESE WORDS

migrate: move from one region to another when a season

changes
grounds: places favorable for birds

1. Write the letter of the statement that best expresses the main idea.

(a) Birds risk their lives whenever they travel long distances.
(b) Steps must be taken to preserve bird nesting areas in the
Northeast.
(c) Some birds migrate, while others do not.
(d) Migrating birds need secure summer and winter homes to
survive. 1,

2. As used in paragraph 1, relinquish means (a) leave behind (b)

redecorate (r) destroy (d) mark. 2.

3. Raising their young is done by birds (a) in special nests prepared

by homeowners {b) where there are no natural enemies (c) in their
southern homes (d) in their northern homes. 3.

46 Building Power in Reading and Writing

4. Migrating birds spend most of their lives (a) in flight (b) in the
Northeast (r) in their wintering grounds (d) at their nesting sites. 4.

5. A good label for migrating birds is (a) carriers of the latest news
(&) international travelers (r) citizens of the Northeast (<i) friends
of animals. 5

Bonus

Read the following passage and answer the questions at the end.

Have you ever heard of race walking? Not many

people in the United States know about this unusual
sport. Yet it is an Olympic sport and a favorite activity
in many other countries around the world.

Race walking requires a peculiar gait. One foot

must be on the ground at all times. The racer’s leg must
be straight at the knee when the leg is directly below the
body. Race walking is not just a leisurely walk through
the woods. It is hard work, with strong competition.

Race walkers often earn nothing but bursts of

laughter. The requirements of the sport produce a very
strange rolling walk, much like the odd saunter of the
comedian Charlie Chaplin. But race walkers can go fast.
They often embarrass joggers by passing them. One race
walker recently covered a mile in five minutes and 41
seconds. That is good speed even for a runner.

Americans have not yet produced good Olympic

competitors, but times are changing. More young
people are being attracted to this demanding sport. If
more race walking competitions are set up in the United
States, Americans will have greater opportunities to
perfect their skills.

1. Write the letter of the statement that best expresses the main idea.

(a) The Olympic Games should include race walking.

(b) Many young people are interested in race walking as a sport.
(c) Race walking is a challenging sport fairly new to Americans.
(d) Americans are excellent race walkers. 1.

Part I. Reading Skills 47

2. Which of the following titles best summarizes the content of the
passage?

(a) A New Olympic Sport

(b) How to Learn to Walk Faster
(ic) Expanding Olympic Competition
(d) Race Walking: An Unusual Sport

3. As used in paragraph 2, gait means (a) challenge (b) intensity (c)

temperament (d) way of moving.

4. As used in paragraph 3, saunter means (a) wit (b) comedy (e) a kind
of stride (d) facial expressions.

5. Race walking is (a) funny to watch (b) bad for the back (c) an ancient
activity (d) faster than sprinting.

6. Covering a mile in five minutes and 41 seconds is (a) a record for

jogging (b) excellent time for a race walker (c) an average time at
the Olympics (d) impossible for a race walker.

48 Building Power in Reading and Writing

 7. Using Antonyms and Opposed
Ideas

You have seen how helpful synonyms and associated ideas can be in answering
test items. They help you to draw the right inferences. Other kinds of clues can
also be useful. Sometimes, instead of words with similar meanings, you will work
with words that have opposite meanings.

Pairs of Words with Opposite Meanings

What Are Antonyms?

An antonym is a word that means the opposite of another word. Here are some
examples of antonyms:

calm—nervous rough—smooth
give—take sink—float
good—bad up—down
hot—cold wet—dry
love—hate win—lose

Reading tests often include sentences that require antonyms. A sentence that
needs an antonym in the blank usually has a key word that shows contrast:

Janet likes tennis, but Jennifer it.

Even without a group of possible answers, the word but tells you that the answer
is probably the antonym dislikes, or a word that means dislikes. Some other key
words that show contrast are not, though, although, and if.

A snake’s skin is surprisingly dry, not wet and slimy.

Though the willow seems delicate, it is quite sturdy.

Although the morning of our picnic was stormy, by afternoon the weather
turned sunny.

Even if he is angry inside, Ted keeps a calm exterior.

Part I. Reading Skills 49

Practice 1: Using Antonyms

In the following list of paired antonyms, the less common word is at the right.
Complete each sentence after the list by inserting one of the underlined words. If
you are unsure, use the antonym clue to help you.

care—negligence poor—prosperous

despair—optimism prevent—enable

humble—haughty scorn—idolize

important—petty sensible—absurd

lacking—ample thoughtful—tactless

1. Some clothing that looked-ten years ago seems

sensible today.

2. Phil sometimes can’t tell the difference between important and-

_details.

3. The twins scorn rock-and-roll stars, but they--—--

country singers.

4. Life can make even a(an)_person humble.

5. Janet is usually thoughtful, but her latest action was-

6. Though money is lacking, Mr. Wilson feels that his simple pleasures are

7. Many_men and women began life in poor sections

of the city.

8. Proper care of equipment, not_, is necessary if

we are going to keep our excellent safety record.

9. Some people might give in to a feeling of despair, but the disabled athlete still

holds to her_

10. If we can prevent vandalism, we will_•_the school

to use less of its money for repairs.

50 Building Power in Reading and Writing

Answers

In each item on the test, you had to find an antonym for a word in the sentence.

1. absurd. This is the opposite of sensible. The sentence contrasts the clothing of ten years
ago with the clothing of today.

2. petty. This is an antonym for important. The words are paired to show contrast.
3. idolize. To idolize is the opposite of to scorn. In this sentence, the key word but tells you
that an antonym is needed.
rf
4. haughty. This is the opposite of humble. Notice how the key word even provides a clue
that you need an antonym.

5. tactless. The antonym in the sentence is thoughtful. The key word but tells you that an
antonym is needed.

6. ample. This is the opposite of lacking. Though tells you that a contrast is intended.
7. prosperous. This contrasts with poor.

8. negligence. This is the opposite of care. The key word not tells you that an antonym is
needed.

9. optimism. This is the opposite of despair. The key word but tells you that an antonym
is needed.
10. enable. To enable is the opposite of to prevent. If is used in the sentence to show contrast.

Next, let’s use the Question and Answer method to see how the pairing of
antonyms can help you in sentences and longer passages.

Question 1: How Do Antonyms Provide

Clues to Meaning?

Try to use the pairing of antonyms to fill in the blank below. The words to
be paired can appear in the same sentence or in different sentences.

This report is not . Pages 2,5, and (a) accurate

12 are missing. (b) attractive
(c) enjoyable
(d) readable
(e) complete

Answer
The word to be paired is missing. What would be the effect of having missing pages?
The report would not be (e) complete.

Part I. Reading Skills 51

Question 2

Read the following passage and answer the questions at the end.

The story of earmuffs is not just an ordinary one.

In fact, it is quite unusual. The story goes back to 1873.
It seems that Chester Greenwood of Farmington,
Maine, had sensitive ears. When he was 15, he got a pair
of ice skates as a present. Chester, however, liked warm
weather and dreaded going out into the cold. To keep
him warm when he did go outside, he covered his ears
with cloth held by wire.

The idea took hold, and the town of Farmington

went into the business of making earmuffs. Each year
the townspeople celebrate Chester Greenwood’s inven¬
tion. They raise a flag with red earmuffs on a white
background.

Through the years, the popularity of earmuffs has

had its ups and downs. “It’s like anything else,” one
manufacturer said. “We have excellent years and bad
years.”

In 1978, earmuffs were not very popular in the

United States. A woman from Austria bought a pair of
earmuffs to take home with her. People admired them,
and she and her husband decided to sell earmuffs in
Europe. Most American earmuffs had been dull in color.
The Austrian couple made them in more flamboyant
shades and sold them all over Europe. The fad drifted
back to the United States.

Some details have varied, but Chester Green¬

wood’s basic design for earmuffs has remained
unaltered. Chester went on to invent other things, but
on chilly winter days a lot of people are glad he invented
this practical way to warm the ears—good, old-fashioned
earmuffs.

KNOW THESE WORDS

sensitive: easily hurt

celebrate: recall with happiness
basic: original; first
practical: useful

52 Building Power in Reading and Writing

1. Write the letter of the statement that best expresses the main idea.

(fl) EarmufFs became more popular in Europe than in the United

States.
(b) The town of Farmington is famous as the home of the Green¬
wood earmuff.
(c) Wearing earmuffs is a practical fad.
(W) The earmuffhas had a varied history from 1873 to the present. 1. _

2. As used in paragraph 4, flamboyant means (a) dreary (b) red

(c) showy (d) strange. 2. _

3. As used in paragraph 5, unaltered means (a) constant

(b) economical (c) attractive (d) typical. 3. _

4. The earmuff flag is raised (a) on Chester Greenwood’s birthday

(b) by an Austrian couple (r) whenever earmuff sales have a good
year (d) each year in Farmington. 4. _

5. We may reasonably infer that earmuff sales go up and down as

a result of (a) health reports (b) changes in fashion (c) labor troubles
at the Maine factory (d) magazine articles. 5. _

Answers

First read the entire passage. As you will see, it is all about earmuffs. It explains how
and why Chester Greenwood invented earmuffs and then tells something about their later
history.

After you have thought about the whole passage, you are ready to look at the individual
questions.

1. (d) Only (d) suggests the idea of the total passage. Both (a) and (b) are details. Choice
(c) is too general.
2. (e) Flamboyant is contrasted with dull. Therefore, we need a word that is opposed in
meaning. Showy (c) is the best choice.
3. (a) Unaltered is contrasted with varied. The word constant is opposed in meaning. Constant
(a) is the best choice.
4. (rf) This is a detail from the passage: “Each year the townspeople . . . raise a flag with
red earmuffs on a white background.” The selection says nothing about Chester
Greenwood’s birthday (a). The Austrian couple have nothing to do with the flag
(b) . Good and bad years are mentioned, but not in connection with the flag (c).
5. (b) The key sentence is “The popularity of earmuffs has had its ups and downs.”
Popularity determines fashion. Therefore (b) is the best choice. The other choices
are not mentioned in the passage.

Part I. Reading Skills 53

On Your Own

Read the following passage and answer the questions at the end.

The yearly Academy Awards ceremony was once

a private affair. Now, because of television, it is very
much a public affair. Hundreds of people gather in
Hollywood to see the Oscars presented to outstanding
actors, directors, and others involved in the motion
picture industry. Millions more watch on television.

It all began on May 16, 1929, when 270 men and

women sat down to dinner at the Hollywood Roosevelt
Hotel. There was no secret about the winners. The
names of the winners had been known for months. J anet
Gaynor, for example, had won as Best Actress. Douglas
Fairbanks presented her with the famous gold statuette.

The little statue was not then called an Oscar. Like

a new actor, Oscar was unknown. About six years later,
it somehow got that renowned name. A number of
explanations have been offered for its origin, but nobody
knows the true story for certain.

Nowadays the results of the Oscar voting are kept

secret. Only two people know the winners before the
names are announced at the ceremony. The counting
of votes is not done by one group of people but by
different groups. Nobody except two members of an
accounting firm sees the final totals.

The information is not kept in open files. Winners’

names are placed in sealed envelopes. The two account¬
ants each carry a complete set of envelopes to the
ceremony. One set is simply a spare to be used in case
something happens to the other one.

KNOW THESE WORDS

ceremony: acts done in a special way

involved: having to do with
origin: beginning

1. Which of the following titles best summarizes the content of the

passage?

(a) How Oscar Got His Name

(b) The First Academy Awards Winners
(c) The Academy Awards Ceremony Through the Years
(<d) How the Oscar Winners Are Selected

54 Building Power in Reading and Writing

2. As used in paragraph 3, renowned means (a) strange
(b) wonderful (c) much-disliked (d) famous. 2.

3. May 16, 1929, marks (a) Douglas Fairbanks’ first winning of an

Academy Award (b) the first time Oscar got his name (r) the first
time the Awards were kept secret (t/) Janet Gaynor’s recognition
as Best Actress. 3

4. The number of people who know the Awards winners in advance

is (a) 1 (b) 2 (a) 3 (rf) a committee of six. 4.

5. Two envelopes are prepared for the ceremony (a) one for New
York, one for Hollywood (b) as an extra precaution (a) one for the
ceremony, one for the press (<i) just because that is the custom. 5.

Bonus

Read the following passage and answer the questions at the end.

To most of us, a snail in the garden is known only

as a pest. But some clever people have turned a liability
into an asset. They raise snails for food—or even for
sport!

In Europe, snails are delicacies, enjoyed by hard-

to-please diners in France, Italy, and elsewhere. Yet in
the United States, snails have never been very popular.
American snail farmers are trying to overcome this
prejudice and are having some success. They are
growing snails for an expanding market.

One resourceful Californian has a backyard full of

snails. To prevent their escape, he has built a wooden
fence ringed with a band of copper. The copper carries
an electric current, which gives the snails a slight shock
and keeps them in the yard. He sells his snails at an
average price of 20 cents each to restaurants.

Some snail growers race their snails for sport. A

snail in a hurry can travel about three inches a minute.
You can see how the expression “a snail’s pace” arose.
Even though snails are sluggish, snail racing is a popular
sport in some places, like Spain’s Basque country.

The lowly snail is an object of aversion for most

people in the United States, but for some people, here
and abroad, it is beautiful!

Part I. Reading Skills 55

 KNOW THESE WORDS

asset: thing of value

delicacies: special foods
prejudice: unreasonable dislike
object: thing discussed

1. Which of the following titles best summarizes the content of the

passage?

(a) The Aversion to Snails

(b) Snails: A Neglected Food Source
(c) Snail Races: A Relaxing Sport '
(d) Snail Farming for Profit and Pleasure

2. As used in paragraph 4, sluggish means (a) ugly (b) colorless

(c) not active (d) weak. 2.

3. As used in paragraph 5, aversion means (a) mild curiosity

(b) keen interest (c) preference (d) strong dislike.

4. Snails are raced in (a) France (b) Spain (c) Italy (d) California. 4.

5. People are probably turned away from snails because of the snails’
(a) taste (b) appearance (c) price (d) reputation. 5.

Using Opposed Ideas

Another clue to the word needed to fill a blank is less obvious than paired
antonyms. Sometimes you have to look for a word or expression that is opposed
in meaning to a previous word or idea. You are not looking for antonyms exactly,
but only for opposite ideas. Here’s an example.

Harrison never seemed to tell a story directly (a) exciting

and honestly. Even small details were (b) repeated
(r) overlooked
(id) false
(e) remembered

There are no paired antonyms here, but the two sentences in the passage do
contain opposite ideas. Harrison could never tell a story “directly and honestly.”
The word never tells you to seek a word that expresses the opposite of “directly and
honestly.” The answer is (d)false. (If you chose overlooked, think about it again. A
person who overlooks something usually does it by accident. When an action is
mdirect and dbhonest, there is falseness involved, not just a mistake.)

56 Building Power in Reading and Writing

 If you took the Bonus test on pages 55-56, you have already used this technique
in answering question 2. The last paragraph of the passage on snails contrasts
aversion, or strong dislike, with beautiful. These words are not antonyms, but they
are opposed ideas. You have a liking for something that is beautiful and a dislike
for something that is not. Words like but, not, never, scarcely, neither, nobody, without,
unless, and although often point the way to an opposed idea.

Practice 2: Using Opposed Ideas

Write the letter of the correct answer for each numbered item.

1. Trainers of dolphins avoid speaking harshly to their animals. Their voices are
always_

(a) loud (£) gentle (c) slow

(d) discouraging (e) boring

2. For a top tennis player, native ability is not enough. The will to win and the
power to concentrate are also_

(a) needed (6) discovered (c) penalized

(-d) checked (e) discussed

3. My keys have torn the pocket in my gray slacks. If I don’t mend it, I may lose
some change through the small_

(a) wallet (b) cloth (c) belt

(d) opening (e) purse

Answers
1. (b) The correct answer, gentle, is almost an antonym for harshly, but not quite. (The
antonym would be gently.)

2. (a) If “native ability is not enough,” then something else is needed. Certainly, (a) is the
only choice that contains this opposed idea.
3. (d) Here the opposed ideas are not so obvious. A pocket is closed at the bottom. If a pocket
is torn, the result is an opening. (If you answered cloth, think again. A pocket is usually
made of cloth, but losing change “through the small cloth” makes little sense.)

Use the Question and Answer method to look for opposed ideas in the following
brief passage.

Question 3: How Do Opposed Ideas

Provide Clues to Meaning?

Write the letter of the word that best fits the blank space.

I looked for the concert tickets everywhere, (a) concert (b) victory
without success. The_ disappointed my (r) loss (d) puzzle
friend and me. (e) time

Part I. Reading Skills 57

Answer
The first sentence has to do with trying to find missing tickets (although neither the
word find nor missing is used). The tickets seem to have been lost. The opposing ideas are
finding—losing. Therefore, the answer is (c) loss.

Question 4

Read the following passage and answer the questions at the end.

Chocolate is one of the world’s favorite foods. V ery

few people detest it. About 70 percent of today’s candy
bars are chocolate covered. Many candies and candy
bars are all chocolate.

Chocolate comes from cocoa beans, which come

from the cacao tree. At the chocolate factory, the beans
are cleaned and roasted. This roasting brings out the
flavor and special smell of chocolate.

After roasting, the outer shells are removed. The

rest remains. The meat part of the bean, called the nib,
is ground. The nibs melt and become chocolate liquor,
which is more than half made up of cocoa butter.

Cocoa butter is a natural fat. It is separated from

the liquor. The remaining material is pressed, ground,
and sifted. The end result is not a liquid. It is cocoa
powder.

To make semisweet chocolate, workers at the

factory add sugar and flavoring to the chocolate liquor.
To make milk chocolate, they replace some of the choco¬
late liquor with whole milk.

KNOW THESE WORDS

chocolate liquor: a sticky chocolate syrup

semisweet: slightly sweet

1. Which of the following titles best summarizes the content of the

passage.

(a) How Chocolate Is Grown and Processed

(b) America’s Sweet Tooth for Chocolate
(c) Different Kinds of Chocolate Used in Candy
(d) Life at the Chocolate Factory 1.

2. As used in paragraph 1, detest means (a) eat (b) dislike (c) study
{d) serve. 2.

58 Building Power in Reading and Writing

3. The nib is (a) another name for cocoa butter (^) the outer shell
(c) the central part of the bean (d) the cacao tree. 3. _

4. Semisweet chocolate contains all the following ingredients

EXCEPT (a) chocolate liquor (b) milk (c) sugar (c?) flavoring. 4. _

5. The flavor and special smell of chocolate come from

(a) grinding (b) sifting (c) pressing (d) roasting. 5. _

Answers

First read the entire passage, which deals with the making of chocolate. Once you
know the main idea, the individual answers become easier.

1. (a) This is the only choice that deals with the entire passage. All the others are details
mentioned or hinted at.
2. (b) The opposed ideas are those of favorite and detest. If a food is a favorite, very few
people would not like it. Therefore, the correct choice is dislike (b).
3. (c) The nib is called “the meat part of the bean,” what remains after the outer shells
are removed. The only possible answer is the central part of the bean (c).
4. (b) The passage specifically says that to make semisweet chocolate workers add sugar,
flavoring, and chocolate liquor. Since the question calls for the omitted ingredient
(by using the word except), the answer must be milk {b).
5. (d) The passage specifically says, “This roasting brings out the flavor and special smell
of chocolate.” Therefore (d) is correct.

On Your Own

Read the following passage and answer the questions at the end. In this review,
you will have to use all the skills you have learned so far.

Most people take a dim view of mice. They are even

repelled by the word mouse. Yet one of the most popular
of all cartoon characters is a mouse—Mickey Mouse.
Real mice have their fans, too, just as cats, dogs, and
other pets do. These people do not avoid mice. In fact,
some of them raise mice and show them at exhibitions.

England has a National Mouse Club. It was

founded in 1895. Each year a championship contest is
held to choose the best mouse in the show. The contest¬
ants are kept in little green cages. The judge reaches into
each cage and pulls out a mouse by the tail. He doesn’t
put the mouse back immediately. He carefully scruti¬
nizes its ears. He checks to see if it has a healthy coat.
He measures the length of the tail. He doesn’t keep the
mouse from moving. He allows the mouse to run up and
down his arm. This freedom tests the mouse’s liveliness.
The owner of the winning mouse wins a solid silver
punch bowl.

Part I. Reading Skills 59

 These are no ordinary mice. Even their colors are
interesting. One type of mouse has a single, solid color.
This color may be black, blue, cream, red, silver, or
white. Some mice have more than one color. There are
many color varieties, with all kinds of combinations.

It costs ten cents to enter a mouse in a Mouse Club

show. This is the same fee that was charged 50 years ago.
Members enjoy getting together. They greet old friends.
They talk about mice for hours on end. It may not be
everyone’s cup of tea, but the members of the National
Mouse Club look forward eagerly to their annual show.

KNOW THESE WORDS

dim: negative; poor

exhibitions: public shows; fairs
varieties: types; kinds
eagerly: with happiness
annual: yearly

1. Write the letter of the statement that best expresses the main idea.

(a) Mice come in many colors and combinations of colors.

(b) In comparing mice, judges look for certain qualities.
(c) Some people raise mice to show at yearly competitions.
(d) Mickey Mouse is the most famous mouse of all.

2. As used in paragraph 1, repelled means (a) disgusted

(b) stimulated (c) amused (d) cheered.

3. As used in paragraph 2, scrutinizes means (a) pets

(b) photographs (c) covers (d) examines.

4. One of the major appeals of the National Mouse Club compe¬

titions is the (a) sociability (b) publicity (r) storytelling
(d) financial gains.

5. “It may not be everyone’s cup of tea” suggests that (a) tea, rather
than coffee, is served at the contests (b) many people would not
enjoy the mouse competition (c) many people at the contest go
home disappointed (d) members of the National Mouse Club tend
to be tea drinkers.

60 Building Power in Reading and Writing

Bonus 1

Read the following passage and answer the questions at the end.

We often read about Egyptian tombs. Scientists

have found many treasures in these ancient sepulchers.
Paintings and sculptures have told us about the way of
life in Egypt thousands of years ago.

Not many people know about the exciting discov¬

eries in our own backyard, right here in America. We
have our own diggings, which have some fascinating
stories to tell.

Scattered throughout many Midwestern states are

huge mounds. Indians, called by scientists the Mound
Builders, developed a thriving civilization in this region.
They were not wild, barbaric savages. The mounds
contain pottery, tools, stone carvings, and many things
that tell of a comfortable life long ago.

Some of the mounds are 2,000 years old. When the

mounds were being built, there were often Indian
villages near them. These villages have been buried for
centuries. A few of them are being dug up, or excavated.
Scientists called archaeologists find kitchen materials,
weapons for hunting, and jewelry. From what they find,
they can even tell what kinds of food the ancient people
ate.

Some of the mounds are in the way of interstate

highways. The archaeologists are trying to uncover as
much of the Mound Builders’ story as they can before
all clues are gone, lost in the construction of modern
highways.

KNOW THESE WORDS

tombs: burial places

ancient: very old
thriving: growing
civilization: culture
centuries: hundreds of years

Part I. Reading Skills 61

1. Which of the following titles best summarizes the content of the
passage?

(a) How the Mound Builders Resemble the Egyptians

(b) Modern Highways: Enemies of Archaeology
(c) A Midwestern Story
(d) The Mound Builders and Their Achievements

2. As used in paragraph 1, sepulchers means (a) graves (b) sandpiles

(c) villages (d) riverbeds.

3. As used in paragraph 3, barbaric means (a) painted

(b) uncivilized (c) restless (d) good-tempered.

4. We may infer that construction on interstate highways

(a) completely conceals the Mount Builders’ story

(b) has also played a part in Egyptian archaeology
(r) has revealed the sites of Indian villages
(d) has done nothing but harm to archaeology.

5. The Mound Builders lived in what is now (a) Egypt (b) the Midwest
(c) the South (d) the West.

Bonus 2

Read the following passage and answer the questions at the end.

The appearance of Halley’s Comet in 1986 stimu¬

lated interest in comets. People asked, ‘ ‘What are these
recurring visitors from outer space? Why do they swing
around the sun? Why do they return? Why do some
comets take longer to come back than others?”

One astronomer called a comet ‘ ‘a dirty snowball. ’ ’

According to his theory, a comet consists of a huge ball
of gases that have been frozen into icelike solids at very
low temperatures. The snowball is “dirty’ ’ because bits
of dust and gravel, made up of rock and metal, are frozen
into the ball.

Far out in some parts of space, temperatures are

close to absolute zero. There the ball stays frozen. But
as the comet moves closer to the sun, it begins to warm
up. The icy solids begin to evaporate into gas. Some
of the solid particles of “dirt” are liberated and float
within the hazy, gaseous, outer surface. The comet
glitters, because all these substances reflect sunlight.

62 Building Power in Reading and Writing

 As the comet gets closer to the sun, its outer layer
of haze increases in depth. A stream of particles from
the sun, called the “solar wind,” forces some of the
comet’s haze into a “tail,” which always points away
from the sun.

Comets are held in orbit by the sun’s gravitation.

Some have small orbits, bringing them back every few
years. Others have elongated orbits, keeping them out
in space for thousands of years. The most famous comet
of all, Halley’s Comet., returns about every 76 years.

Comets get smaller on each return sweep. They

lose some of their volume each time. Halley’s Comet,
for example, is smaller than it was a thousand years ago.
Someday it will not be visible without a telescope.
Eventually, it may not return at all.

KNOW THESE WORDS

stimulated: aroused
absolute zero: complete absence of heat
elongated: lengthened

1. Write the letter of the sentence that best expresses the main idea.

(a) What are comets made of and why do they keep coming back?
(,b) A comet is a kind of dirty snowball that contains gases frozen
into solids.
(V) The most famous comet of all, Halley’s Comet, cannotbeseen
with a telescope.
(d) Comets have different orbits, some quite short and others quite
long.

2. As used in paragraph 1, recurring means (a) unwelcome

(b) dangerous (c) tiny (d) returning.

3. As used in paragraph 5, elongated means (a) tiny (b) lengthened

(c) yearly {d) unexplainable.

4. The ‘ ‘ solar wind ’ ’ (a) creates the comet ’ s tail (b) often reaches earth
from a comet (c) doesn’t reach the earth’s orbit (d) is less than it
was a thousand years ago.

5. Halley’s Comet (a) will always return to sweep around the sun
(b) is growing larger and more impressive with each sweep
(c) may someday disappear (d) returns once every 86 years.

Part I. Reading Skills 63

Bonus 3

Read the following passage and answer the questions at the end. In this review,
you will have to use all the skills you have learned so far.

When the outstanding dancer Fred Astaire was

interviewed for a job by a Hollywood producer, the
movie “expert” turned him down, saying, “Can’t sing.
Can’t act. Dances a little.” Here’s another blunder.
When the scientific genius Albert Einstein was in school,
his teachers considered him rather dull. And a final
story. The famous Polish pianist Paderewski was told
by a teacher that he’d never be a success as a performer
because the middle finger on each hand was too short.

What lessons can be drawn from these three experi¬

ences? First, true genius cannot be suppressed.
Somehow or other it will work its way out. Second, early
estimates of a person’s abilities may be unfair or just
plain wrong. Third, when there is a real determination
to succeed, obstacles fall by the wayside.

The famous motto ad astra per aspera can be trans¬

lated as “to the stars through hardships.” Astaire
Einstein, and Paderewski proved their critics mistaken.

1. Write the letter of the statement that best expresses the main idea.

(a) Fred Astaire was a talented dancer.

(b) True ability will always make itself known.
(c) Some people never get discouraged.
(d) Albert Einstein proved his teachers wrong. 1.

2. As used in paragraph 2, suppressed means (a) encouraged (b) publi¬

cized (c) smothered (d) released. 2.

3. When Paderewski ’ s teachers told him he ’ d never be a success, they

were (a) being humorous (b) cheerful, though concerned
(r) somewhat hesitant (d) gravely mistaken. 3.

4. Ad astra per aspera is used in the passage (a) as a motto for the three
men’s lives (b) to demonstrate the value of Latin (r) to send the
reader to the dictionary (d.) to point out that genius is always recog¬
nized early. 4.

5. The writer of the passage assumes that the reader (a) knows that
the three men were successes (b) someday dreams to become like
one of the men (r) sympathizes with the poor teachers of the three
men (d) knows that Fred Astaire was a famous Shakespearean
actor. 5.

64 Building Power in Reading and Writing

 8. Choosing Words That Summarize

“The restaurant offered broccoli, carrots, lima beans, and

green beans. These vegetables were all cooked and served with
a cream sauce. ”

Notice that the first sentence mentions specific foods—broccoli, carrots, and
so on. The second sentence labels all those foods as vegetables and adds some further
information.

Writing One-Word Summaries

The word vegetables is a general word. In a way, it is a one-word summary that

includes broccoli, carrots, lima beans, green beans, and more. Here are a few similar
examples:

GENERAL GENERAL GENERAL

hardwoods trucks fish

SPECIFIC SPECIFIC SPECIFIC

maple flatbed perch

oak dump catfish
walnut pickup bass
ash tank trout

Practice: Using Words That Summarize

In each of the following groups of words, one word is general and can include,
or summarize, the other, more specific words. Write the general word in the space
provided.

EXAMPLE:
apple, orange, banana, fruit, cherry —fruit

ANSWER: The word fruit is a general word that

can include apple, orange, banana, and
cherry.

1. cake, pie, cookie, cupcake, dessert 1. -

2. sedan, coupe, limousine, automobile, hatchback 2. -

3. dog, poodle, setter, beagle, spaniel 3. -

4. desk, furniture, table, chair, sofa 4. -

Part I. Reading Skills 65

5. hammer, chisel, tool, screwdriver, saw 5.-

6. daffodil, tulip, lily, marigold, flower 6.-

7. game, chess, tennis, volleyball, checkers 7.-

Answers
1. dessert 2. automobile 3. dog 4. furniture 5. tool 6. flower 7. game

In the following passage, use the Question and Answer method to find a general
word that summarizes a list of specific words.

Question 1: Which Word Is the Clue?

In the blank space, write the letter of the correct answer.

On my mother’s pantry shelf, you will find (a) Spices (b) Beans
such items as basil, oregano, ginger, pepper, and (c) Grains (d) Fruits
dill. _ like these help make her the best (e) Recipes
cook in our family.

Answer
Words like these, such, all, and other are often good clues. So are phrases like none of
these. In this passage, the key word is these. It helps tell you that a general word is needed
in the blank—one that includes all the items mentioned in the first sentence. The correct
answer is (a) Spices.

Question 2

Read the following passage and answer the questions at the end.

At the age of 54, Willie Shoemaker won the

Kentucky Derby on a horse named Ferdinand. The
competition was keen, with Badger Land and Snow
Chief, in particular, threatening to win this important
race. These two were favored to win over Ferdinand,
but Willie Shoemaker had other plans.

Ferdinand got off to a poor start and was running

in last place, with other horses blocking the way to the
lead. Shoemaker handled his horse brilliantly. He paced
Ferdinand. He looked for openings and gradually
overtook the leaders. He used the speed of other horses

66 Building Power in Reading and Writing

 to motivate Ferdinand. On the homestretch, he found
daylight. He encouraged Ferdinand to go all out. Such
tactics helped Ferdinand overtake the lead horse and
cross the finish line a winner.

No one had given Shoemaker and Ferdinand much

of a chance to win. But the veteran jockey and the spirited
young horse thrilled the crowd.

KNOW THESE WORDS

keen: difficult; intense

paced: moved at a speed to keep up with other horses
overtook: passed
motivate: encourage
spirited: lively

1. Which of the following titles best summarizes the content of the

passage?

(a) A Good Combination

(&) Left at the Post
(c) An Unexpected Victory
(d) Excitement at the Kentucky Derby 1. -

2. A word that could be substituted for two in the first paragraph is

(a) jockeys (b) thoroughbreds (c) pacers (d) trotters. 2. -

3. Tactics refers to (a) Shoemaker’s plan of action (b) Ferdinand’s

unusual speed (c) Badger Land’s unexpected mistakes (d) Snow
Chief’s poor finish. 3. -

Answers
First read the entire passage. You will notice that the words in 2 and 3 are summa¬
rizing words. They refer to things that have gone before.

1. (c) The heart of the passage is Shoemaker’s upset of the favorites (c). Excitement at
the Kentucky Derby (d) is too broad, while (a) and (b) are too narrow.
2. (b) Two refers to Badger Land and Snow Chief, the competing horses. The only possible
answer is (b).
3. (a) Tactics refers to the ways in which Shoemaker moved up in the pack: pacing Ferdi¬
nand, looking for openings, using the speed of other horses. Ferdinand was indeed
speedy (b), but his speed became part of Shoemaker’s tactics.

Part I. Reading Skills 67

On Your Own

Read the following passage and answer the questions at the end.

Among tennis stars of the past quarter century,

Arthur Ashe stands out, both as a player and as a person.
In 1964, Ashe won the Eastern Grass Championship.
In 1968, he won the National Singles Championship.
A month later, he won the U.S. Open Championship
at Forest Hills. These tournaments were important
milestones for him, but his greatest achievements may
not appear in the record books.

A native of Richmond, Virginia, Arthur Ashe is a

genuinely fine person. He is warm, friendly, relaxed,
totally honest. These personality traits have won him
friends around the world. He once said, “Do I have the
killer instinct? No, sorry. I just don’t have the killer
instinct. I play the game. That’s me. I give it all I’ve
got.”

Ashe has long been associated with the American

Davis Cup team. In 1963, he played on the team that
broke the Australians’ streak of seven straight wins.
Many years later, he came back as the nonplaying leader
of the group, devoted as always to his country and to
tennis.

In victory, he is modest. In defeat, he is mature.

His opponents admire him for his sense of fair play.
Throughout his career, his sportsmanship has made him
a standout among modern athletes.

KNOW THESE WORDS

milestones: important events

genuinely: truly
instinct: feeling
modest: quiet; not bold
mature: gracious

1. Write the letter of the statement that best expresses the main idea.

(a) Arthur Ashe won important championships in 1968.

(b) The Davis Cup team that beat the Australians starred Arthur
Ashe.
(c) Arthur Ashe is a champion who has admirable human quali¬
ties.
(d) It is better to be a good human being than a champion. 1.

68 Building Power in Reading and Writing

2. A word that could be substituted for personality traits in the second
paragraph is (a) actions (b) thoughts (r) statements (d) qualities. 2.

3. In the last paragraph, sportsmanship summarizes all the following

qualities EXCEPT (a) modesty (h) publicity (r) maturity
(d) sense of fair play. 3.

4. From this passage, we may infer that the killer instinct (a) is not
necessary for success (b) was an important ingredient in Arthur
Ashe’s personality (r) makes more friends than enemies
(d) won Arthur Ashe the Eastern Grass Championship in 1964. 4.

5. The Australians ’ streak of seven wins was broken by the American

Davis Cup team in (a) 1963 (b) 1964 (V) 1968 (d) none of these. 5.

Bonus

Read the following passage and answer the questions at the end.

How would you describe Quincy Jones? Is he an

instrumentalist, a composer, an arranger, or a
producer? None of these labels can sum up this remark¬
able man. He has been known for years to people who
follow popular music. But his part in the We Are the World
album and the “Hands Across America” project made
him a national figure.

In addition to these accomplishments, Jones has

written the music for many motion pictures, including
The Color Purple, which won 11 Oscar nominations. He
also wrote the score for Alex Haley’s Roots, a hugely
successful television miniseries. These achievements
show his many-sided genius.

Quincy Jones was born March 14, 1933, on Chica¬

go’s South Side. Ten years later, his family moved to
the Seattle area. It was there that he met Ray Charles,
who was three years older than Jones and who in time
would be a world-famous singer. The young musicians
performed at small clubs and weddings. Through Ray
Charles’s influence, Quincy Jones began composing.

When Jones was only 15, his musical talent

impressed Lionel Hampton, who invited him to join the
Hampton band. Jones was ready to quit school to join,
but Hampton’s wife, Gladys, objected. Believing that
he needed an education, she removed him from the
band’s bus. “Get that child out of here,” she yelled.
“Let him finish school.”

Part I. Reading Skills 69

 These experiences made Quincy Jones more deter¬
mined than ever to succeed. He finished high school,
attended the Berklee College of Music in Boston on a
scholarship, and finally did join Lionel Hampton’s
band. Soon, however, he struck off on his own. The
future beckoned brightly.

KNOW THESE WORDS

remarkable: special; unusual

project: work; task
accomplishments: work done Well; successful efforts
genius: great natural ability
influence: help; example
scholarship: gift of money to use for education

1. Write the letter of the statement that best expresses the main idea.

(a) Lionel Hampton played an important role in the success of

Quincy Jones.
(b) Ray Charles and Quincy Jones became close friends.
(c) A college education is important for success in modern music.
(d) Quincy Jones has had an exciting and successful musical
career.

2. The word labels at the beginning of the selection summarizes all

the following EXCEPT (a) director (b) composer (c) arranger
(d) instrumentalist. 2.

3. Among the achievements mentioned in the second paragraph was

Quincy Jones’s (a) work with Lionel Hampton (b) partnership
with Ray Charles (c) work on Alex Haley’s Roots (d) winning a
scholarship to Berklee College of Music. 3.

4. In insisting that Quincy Jones get off the bus, Gladys Hampton
was actually being (a) cruel (b) indifferent (c) kind (d) selfish. 4.

5. We Are the World is the name of a (a) biography of Quincy Jones

(b) music album (c) song written by Quincy Jones (d) movie. 5.

70 Building Power in Reading and Writing

 9. Studying Cause and Effect

“I changed the oil and adjusted the carburetor. The car ran
much more smoothly.”

Notice that these two sentences are related. The second sentence follows from
the first. The speaker did something. As a result, the car ran better. The first sentence
gives the caupe. The second sentence gives the effect (or result).

Cause: I changed the oil and adjusted the carburetor.

Effect: The car ran much more smoothly.

Cause-to-Effect Order

If you listen closely to conversation, you’ll find many examples of statements

in cause-to-effect order. Some of them are very simple, such as, “I’m tired {cause).
I’m going to bed early (effect).”

Effect-to-Cause Order

Very often the effect is given before the cause. The statements are then in effect-
to-cause order. In these cases, the first statement seems to raise the question,
“Why?”

For example: “Maria demanded an apology. (Why?) She said that Carlos
had left her name off the invitation list.”

Here’s another example:

Effect: Tom received the outstanding-player award. (Why?)

Cause: He had won every match in his senior year.

Practice: Cause and Effect

After each pair of sentences, write C-E if the sentences are in cause-to-effect
order. Write E-C if they are in effect-to-cause order.

1. The Joneses sold their piano. It needed more repairs than they
were willing to make. 1- -
2. Terry had left his bicycle outdoors for a week. The handlebars
became rusty. 2. -
3. Sheila was interviewed by a reporter from WSYR-TV. She had
just returned from a convention of high school newspaper editors
in Washington, D.C. 3. -

Part I. Reading Skills 71

4. A sudden snowstorm struck eastern Colorado. Hundreds of
motorists were stranded on the highways. 4. -
5. Marilyn’s supporters ran an excellent campaign. She easily won
election as class president. 5. -

Answers

1. E-C 2. C-E 3. E-C 4. C-E 5. C-E

Words That Signal Cause-and-Effect Relationships

Sometimes a cause or an effect is shown by a key word or words. There were

no such helpful words in the Practice sentences, but there often will be in longer
passages. Here are two examples:

Cause-to-Effect: Sylvia went to bed early. Consequently, she

missed the fireworks display.

Effect-to-Cause: Mr. Wong changed the lock on the door because

he had lost his key to the old lock.

There are many other words that signal sentences dealing with cause and effect.
Here are a few:

as a result for therefore

by this (that) method hence this
for this (that) reason since this (that) is how
in this (that) way so thus

Use the Question and Answer method for the following sentences. Look for
a key word that helps you see the cause-and-effect relationship.

Question 1: How Do You Find Cause-to-Effect

Relationships?

In the blank space, write the letter of the correct answer.

Shopping malls are usually located a (a) overlooked

distance from the center of cities, far from the (b) reported on
heavy downtown traffic of the localities they (c) organized (d) sold
serve. The malls can therefore be_fairly (ie) reached
easily by automobile.

Answer

The helpful word is therefore in the second sentence. It tells you that the second sentence
is an effect of what is stated in the first sentence. The cause is the location of shopping
malls. The effect (or result) is that malls can be easily (e) reached by car.

72 Building Power in Reading and Writing

Question 2

In each blank space, write the letter of the correct answer.

The film career of Katharine Hepburn has 1. (a) roles

been long and distinguished. She has never (b) interviews
allowed herself to be filmed as a single, (c) theaters (d) fans
unchanging character. For that reason, she has (ie) critics
been able to play a variety of 1._that
challenge the range of her abilities.
/

In her early days, she often played a bright, 2. (a) lessened (b) lost
witty, forceful leading lady. In more recent roles, (c) retained
she has appeared as a sprightly older woman. (d) sought
Throughout her career, she has maintained a (e) rejected
solid reputation as a performer who understands
her craft. As a result, she has 2. _the
respect of the American public and critics alike.

KNOW THESE WORDS

distinguished: famous; outstanding

witty: funny
maintained: kept
craft: special work

Answers
First read the entire passage, which is about Katharine Hepburn and her long career
as an acclaimed movie actress.

1. (a) If she didn’t allow herself to be filmed as an unchanging character, then she took
on a variety of roles. The other choices have nothing to do with her actual perfor¬
mances. For that reason is a clue to cause and effect. The correct answer is (a) roles.
2. (c) Since Hepburn “maintained a solid reputation,” she must have retained, or kept,
the respect of the public and critics. None of the negative choices—lessened, lost,
rejected—makes sense. The cause-and-effect clue is As a result. The only appropriate
answer is (c) retained.

Part I. Reading Skills 73

Question 3

Sometimes cause and effect are tested in other way s. Read the following passage
and answer the questions at the end.

In 1786, Thomas Jefferson urged the United States

to adopt decimal currency, with its dollars and cents.
Previously the British system of pounds, shillings, and
pence had been used, a much more complicated system.
Thirteen years later, during the French Revolution, the
French designed and instituted the metric system. Like
our decimal currency, the metric system is based on the
number 10, not 12 as in inches or 16 as in ounces. In
our system, a yard is 36 inches and a mile is 5280 feet.
In the metric system, a meter is 100 centimeters and a
kilometer is 1000 meters. Adopting the metric system
could have saved the United States untold billions of
dollars in years to come.

KNOW THESE WORDS

decimal: based on the number 10

complicated: difficult; involved
instituted: established; introduced

1. If the United States had adopted the metric system, (a) we would
have regretted the decision (b) runners would not be trying to set
new records for the mile (c) we would have gone back to the old
system quickly (d) we’d still be getting our milk in quarts. 1. -

2. Jefferson’s attitude toward the metric system was probably one

of (a) alarm (b) protest (c) approval (d) indifference. 2. -

Answers

First read the entire passage, which is about the metric system.
1. (b) If the metric system had been adopted, the mile as a measurement would no longer
be used. Note that some races in the United States do use the metric system: 100
meters, five kilometers, etc. If we had saved money, we would not have regretted
the decision (a) nor gone back to the old system (c). We’d not be using the old
measurement quarts (d).
2. (c) This question asks you to carry cause and effect one step further by deciding what
Jefferson would have thought about the metric system. Since Jefferson obviously
approved the metric idea when he suggested the use of dollars and cents, in all
probability he would have approved the metric system of measurements in place
of the illogical and confusing system we still use.

74 Building Power in Reading and Writing

On Your Own

Read the following passage and answer the questions at the end.

A half century ago, a book called How to Win Friends

and Influence People won wide appeal among American
readers. As a result, it kept its incredible popularity for
many years. It still has its readers. The success of this
book should not have surprised the critics, for Ameri¬
cans have always enjoyed self-help and how-to books.

Self-help books attempt to show readers how to

overcome sadness, enjoy life more, find happiness,
become popular, earn a better salary, or become
wealthy. Indeed, some books seem to promise all six
benefits. Self-help books of this kind are concerned with
certain personal goals. The results often cannot really
be measured. “Am I happier now than I was two weeks
ago?” Can you truly tell?

There are, however, books that promise results that

can be seen. These down-to-earth books explain how to
garden successfully, how to catch fish, how to go
camping, how to improve your tennis game, how to use
power tools, how to build a greenhouse, how to do home
repairs, and so on. The list is almost endless, for new
how-to books continue to pour into the bookstores.

KNOW THESE WORDS

century: one hundred years

incredible: great; very unusual
concerned (with): about
goals: targets

1. Which of the following titles best summarizes the content of the

passage?

(a) How to Win Friends and Influence People: A Continuing Best-seller

(b) The Continuing Success of How-to and Self-Help Books
(c) How Books Can Play a Role in Self-Improvement
(,d) Books: A Key to Success in Life 1.

2. We may infer that How to Win Friends and Influence People

(a) made the best-seller lists (b) though widely used, was a financial
disappointment to the author (c) was a flash in the pan, a brief
success (d) was rewritten later as a book on how to manage money. 2.

Part I. Reading Skills 75

3. We may infer that people who read self-help books (a) find their
lives dramatically changed (b) do not bother with how-to books
(c) find the long-term results negative (<i) may or may not benefit
from them. 3

4. Reading how-to books differs from reading self-help books because

(a) self-help books are easier to read (b) self-help books are harder
to read (ej self-help books are usually lighter and more amusing
(d) the results of reading how-to books can be measured. 4

5. All the following how-to skills were mentioned EXCEPT

(a) gardening (b) fishing (c) swimming (d),camping. 5

Bonus

Read the following passage and answer the questions at the end.

Most great singers have had singing lessons since

childhood. Occasionally, though, a great voice comes
through untrained—a voice that is unbelievably,
naturally beautiful. Mahalia Jackson had such a voice.
Without having had a lesson, she was able to captivate
listeners with her magnificent voice that never seemed
strained or forced.

Mahalia Jackson was a gospel singer. She pre¬

ferred to sing hymns rather than operatic arias or
popular songs. Since financial rewards did not concern
her, she rejected many opportunities to become wealthy.
She sang for simple country people and for royalty. But
she never changed her style or her point of view.

At one point, after much urging, her husband

persuaded her to try out for a regular stage role. She
reluctantly paid 25 cents for a song sheet and went to
the audition. The judges offered her the part, for they
were highly impressed. At this point, however, her
husband got a job, and she turned down the offer. She
wanted to go on singing at concerts.

Mahalia Jackson was a down-to-earth person

without a trace of conceit. She considered her mging
talent a gift from God and accepted it humbly. St;~ would
assist box-office clerks and would even help sell tickets
out front, if necessary. Consequently, she was loved by
all her associates.

76 Building Power in Reading and Writing

 Perhaps Mahalia Jackson’s greatest moment was
singing “The Star-Spangled Banner” at President
John F. Kennedy’s inauguration. The national anthem
may never have been sung better.

KNOW THESE WORDS

arias: songs sung by solo voices

audition: hearing to test a singer’s voice
inauguration: ceremony for installing a person in office

1. Write the letter of the statement that best expresses the main idea.

(a) ' Mahalia Jackson had a highly successful career on her own
terms.
(b) Mahalia Jackson’s greatest thrill was singing at President
John F. Kennedy’s inauguration.
(c) Mahalia Jackson could have become a very wealthy woman.
(d) A natural voice is better than a trained one. 1.

2. After all her success, Mahalia Jackson always remained

(a) critical (b) natural (c) shy (d) uncertain. 2.

3. As used in paragraph 1, captivate means (a) bore (b) arouse

(c) enchant (d) calm. 3.

4. As used in paragraph 3, reluctantly means (a) gratefully (b) joyfully

(c) carefully (d) unwillingly. 4.

5. If Mahalia saw that a young singer was very nervous before a

concert, she would probably (a) amuse her (b) cheer her
(c) ignore her (d) rehearse her. 5-

Part I. Reading Skills 77

 10. Studying Sequence
The Importance of Logical Sequence

In telling a story or explaining a process, the sentences must be in order. They must
be in sequence. Look at the following sentences:

We removed all the old paint from the table. Then we

covered the wood with a clear varnish to show the beautiful oak
grain.
\
The first sentence tells about an action. The second sentence describes what
follows the first action. You couldn’t reverse the two steps or the two sentences.
If you did, you would apply the varnish before removing the old finish!

There are a number of clues to look for when you’re working with sequence.

Practice: Using Sequence

In each blank space, write the letter of the correct answer.

The polls closed at 9:00 P.M. Soon after 1. [a) reject (b) lie
that, television reporters began to 1._the about (r) forget
results. Townsend and Pruitt at first seemed to (d) announce
be running very close in the race for mayor. (e) try out
Then, as the results from more and more voting
places came in, Townsend began to pull away 2. (a) ignored
fromhisrival. By midnight itwas all over. Pruitt, (b) challenged
realizing he had lost, 2._his opponent. (c) defeated
(d) laughed at
(e) congratulated

Answers

1. (d) When the polls closed and the results came pouring in, television reporters would
give totals and announce the results. That is the usual sequence of events.
2. (e) A candidate who wins by a large margin will usually be congratulated by the loser.

Notice the clues to sequence in the Practice test. Words and phrases like after,
then, and by midnight help you keep track of the sequence of events on election night.
There are many such words that show the order in which things happen. Here are
a few:

after finally next

as soon as first second
at last later then
before meanwhile while

78 Building Power in Reading and Writing

Question 1: What Are the Clues to Sequence?

Read the following passage and answer the question at the end.

Thompson was a success from the first. As a law

clerk, he attracted the attention of the senior partner and
was promoted within a month. He kept rising higher
and higher in the firm until he reached the zenith of his
career, full partner.
-7---

The sequence of events tells us that zenith means (a) midpoint (b) modest
success (c) highest point (d) end.

Your answer 1: _
Answer

The use of success, promoted, and then higher and higher suggests that Thompson’s career
was on a steadily upward curve. The answer is highest point (c).

Question 2

Read the following passage and answer the questions at the end.

Peggy Fleming was one of the world’s great figure

skaters. The story of her achievements is a long list of
triumphs in major international competitions. In 1960,
at the age of 12, she won her first title, the Pacific Coast
juvenile figure skating championship. Her success
continued when, a year later, she won an influential
women’s competition on the West Coast. The impor¬
tance of her victories continued to escalate.

Fleming looked forward to the 1964 Olympics.

There, at the age of 15, she placed sixth among the
greatest amdteur figure skaters in the world. After the
Olympics, she added title after title to her string of victo¬
ries. She won the U.S. title at Lake Placid, New York,
in February 1965. But national recognition was not
enough. She kept moving up the ladder from national
to international fame.

Peggy Fleming captured five straight national

championships, but her greatest goal was to win at the
Olympics in 1968. That year, in Grenoble, France, she
skated out on the ice for the beginning of her most presti¬
gious competition. She skated with perfect grace and
form, taking the gold medal that had been her dream
and her ambition.

Part I. Reading Skills 79

 KNOW THESE WORDS

major: important
juvenile: young person
amateur: not professional
recognition: praise
ambition: goal

1. Which of the following titles best summarizes the content of the

passage?

(a) Peggy Fleming: World-Class Figure Skater

(b) The Joys and Sorrows of Figure Skating
(r) The Importance of Victory in the Olympic Games
(d) Peggy Fleming’s Recipe for a Successful Career in Skating 1. -

2. The sequence of preceding events suggests that escalate means

(a) make nervous (b) lessen (c) grow rapidly (d) remain. 2. -

3. As used in paragraph 3, prestigious means (a) undesired

(b) graceful (c) nerve-wracking (d) influential. 3. -

4. It can be said of Peggy Fleming that (a) her dream came true
(b) her competition was weak (c) she reached the top too soon
(id) her success was due more to hard work than natural ability. 4. -

5. National recognition was not enough for Peggy Fleming because

it was too (a) late in coming (b) local (c) little advertised
(d) easy. 5. -

Answers

First read the entire passage, which tells about Peggy Fleming’s success as an amateur
figure skater. If you understand the whole passage, you will do better on the individual
items.
1. (a) The passage is all about the achievements of Peggy Fleming. The correct title should
include her name. We can eliminate (b) and (r). Choice (d) is not implied. The
passage doesn’t give us her recipe.
2. (r) Since Peggy has been winning, we have a sequence of victories. Thus, escalate must
mean grow rapidly (c).
3. (d) All events have been leading to the Olympics. Prestigious must mean influential (d).
4. (a) Peggy started young and obviously had the dream of winning the figure-skating
event in the Olympics. When she did, we can be sure her dream had come true.
5. (b) National recognition is contrasted with international fame in the next sentence.
We may assume, then, that Peggy thought winning national titles was good but
limited. Local (b) is the correct answer.

80 Building Power in Reading and Writing

On Your Own

Read the following passage and answer the questions at the end.

On July 4, 1986, Americans celebrated the Statue

of Liberty’s 100th birthday. Parades, speeches,
fireworks, and other activities contributed to the gaiety
of the occasion. The celebration caused reporters and
columnists to look back a century to the similar jubila¬
tion that marked the dedication of the statue.

The Statue of Liberty was dedicated in 1886, but

the story begins earlier. The idea for a statue was first
suggested at a dinner party by Edouard de Laboulaye,
a French historian. A guest at the party was Frederic
Auguste Bartholdi, a young sculptor.

Most people who attended the dinner party soon

forgot the idea, but Laboulaye and Bartholdi remem¬
bered. In 1871, Bartholdi came to the United States to
interest Americans in a statue that would link France
and the United States in friendship. Many people in
France had already been convinced and had contributed
money to the project. Americans were also persuaded
to donate to a fund for the statue. Much of the money
came from schoolchildren.

After the idea had been accepted, Bartholdi set to

work. Fie toiled for many years. His friend Laboulaye
died before the statue was completed. At last, in 1885,
the statue was sent to the United States. It had to be
shipped in sections and then assembled.

From that time on, 1886, the Statue of Liberty has

stood as a symbol of freedom to millions of immigrants
entering New York Harbor.

KNOW THESE WORDS

gaiety: joy
occasion: event
dedication: official opening
persuaded: asked
immigrants: persons who move into a country to live

Part I. Reading Skills 81

1. Which of the following titles best summarizes the content of the
passage?

(a) Frederic Auguste Bartholdi, Sculptor

(b) The 100th Birthday of the Statue of Liberty
(c) The Story of the Statue of Liberty
(d) How Schoolchildren Made the Statue of Liberty Possible 1

2. The sequence of preceding events suggests that jubilation means

(a) announcements (b) disputes (ej pride (d) rejoicing. 2

3. Bartholdi made his first trip to the United States to talk about the
Statue of Liberty in (a) 1865 (b) 1871 (c) 1885 (d) 1886. 3
V

4. Which of the following statements is NOT true?

(a) The 100th birthday of the Statue of Liberty was celebrated

in 1986.
(b) Edouard de Laboulaye was on hand when the Statue of Liberty
was dedicated.
(c) Schoolchildren contributed a great deal of money to the Statue
of Liberty.
(d) The Statue of Liberty stands in New York Harbor. 4

5. The Statue of Liberty was shipped in sections because (a) it was

too large (b) the United States had better means of assembling it
than France (c) the completed statue was to be a surprise for Ameri¬
cans {d) assembling it cost less in the United States. 5

Bonus

Read the following passage and answer the questions at the end.

“The Martians are coming. ’ ’ Science fiction stories

often show the United States threatened by aliens from
outer space. Such aliens are fanciful dangers, but there
are very real invaders that menace our well-being. These
are insect pests that cross our borders on vegetable
matter from foreign countries.

A traveler arrives at John F. Kennedy Interna¬

tional Airport from the Dominican Republic. She has
brought in a beautiful, ripe mango, pleasing to look at
and delicious to eat. The federal inspector at the airport
immediately confiscates the fruit. When the lady
protests, he points to two tiny punctures in the smooth
surface of the fruit. He digs his knife into each puncture
and exposes a worm. He explains that the worm is
actually the larva of a Caribbean fruit fly. The larvae
from this mango could become full-fledged flies,
extremely dangerous to crops.

82 Building Power in Reading and Writing

 In just five hours of an average day, the inspector
takes from arriving passengers hundreds of fruits and
seeds, from tiny peppercorns to large coconuts. These
are loaded with harmful insects, snails, and other
undesirable intruders.

The arriving pests are often more dangerous in the

United States than they are in their native countries.
They have left behind their natural enemies and are
ready to go wild in the lush farmland and orchards of
the United States. A bug may be completely harmless
abroad and a deadly threat here.

Some of the deadly pests that arrived in the past are

the San Jose scale, the cotton boll weevil, the gypsy moth,
the Japanese beetle, and the Dutch elm fungus.

In 1980, the Medfly arrived in the Santa Clara

Valley of California and set off a nightmare chain of
events. The flies probably arrived as larvae in a piece
of fruit. Farmers panicked as they imagined their
precious crops destroyed. Helicopters began spraying
insecticide over 1300 square miles weekly. Residents
worried about their health. Governor Edmund G.
Brown, Jr., was criticized for spraying too much and
spraying too little. It took two years and $100 million
to eradicate the fly. It could have been worse. If the
Medfly had been allowed to go unchecked, it would have
infested 80% of the U.S. citrus crop at a loss of more
than half a billion dollars in sales.

With the increase in air travel, the job of preventing

unwanted pests from infesting our country gets more
difficult. Inspectors cannot allow airline passengers and
cargoes from other countries to bring dangerous
invaders to our country.

KNOW THESE WORDS

aliens: outsiders
fanciful: imaginary
menace: threaten
larva: immature form of an insect (plural: larvae)
full-fledged: grown-up; adult
intruders: invaders
lush: fertile; rich
panicked: became terrified
insecticide: substance used to kill insects
unchecked: not stopped

Part I. Reading Skills 83

1. Write the letter of the statement that best expresses the main
idea.

(a) Science fiction can alert us to dangers from outside.

(b) The Medfly is an extremely dangerous insect pest.
(c) Inspectors at John F. Kennedy International Airport do a
good job.
(d) Insect invaders from other countries are a constant threat.

2. As used in paragraph 2, confiscates means (a) takes away

(b) inspects (c) tastes (d) discusses.

3. As used in paragraph 6, eradicate means (a) understand

(b) analyze (c) destroy (d) locate.

4. As used in paragraph 7, infesting means (a) surrounding

(b) overrunning (c) arousing (d) discovering.

5. The Martians are mentioned at the beginning of the passage

to (a) begin the thought about invaders (b) arouse greater interest
in science fiction (c) show that Martians don’t really exist
(d) suggest that Martians are a greater threat than insect
invaders.

6. The mango mentioned in the article came from

(a) California (b) the Dominican Republic (c) the Santa Clara
Valley (d) the Netherlands.

7. When an insect pest arrives here from abroad, (a) the natural
balance of nature is destroyed (b) native birds immediately keep
the new insect in check (c) it is usually sprayed by helicopter
(d) it is seldom discovered by plant inspectors.

8. It could reasonably be said that Governor Brown of California

(a) started the spraying too early (b) started the spraying too late
(c) used far too much insecticide (d) couldn’t avoid criticism.

9. The people in California worried about their health because of

(a) unripe fruit (b) the danger from stinging flies (c) the spraying
(d) the anger of the farmers.

10. All the following are mentioned as serious foreign pests

EXCEPT (a) the gypsy moth (b) the cotton boll weevil
(c) the chestnut blight (d) the Dutch elm fungus.

84 Building Power in Reading and Writing

 11. Understanding Figurative
Language

Dan is seven feet tall.

Dan is a giant.
Dan is as tall as a giant.
When Dan stands up, clouds gather around his head.
'The fellows all call Dan The Peak.
Chuck calls seven-foot-tall Dan Shorty.

There is a great difference between the first statement above and all the rest.
The first is a straightforward, literal statement. It means what it says. The others
are examples of figurative language, or figures of speech. Dan isn’t actually a
giant, nor is he as tall as a giant. When he stands up, clouds don’t really gather
around his head. Calling him The Peak is a not-quite-accurate description. Dan is
tall, but not that tall. And calling a tall man Shorty is certainly not accurate either!

Why do you often use figurative language, which describes things as they really
aren’t? Is it a kind of lying? Is it careless, inaccurate speech? Not at all! Figurative
language helps make what you say more vivid. It adds power, humor, and feeling
to your speech. While literal language just tells the facts, figurative language lights
up those facts and makes them colorful.

Comparison is the basis of most figurative language, as in the first three

examples following.

Simile: The salesperson was as persistent as a mosquito.

(A simile compares things by using the words like or as. The salesperson is
compared with a mosquito.)

Metaphor: Cheryl tossed Peter a warning glance.

(A metaphor compares things without using like or as. Cheryl’s act of glancing
is compared with tossing a ball.)

Personification: Duty shouldn’t whisper but shout.

(In personification, something is compared to a person by giving it human quali¬
ties. Here, duty is compared with a person who can whisper and shout.)

Hyperbole: When Carla saw Jim’s Halloween costume, she nearly died laughing.
(Hyperbole is a form of exaggeration, often humorous. Nearly died is an exagger¬
ation. Carla was not really near death.)

There are other types of figurative language, but those just listed are most
common.

Metaphor is the most common of all. It exists in all your conversations and
friendly letters. It is everywhere, though you rarely recognize it. Note the following
examples of metaphor.

Part I. Reading Skills 85

 The light in her eyes went out when she heard the news.
Juan doesn’t want to shoulder any more burdens.
I slipped a little in math last month but shot up in English.
After the test, Donna wanted to unwind in the swimming pool.
I caught a cold overnight and took two weeks to lose it.
Shy Emma dropped a blockbuster into the conversation.
Bud is a lion on the football field but a mouse in class.

Practice 1: Identifying Figurative Expressions

V

Which of the following sentences contain a figurative expression? Write each

figurative expression.
V

1. Sheila has been chosen president of our class. 1.

2. Drop me a note when you get home. 2.

3. When his arguments are challenged, Ben is a rock. 3.

4. The school bus was late this morning. 4.

5. From the air, the farmland of the Midwest looked like a

giant checkerboard. 5.

Answers

Let’s examine the possible answers.

1. This is a literal statement of fact.
2. Drop is a physical action. Here it is used figuratively, as though a note can physically
be dropped.
3. Ben isn’t really a rock. He is figuratively said to resemble a rock in an argument.
4. This is a literal statement of fact.
5. The farmland is being compared figuratively with a checkerboard. It is not a checkerboard.

Practice 2: Completing Figurative Statements

Write the answer that most appropriately completes each statement.

1. Juan was as carefree as a (a) child in a meadow of flowers

(b) high school senior before an examination (r) tiger
stalking its prey (d) customer at a supermarket. 1. _

2. The new houses sprang up like (a) water over the dam
(b) plants in a drought (c) dandelions after a spring shower
(d) a circus parade. 2. _

3. The balloon fell as slowly as (a) a rain of hail (b) a feather

fluttering down on a still afternoon (c) a train slowly puffing
out of a station (d) the flow of lava during a volcanic
eruption. 3, _

4. Pam was as unpredictable as (a) a soap opera (b) moonrise

over a lake (c) her sister (d) lightning. 4. _

86 Building Power in Reading and Writing

5. Tony looked as forlorn as (a) the last leaf on the tree (b) a
surfer at the beach (r) a tree in the forest (of) a singer at a
concert. 5. __

Answers

Let’s examine the possible answers.

Although alternative choices may be made, the following answers are probably most
appropriate. If you have a good reason for choosing another, state it. This is partly a matter
of taste. The value lies in the discussion.

1. (a) A child is likely to be carefree in a meadow of flowers. A high school senior is more
likely to be nervous than carefree before an examination (b). A tiger stalking its
prey is tense and concentrated (c). A customer at a supermarket is likely to be
concentrating on prices and products (d).
2. (c) Dandelions spring up quickly after a spring shower. The other alternatives are
inappropriate.
3. (6) The slow descent of the balloon is closest to the slow descent of a feather. Hail doesn’t
fall slowly (a). The comparison of a lumbering train with a balloon is farfetched
(c). Lava doesn’t fall; it flows (d).
4. (d) Of all the possibilities, lightning is the most unpredictable.
5. (a) The last leaf on the tree, lonely and battered by weather, looks forlorn. The other
examples do not fit.

Question

Read the following passage and answer the questions at the end.

There is one kind of story that is a perennial favorite

of readers as well as television and movie viewers.
Westerns rise and fall in popularity. Science fiction has
its day in the sun and then fades for a time. But spy stories
seem to be always with us. Secret operatives of the CIA,
the KGB, and other alphabetical agencies cross swords
with each other in their never-ending quest for secrets
of the other side.

There is an incredible real-life story connected with

World War I. The heroes of this story were not trained
agents and double agents. They were simple people who
never carried a weapon or went in disguise in enemy
territory. They were Belgian railway workers.

In 1914, Germans overran Belgium and occupied

the country. They replaced Belgian stamps with German
stamps, but to identify the country of use they printed
Belgien over the original stamps. Along with the country
overprint was the denomination—for example, 8 Cent.
These overprints gave Belgian patriots the opportunity
to act as spies in the middle of the enemy.

Parti. Reading Skills 87

 Railway workers were in the .perfect position to
observe troop movements. They knew how many troop
trains were on the way to the front, but they had to find
a way to notify others. They devised a code that was a
marvel of ingenuity and one almost impossible to spot.
They inked in portions of the overprint to indicate what
was happening. Filling in the top of the B in Belgien, for
example, indicated a train was on the way to the front.
Filling in the e of Cent indicated it was a heavy artillery
unit.

Thirteen overprint modifications were used to

convey a great deal of useful information. The stamps
were eventually forwarded to the ringleaders in Brussels,
who organized the information and passed it to France
and Britain through a neutral nation.

After a time, the German authorities began to

suspect something was afoot, but they were powerless
to stop the scheme. They hadn’t the time to screen tens
of thousands of postcards each day in search of tiny dots
and smudges. By the end of the war, more than 16,000
pieces of information had been successfully transmitted
to the Allies. The brilliant spies were just ordinary
people.

KNOW THESE WORDS

operatives: secret agents

devised: invented; made up
ingenuity: cleverness
convey: pass along
afoot: happening

1. Write the letter of the statement that best expresses the main
idea of the passage.

(a) Simple railway workers outwitted German authorities in

World War I.
(b) Spies usually use postage stamps for transmitting infor¬
mation.
(c) German authorities overprinted their own stamps for use
in Belgium.
(d) Spies must be clever to survive. 1.

88 Building Power in Reading and Writing

2. Which of the following sentences contains a figurative expres¬
sion?

(a) They were Belgian railway workers.

(b) Westerns rise and fall in popularity.
(r) They inked in portions of the overprint to indicate what was
happening.
(d) They replaced Belgian stamps with German stamps. 2.

3. Which of the following sentences contains a figurative expres¬

sion?
*

(a) Secret operatives cross swords with each other.

(b) The heroes of this story were not trained agents and double
agents.
(c) They were simple people who never carried a weapon or
went in disguise in enemy territory.
(d) Filling in the e of OnGndicated it was a heavy artillery unit. 3.

4. The expression “Science fiction has its day in the sun” means
that science fiction (a) usually deals with the solar system (b) is
more popular on television than in the movies (c) is unusually
popular for a time (d) celebrates the anniversary of the first
successful science fiction series on television. 4.

5. Filling in the e of Cent meant that (a) a train with prisoners was
passing through (b) the train was a heavy artillery unit (c) a
hospital train was passing through (d) a train was headed back
to Germany. 5.

6. The strength of the code was its (a) use of several different code
books (b) use by the Germans (c) simplicity (d) limited use. 6.

7. The use of screen in “the time to screen tens of thousands of

postcards” is an example of (a) simile (b) personification
(c) exaggeration (d) metaphor. 7.

8. As used in paragraph 1, perennial means (a) unusual (b) fanciful

(c) timely (d) long-lasting. 8.

9. As used in paragraph 1, quest means (a) trip (b) search (c) excite¬
ment (d) advertisement. 9.

10. As used in paragraph 5, modifications means (a) numbers

(b) changes (c) communications (d) stamps. 10.

Part I. Reading Skills 89

Answers
Let’s examine the possible answers.

1. (a) The main idea should make the point that the railway workers outwitted the
authorities. Choices (b) and (c) are important details, but not the main idea. Choice
(d) is too general.
2. (b) The figurative expression is rise and fall. Westerns do not physically rise and fall.
3. (a) The figurative expression is cross swords. The operatives don’t actually use swords
when they oppose each other.
4. (c) To have a day in the sun is a figurative expression meaning to be popular (in the
sun) for a short time (a day).
5. (b) This is a detail specifically mentioned in this sentence: “Filling in the e of Cent
indicated it was a heavy artillery unit.”
6. (c) The code was so simple but so difficult to'control that it succeeded where a more
complicated code might have failed.
7. (d) A comparison without like or as is a metaphor. In the expression, checking each
of the many postcards is compared with passing them through a screen, or grid,
that could separate out those bearing a code.
8. (d) If the other stories rise and fall in popularity, perennial must mean long-lasting.
9. (b) If the operatives were after secrets, quest must mean search.
10. (b) Since different ways of sending messages are mentioned, modifications must mean
changes.

On Your Own

Read the following passage and answer the questions at the end.

“I can’t play any musical instrument!” This sad

comment, often heard in otherwise musical families, is
an untruth. The reality is that there is one musical
instrument that everyone can play: the kazoo. If there
were an advertisement for openings in a kazoo band, it
would have to say, “No talent needed.” As Barbara
Stewart, kazoo authority,. says, “It takes about four
seconds to learn. For slow learners, it may take six
seconds.”

Nearly everyone is familiar with the kazoo, “an

open-ended tube with a membrane-covered side hole. ’ ’
Many people have, at one time or other, actually played
a kazoo. As writer Ben Fanton has said, “It has often
been used as a stocking-stuffer at Christmastime by
parents who’ve deeply regretted their action about an
hour after sunrise on Christmas morning.” The father
may hit the roof, but the kids play blissfully on.

Some people take the kazoo seriously. Barbara

Stewart is not one of them, though she collects kazoos
in all shapes, sizes, and in many different materials. She
is a professional kazooist, who has formed “the world’s

90 Building Power in Reading and Writing

 largest kazoo quartet. ’ ’ It’s the largest because it actually
has five members! Members of the group have, at times,
been serious music students, but when they join the
group, fun conquers all. Her group is dressed formally
in tuxedos—but is barefooted! The group has appeared
on the Tonight show; Good Morning, America; PM Magazine',
and other television programs. The performers poke fun
at serious music. At their performances, audience
members enter into the spirit of fun and throw socks at
them. “I got a nice pair of argyles once,” Barbara
proudly declares.

Despite her fun with the kazoo, Barbara Stewart

has a serious reply when asked why people should bother
with the kazoo. “It’s fun! People are ready for a good
time, and it’s a good-times instrument. Everybody can
do it, and a lot of people have wanted to do something
musical and have gone through the dreadful experience
of grade-school music where they are asked please not
to sing. Playing the kazoo brings out creativity.”

Indeed, throughout the country, senior citizens

form kazoo bands that entertain the ill in nursing homes
and perform in shopping malls and other places of
assembly. To see the look of intense concentration and
satisfaction on the faces of these performers is to realize
that the kazoo has a place in music.

If you’d like to become a kazoo performer yourself,

you may benefit from the advice offered by Barbara
Stewart. “Practice, practice, practice . . . but not near
the neighbors.”

KNOW THESE WORDS

blissfully: happily
argyles: variety of socks
creativity: originality

1. Which of the following titles best summarizes the content of the

passage?

(a) Barbara Stewart and Her Kazoo Band

(b) The Kazoo: An Instrument for Everyone
(c) The Kazoo: A Favorite Gift at Christmas
(d) How to Collect Kazoos 1-

2. The figurative expression hit the roof means (a) dent the ceiling
(b) play the kazoo loudly (c) become very angry (d) speak softly. 2.

Part I. Reading Skills 91

3. An example of personification is the expression (a) audience members
throw socks (b) “I can’t play any musical instrument” (c) Barbara Stewart
has a serious reply (d) fun conquers all. 3

4. An example of figurative language is the expression (a) poke fun

(b) members throw socks (c) Barbara proudly declares (<7) senior citizens form
kazoo bands. 4

5. All the following television programs were mentioned in the

passage EXCEPT (a) PM Magazine (b) Good Morning, America
(c) the Today show (d) the Tonight show. 5

6. Parents at Christmas may regret their choice of stocking-stuffer

because of (a) expense (b) fights (c) disappointments (d) noise. 6

7. Calling the group of five “the world’s largest kazoo quartet” is

intended to (a) annoy (b) amuse (c) provoke (d) calm. 7

Bonus

Read the following passage and answer the questions at the end.

When your grandfather was a boy, he probably took

your grandmother to an ice-cream parlor. Here, for little
more than a dime, he could treat the young lady to an
ice-cream soda, a sundae, a malted milk, or some other
delightful dessert. Probably, the ice-cream parlor was
situated in a corner of a drugstore. It had marble
counters and metal gooseneck arms that dispensed
carbonated bubbly water. There were containers of
many kinds of syrups. The person behind the counter
was called a soda jerk. He was the master of such delightful
concoctions as the brown cow, a root-beer soda with ice
cream floating in it.

The name soda water tells something of its origins.

Naturally carbonated water flows out of the ground in
mineral springs around the world. These mineral
springs have long lured people in search of a cure for
indigestion or other ills. Then in 1767, the scientist
Joseph Priestley created the first soda water not taken
from natural mineral springs. Soon other experimenters
were finding new ways to create the bubbly water that
is the basis of so many soft drinks. In 1825, Elias Durand
decided to tap the public interest in sparkling waters.
He opened a drugstore in Philadelphia that served
carbonated water, at that time still considered a helpful
medicine.

92 Building Power in Reading and Writing

 A few years later, another Philadelphian, Eugene
Roussel, decided to bottle soda water of different flavors.
His first offering was a popular lemon soda, sold at the
fountain of his perfume shop. Other manufacturers
entered the race, and new flavors were introduced.
Meanwhile, at soda fountains, enterprising owners
added sweet cream to make the drink more appetizing.

Then came one of the most important events in the

history of soda water. In October 1874 at the semicen¬
tennial celebration of Philadelphia’s Franklin Institute,
a concessionaire named Robert Green sold so many
soda-water drinks with cream that he ran out of cream.
He rushed to a nearby shop to buy some vanilla ice
cream. He planned to melt the ice cream and use it as
cream. His customers were too thirsty to wait, and so
he put the ice cream right into the soda water. The ice¬
cream soda was born. It has never lost its popularity.

Not far away, Charles E. Hires was experimenting

with selling dried roots, bark, herbs, and flowers for
making a drink he called root beer. He also made his own.
By 1892, more than two million bottles of his soft drink
were being sold annually. Then came a host of other
drinks: Moxie, Dr. Pepper, and Coca-Cola. When the
Eighteenth Amendment forbade the sale of alcoholic
beverages, the soft-drink market exploded.

The soft-drink market today is a gigantic business,

with many competitors pushing their wares on television
and in newspapers and magazines. There are still many
fast-food places where ice-cream sodas may be ordered.
There are soft-drink dispensing machines in every
corner of the land. But the old-time ice-cream parlor in
a corner of a drugstore is largely a thing of the past.

KNOW THESE WORDS

situated: located; placed

dispensed: poured out
concoctions: combinations of materials
lured: tempted
semicentennial: occurring after fifty years
concessionaire: owner of a refreshment stand
wares: things for sale

Part I. Reading Skills 93

1. Which of the following titles best summarizes the content of the
passage?

(a) Why the Soft-Drink Industry Is Popular in Hot Climates

(b) The Invention of Carbonated Water
(c) A Historic Moment in the History of Soda Water
(d) The Story of Soda Water and the Ice-Cream Parlor 1

2. An example of figurative language is the expression (a) ice-cream

soda (b) carbonated water (c) gooseneck arms (d) popular lemon soda. 2

3. An example of figurative language is the expression (a) tap the public

interest (b) soda-water drinks with cream (c) many kinds of syrups
(d) helpful medicine. 3

4. The soft-drink market exploded means (a) the sale of soft drinks fell off
(b) soft drinks were suddenly more popular than ever (c) only
certain kinds of soda were popular (d) Americans preferred fast-
food shops to ice-cream parlors. 4

5. As used in paragraph 3, enterprising means (a) adventurous

(b) wealthy (c) worried (d) nervous. 5

6. The first drugstore with a soda fountain was opened by (a) Joseph
Priestley (b) Elias Durand (c) Robert Green (d) Charles E. Hires. 6

7. The author of this passage would probably (a) disapprove of Robert

Green’s actions (b) prefer root beer to lemon soda (c) like to see
ice-cream parlors return (d) hope for ajob advertising soft drinks. 7

8. The ice-cream soda was born (a) in 1825 (b) through the genius
of Charles E. Hires (c) by accident (d) in a drugstore. 8

94 Building Power in Reading and Writing

 12. Distinguishing Fact from Opinion

Hank Aaron is the record holder for most home runs in a career.

Hank Aaron is the greatest baseball player who ever lived.

How similar these two statements are, yet how different! Both sentences make
statements. Both use the verb is to make the statements. Both are talking about
Hank Aaron, a major league baseball player. But the similarity stops there. The
first sentence is a statement of fact. It can be checked by a glance at the record
books. The second is a statement of opinion. It cannot be checked or verified. You
may well agree with the second statement and say, “Yes, that’s true.” But there
is a world of difference between the greatest baseball player and a baseball record holder.

“Well, that’s pretty obvious,” you’re probably saying. When you look at two
sentences side by side, you can see the differences. But surprisingly enough, in
everyday living, opinions are often accepted as fact. There is nothing wrong with
having or listening to opinions. The danger is that you may confuse an opinion
with a fact.

People will argue for hours about who is the best quarterback in professional
football or who is the greater president, George Washington or Abraham Lincoln.
Now these arguments may bring out a lot of factual information, but they can never
be resolved. The answers are all opinions.

Statements of opinion can be interesting and informative, but they can also
cause confusion and even harm. “Georgette is a snob.” “Juan is conceited.”
“Maureen is thoughtless. ’ ’ “Dave is stingy. ’ ’ Labeling people can be an especially
dangerous habit, since people are far too complicated for easy tags. Nobody can
avoid using occasional labels, but speakers and listeners should recognize these
labels for what they are—opinions, NOT statements of fact.

Some opinions are better than others. If Dave often avoids paying his fair
share, the label stingy may seem appropriate. But there may be financial reasons
for Dave’s actions, situations you know nothing about. If you wanted to be a bit
more careful, you might say, “At times, Dave holds back on paying his fair share
and seems to me to be stingy. ’ ’ This is, at least, a more accurate way of analyzing
the situation. It talks about Dave’s actions, identifies your opinion, and doesn’t
make a flat statement about his character.

Certain kinds of words characterize opinions as opposed to factual statements.

There are emotional, “loaded” words like pleasant, disagreeable, likable, fussy, silly,
careless, uninformed. There are easy labels like genius, fool, tattletale, and chatterbox.
There are judgment words like greatest, best, worst, stupid, and boring. There are
sweeping words, all-or-nothing words like always, never, nobody, everybody, all, and
none.

If you want to experience judgment words in action, listen to television or

movie critics on television. Their criticisms are loaded with personal judgments,
opinions rather than statements of fact. If you generally share your favorite review¬
er’s taste, you will probably find his or her opinions helpful. But they are still
opinions.
Part I. Reading Skills 95
Practice: Identifying Opinions and Factual Statements

Tell whether each of the following is a factual statement or an opinion. Write

F for a fact and 0 for an opinion.

1. The potato, the pumpkin, and the pineapple originally came from
South America. 1- -

2. The Incas of South America were the greatest farmers the world
has ever known. 2. -

3. In 1795, Napoleon offered a prize for a practical way of preserving

food. 3. -

4. A French inventor, Nicholas Appert, devised the process of

canning. 4. -

5. Modern freezing methods of preserving food are better than

canning or bottling. 5. -

Answers
Let’s examine the possible answers.
1. This is a factual statement. Note that a statement may be in factual form and yet be
in error. “The potato, the pumpkin, and the pineapple originally came from Europe”
is a statement in factual form. It can be checked and shown to be erroneous.
2. This is a statement of opinion. Note that an opinion may be one that nearly everyone
agrees with, but it is still an opinion. Most Americans would agree with the following
statement: “The United States is the best country in the world to live in.” Though
an excellent statement for most of us, it is still an opinion.
3. This is a factual statement that can be checked for accuracy.
4. This, too, is a factual statement capable of verification.
5. The word better is strictly a judgment word. This is an opinion.

Question

Read the following passage and answer the questions at the end.

What is pitch? Technically speaking, pitch is the

position of a tone in the musical scale. It is determined
by the frequency of vibration of the source of the tone.
In everyday terms, pitch is characterized by such terms
as low and high. If you fill ajar with water, you can hear
the change in pitch. At first the sound is low, but it
gradually becomes higher as the jar is filled. Similarly,
if you hear a train approach, its whistle gets higher and
higher until the train passes you. Then the pitch gets
lower as the train pulls away.

Pitch is measured by the number of vibrations, or

cycles, per second. If the pitch of a sound is too high or

96 Building Power in Reading and Writing

too low, the human ear cannot hear the sound. Older
people tend to “lose” higher-pitched sounds. Dog
whistles, which cannot be heard by the human ear, prove
that dogs can hear higher-pitched sounds than we can.

In the musical scale, the pitch of the note A is very

important. All the musical instruments are tuned, or
adjusted, in relation to an A. It is therefore very impor¬
tant to standardize the pitch of that note.

In 1810 at the Paris Opera, the note A had stood

at 423 cycles per second but had climbed to 431.7 by
1822. Singers insisted that the latter number raised the
pitch beyond their ability to sing. The pitch was tempo¬
rarily lowered to 425.8. Then the number began to creep
up again, reaching449 in 1855. Accordingto one writer,
“This was, until recently, the horrifying standard of the
Berlin Philharmonic.”

In 1858, the French government set up a commis¬

sion of musicians and scientists to establish some kind
of agreement. The commission settled upon an A of 435
cycles per second. An international conference at Vienna
accepted this decision in 1889. This was indeed a major
achievement of far-reaching importance.

Did the decision settle the problem for all time? No.
Deviations began to creep in, and A moved upward
again. As it approached 450 cycles per second, Adelina
Patti, at the end of the 19th century, led a singers’
protest. In response to the protest, London pitch was
reduced to 435.5, a drop of more than a quarter tone.
The A of most symphony and opera orchestras today
ranges between 440 and 444.

In general, the pitch of A has been rising since the

time of Mozart and Beethoven, when A stood between
415 and 429. When opera fans now hear Mozart’s The
Magic Flute, they are hearing the entire piece as much
as a half tone higher than in Mozart’s time. A modern-
day soprano has to soar to F over high C, but an 18th-
century soprano had to go no higher than the note we
hear as E. As Donald Henahan comments, “For some
voices that could be enough of a difference to shorten
careers.”

“Modern-day sound is more beautiful than the

sound of 200 years ago,” say some critics. True, raising
the pitch of A often brings brilliant, memorable sounds,
but it can place a terrible burden on singers.

Part I. Reading Skills 97

 KNOW THESE WORDS

deviations: differences
memorable: worth remembering

1. Which of the following titles best summarizes the content of the

passage?

(a) Musical Pitch: A Movable Standard

(b) How Musical Pitch Was Finally Standardized
(c) The Leadership of France in Determining Pitch
(d) Why Singers Have Problems with High Notes

V
2. Which of the following is an opinion?

(a) Pitch is the position of a tone in the musical scale.

(b) Older people tend to “lose” higher-pitched sounds.
(c) This was indeed a major achievement of far-reaching impor¬
tance.
(,d) If the pitch of a sound is too high or too low, the human ear
cannot hear the sound.

3. Which of the following is an opinion?

(a) In 1810 at the Paris Opera, A had stood at 423.

(b) Pitch is measured by the number of vibrations per second.
(c) The A of most symphony and opera orchestras today ranges
between 440 and 444.
(d) “Modern-day sound is more beautiful than the sound of 200
years ago.”

4. As used in paragraph 3, standardize means (a) make uniform

(b) study intensively (c) raise (d) lower.

5. If pitch is not set at an agreed-upon number, there is a tendency

for it to (a) arouse the curiosity of audiences (b) creep upward
(c) work to the advantages of singers (d) please the conductors
of orchestras.

6. The pitch of A stood at 423 in (a) 1810 (b) 1822 (c) 1858 (d) 1889.

7. Mozart’s The Magic Flute (a) was harder to sing in Mozart’s time
(b) is the favorite of most good sopranos (c) has always been a
favorite opera (d) was easier to sing in Mozart’s time.

8. The illustration of the jar is used to demonstrate (a) the purity

of musical sounds (b) the similarity between a train whistle and
a dog whistle (c) variations in pitch (d) a sound that cannot be
heard by the human ear.

98 Building Power in Reading and Writing

9. Donald Henahan is probably a (<z) physical scientist (ib) music
critic (c) companion of Mozart (d) 19th-century singer. 9.

10. Setting A at 450 (a) is popular with the Paris Opera (b) was
common in Mozart’s time (c) is unfair to singers (d) is more
common in France than in Germany. 10.

11. Each of the following statements contains an example of figura¬

tive language EXCEPT

(a) Deviations began to creep in, and A moved upward.

(b) A modern-day soprano has to soar to F over high C.
(c) Older people tend to “lose” higher-pitched sounds.
(d) Pitch is measured by the number of vibrations per second. 11.

12. Which of the following statements contains the best example of

figurative language?

(a) If you fill ajar with water, you can hear the change in pitch.
(b) Dog whistles, which cannot be heard by the human ear, prove
that dogs can hear higher-pitched sounds than we can.
(c) In 1810 at the Paris Opera, A had stood at 423 cycles per
second but had climbed to 431.7 by 1822.
(d) In 1858, the French government set up a commission of
musicians and scientists to establish some kind of agreement. 12.

Answers
First read the entire passage. As you will see, it is all about musical pitch. Under¬
standing the entire passage makes the individual questions easier.

1. (a) The passage deals with the variations in pitch through the ages, as demonstrated
by the numbers assigned to the musical note A. ‘ ‘ A movable standard’ ’ accurately
sums up the variations. Choice (b) is not true. Pitch is still not fully standardized.
Choices (c) and (d) are details, not main ideas.
2. (e) “A major achievement, ’ ’ though probably a sound observation, is still an opinion.
Some might debate how “far-reaching” the decision was. The other choices are
factual and can be verified.
3. (d) The word beautiful tends to identify an opinion. There are as many definitions of
beauty as there are people. This is not verifiable as are the other choices.
4. (a) Since pitch has moved up and down, there have been attempts to make pitch
uniform, to standardize it. The other choices do not fit the context.
5. (b) This is a detail: “In general, the pitch of A has been rising since the time of Mozart
and Beethoven.”
6. (a) This is a detail: “In 1810 at the Paris Opera, A had stood at 423.”
7. (d) This requires an inference based upon the lower pitch of Mozart’s day and the
comment that “raising the pitch . . . can place a terrible burden on the singers. ’ ’
8. (c) If the pitch changes as the jar is filled, we can infer that the demonstration is
mentioned to show how pitch changes.
9. (b) A comment about singers’ careers is best made by a music critic, who knows more
about music and singers than does an average physical scientist (a). The physical
scientist would, of course, know a great deal about pitch but not necessarily about
performers. The context indicates that Donald Henahan is living today, making
choices (c) and (d) absurd.

Part I. Reading Skills 99

10. (c) Setting the pitch of A too high can “shorten careers. ’ ’ Therefore, we can conclude
it would be unfair to singers. There is no indication that the Paris Opera uses
a setting of 450 (a). Choice (b) is incorrect. Pitch was lower in Mozart ’ s time. Since
the German standard was higher than the French, (d) is wrong.
11. (d) Choice (d) is a straightforward, literal statement. The figurative expressions in
(a) are creep in and moved upward. Soar is figurative in (b). “Lose” is figurative in
CO-
12. (r) This is the opposite of 11. Here you must pick out the sentence with the figurative
expression. Stood and climbed in (c) are figurative.

On Your Own

Read the following passage and answer the questions at the end.

A symphony orchestra seems to be a perfect

example of agreeable people always working harmo¬
niously together. The conductor raises his baton. All
eyes are on him. He begins to conduct and the music
flows magically. Yet to reach this point is not always
easy. The pitch to which the instruments are tuned is
sometimes a source of anguished argument. Should A
be fixed at 440 cycles per second, which is considered
standard, or at 442.5 cycles per second, which is used
by the Chicago Symphony Orchestra? The difference
may seem to be insignificant, but to the trained ear, it
may be troublesome.

Who sets the pitch of an orchestra? In many orches¬

tras, the oboe sets the pitch of A, and all other instru¬
ments follow suit. Musical experts believe that the oboe’s
tone is ‘ ‘purer, ’ ’ less complex than that of other instru¬
ments like the violin. At the New York Philharmonic,
however, the A is sounded by the principal clarinetist.
The person who sets the pitch inevitably enjoys a higher
status than others and some envious criticism.

A device is now often used to avoid quarrels about

the ability of any musician to sound the right pitch as
the guide for the orchestra. The Metropolitan Opera
Orchestra, for example, uses an electronic ‘ ‘blackbox, ’ ’
a lap-held instrument that sounds a perfect tone of 440
cycles per second. Though the principal oboeist is the
keeper of the box, her role is purely mechanical. She
activates the box, and the box sounds the standard A.

“This is terrible,” say some musicians who have

been called theAnti-A Team. “A machine is running our
lives.” Whether criticized or not, the black box does
provide a standard pitch that reduces arguments and
disagreements. It is a superior solution.

100 Building Power in Reading and Writing

 KNOW THESE WORDS

harmoniously: agreeably
anguished: painful
inevitably: unavoidably

1. Write the letter of the statement that best expresses the main idea.

(a) Symphony orchestras are examples of harmony in action.

(b) A problem with orchestras is deciding who sets the pitch.
(r) The oboeist, rather than the clarinetist, determines pitch in
most orchestras.
(d) The pitch of A should be set at 440 cycles per second. 1.

2. Which of the following is a factual statement?

(a) The music flows magically.

(b) At the New York Philharmonic, however, the A is sounded
by the principal clarinetist.
(c) “This is terrible.”
(id) It is a superior solution. 2.

3. Which of the following is an opinion?

(a) In many orchestras, the oboe sets the pitch of A, and all other
instruments follow suit.
(b) She activates the box, and the box sounds the standard A.
(c) “A machine is running our lives.”
(,d) The Metropolitan Opera Orchestra, for example, uses an
electronic “black box.” 3.

4. The violin is never used to set the pitch of A because its tone is
too (a) loud (b) soft (c) complex (d) simple. 4.

5. The electronic “black box” (a) sounds a perfect tone (b) is univer¬
sally approved (c) is used by all major orchestras (d) is activated
by the clarinetist. 5.

6. The Anti-A Team refers to musicians who (a) are not real music
lovers (b) prefer a pitch of 442.5 cycles per second (c) are members
of the New York Philharmonic (d) are opposed to electronic setting
of pitch. 6-

7. Which of the following statements is the best example of figurative

language?

(a) The conductor raises his baton.

(b) The difference may seem to be insignificant.
(c) At the New York Philharmonic, however, the A is sounded
by the principal clarinetist.
(d) All eyes are on him.

Parti. Reading Skills 101

Bonus

Read the following passage and answer the questions at the end.

The 1920s were a time of outlandish fads. There

were dance marathons, with couples dancing on and on
past the state of exhaustion. There were flagpole sitters,
who competed to see how long they could live at the top
of a flagpole. Then at the end of the decade came a fad
that topped all others in popularity: miniature golf. In
many areas, an entire 18-hole course was set up in a
vacant lot. All over the country, miniature golf courses
sprang up like mushrooms.

These were not simple putting greens. There were

tunnels to go through, bridges to go over, tricky angles
to master, and hazards of every description. There were
hollow logs, castles with moats, windmills with tricky
vanes, and sphinxes with passages between their paws.
The designer’s ingenuity was unlimited.

Garnet Carter of Georgia saw the possibilities and

began to set up miniature courses called Tom Thumb
courses. By 1930, there were 3,000 Tom Thumb links
and more than 20,000 other courses. The courses sprang
up overnight and became so popular that movie atten¬
dance fell nearly 25 percent. The studios ordered their
stars not to go near their competitors’ territory.

The bubble burst almost as quickly as it had devel¬

oped. Garnet Carter sold his business in October 1930
at a considerable profit. He must have been a prophet.
The popularity of the fad quickly died away. One after
another, the miniature courses closed until they were
nearly all gone. The fad had a brief revival in the 1950s,
but it never achieved the popularity of the past. Though
there are still some miniature courses throughout the
country, most of the potential customers are at home,
watching television.

KNOW THESE WORDS

outlandish: strange
marathons: endurance contests
decade: period of ten years
hazards: golf-course obstacles
revival: renewal of interest

102 Building Power in Reading and Writing

1. Which of the following titles best summarizes the content of the
passage?

(a) Fads and Fancies of the 1920s

(b) The Incredible Success of Miniature Golf
(c) Miniature Golf—Its Ups and Downs
(id) Garnet Carter’s Brainstorm 1.

2. Which of the following is an opinion?

(a) By 1930, there were 3,000 Tom Thumb links and more than
20,000 other courses.
(b) In many areas, an entire 18-hole course was set up in a
vacant lot.
(r) The 1920s were a time of outlandish fads.
(d) One after another, the miniature courses closed until they
were nearly all gone. 2.

3. As used in paragraph 2, ingenuity means (a) cleverness (b) luck

(c) wealth (d) time. 3.

4. The author of the passage probably put profit and prophet close
together (a) to keep the readers attentive (b) for a lighthearted
play on words (c) as a way of emphasizing the short-lived
popularity of miniature golf (d) to indicate that fads come and
go. 4.

5. The castles, windmills, and sphinxes were added to golf courses

to make the courses (a) easier (b) less expensive (r) faster (d) more
challenging. 5.

6. It can fairly be said that Garnet Carter was in the miniature-

golf business (a) for the fun of it (b) by accident (c) through a
friend (d) for a short time. 6.

7. All the following were mentioned as fads EXCEPT (a) dance

marathons (b) miniature golf (e) hula hoops (d) flagpole sitting. 7.

8. Which of the following statements contains an example of fig¬

urative language?

(a) There were tunnels to go through.

(b) All over the country, miniature golf courses sprang up like
mushrooms. Movie attendance fell nearly 25 percent.
(c) Garnet Carter sold his business in October 1930 at a consid¬
erable profit.
(d) One after another, the miniature courses closed until they
were nearly all gone. 8.

Parti. Reading Skills 103

9. Each of the following statements contains an example of figura¬
tive language EXCEPT

(a) The bubble burst almost as quickly as it developed.

(b) The popularity of the fad quickly died away.
(c) In many areas, an entire 18-hole course was set up in a
vacant lot.
(d) The courses sprang up overnight and became so popular
that movie attendance fell nearly 25 percent.

10. The expression sprang up like mushrooms means that the golf
courses (a) were suddenly numerous (b) used plastic mushrooms
as part of the decoration (c) did especially'well in warm, humid
climates (d) became an important part of the environment.

104 Building Power in Reading and Writing

 13. Recognizing Propaganda

Senator Albertson is a stubborn, inflexible, thoughtless voter

on any legislation dealing with the environment.

Senator Albertson is a consistent, high-minded supporter of

positive legislation dealing with the environment.

On three occasions, Senator Albertson has introduced bills to

clean up harbors and rivers throughout the country.

Can you see how different each statement is? The first is a highly unfavorable
comment. The second is favorable. The third states the facts. The first two are
slanted statements of opinion. The last is a factual statement.

Propaganda has been defined as “ideas, facts, or allegations spread delib¬

erately to further one’ s cause or to damage an opposing cause. ’ ’ The first two state¬
ments above may qualify as propaganda. Propagandists are everywhere. They
urge you to buy certain products, attend particular movies, vote for their candi¬
dates. They use a variety of devices, but they all have one purpose: to get you to
act in a certain way.

Not all propaganda is evil. Propagandists often have a worthy goal. You
yourself have undoubtedly been a propagandist at times. Though propaganda may
urge you on to good actions, you should still be aware of the techniques used. Then
you can choose your course of action on the basis of clear thinking. The following
list gives examples of propaganda techniques.

Testimonial: Movie star Robert Newman urges you to vote for Senator Albertson.
(Robert Newman may be an expert in acting techniques, but he is not neces¬
sarily an expert in politics.)

Bandwagon: Everybody is going to the Judy Carpenter concert. Don’t be left out!
(Don’t jump on the bandwagon and do what “everybody else is doing. ’ ’ Think
for yourself. The majority may be wrong. Be on guard against words like everybody
and nobody, always and never, all and none. These words often try to sweep the easily
influenced along.)

Name-Calling: (The first statement at the beginning of this section is an example

of name-calling. Name-calling sheds more heat than light.)

Parti. Reading Skills 105

Glittering Generalities: (‘‘Virtue” words or phrases like Americanism, public spirit, friend
of the people, and economical are often used to sway voters and consumers. The second
statement at the beginning of this section uses glittering generalities.)

Plain Folks: Hiya, my neighbors and good friends. It’s great to be back in the heart¬
land of America, where all you good people live.
(Here the propagandist is pretending to be just like the rest of us: down-to-
earth, no pretense, a regular fellow.)

Snob Appeal: This exclusive handbag, as shown in the expensive shops of London
and Paris, is for the discriminating woman.
(This device reverses the appeal of plain folks. Instead, this one tries to flatter
the consumer by making her think she is special.)

Scientific Slant: Seven out of ten doctors interviewed preferred Nopane to ordinary
aspirin.
(Appealing to science and scientists is a popular advertising device. In the
example above, who knows how the interviewed doctors were chosen? Sometimes
scientific names like hexachlorophene are introduced to make the claims sound more
impressive.)

Stereotypes1. My opponent was once a professional football player. We all know that
football players are brutal, insensitive wild men.
(Stereotype is a term taken from printing. It is an oversimplified mental picture
of an entire group. Off the field, a football player may be a thoughtful, sensitive,
highly intelligent individual. Giving an individual a label in advance is prejudice.
Not all nurses, for example, are kind and compassionate. Not all teenagers are
flighty, mixed-up, and unpredictable. Not all poets are dreamers. Not all young
brides are poor cooks. Not all gruff old men have hearts of gold. Television often
perpetuates stereotypes of family members, police personnel, soldiers, criminals,
small-town citizens, “street people,” and other groups.)

Practice: Recognizing Propaganda

In each of the following pairs, one statement is straightforward and factual.

The other is propaganda. Write the letter of each example of propaganda.

1. A. Candidate Sandra Michael is a highly responsible legislator,

ethical and perceptive, ideally equipped to handle the urban
challenges we shall all face in the years ahead.

B. On three occasions, Sandra Michael has voted to provide

low-income housing in the abandoned sections of our city. 1. _

106 Building Power in Reading and Writing

2. A. The front office of the Bears has announced that there will
be a rally of Bears fans at the stadium on Monday night.

B. Everybody is rooting for the Bears to win the Super Bowl.

Join your fellow fans and come to the rally at Bears Stadium
on Monday night. 2. _

3. A. Well, you nice people, I’m going to let you in on a secret and
show you why this kitchen knife is the best little ole product
you can get.

B. Today I am introducing and demonstrating a new kitchen

knife. 3. _

4. A. The Prowler is a new eight-cylinder luxury car with a great

many extra features as outlined below.

B. The owner of a Prowler enters a new world of elegance

undreamed of by the average car owner. 4. -

5. A. Penny Walker, winner of two Academy Awards, uses Glitter,

the new shampoo.

B. Penny Walker, winner of two Academy Awards, uses Glitter,

the new shampoo. The same awareness and discrimination
that brought her movie fame has led her to try Glitter and
say, “I’ll never use another product.” 5. -

Answers
Let’s examine the possible answers and identify the examples of propaganda.

1. A. ‘ ‘Virtue” words or phrases like highly responsible, ethical, perceptive, and ideally equipped
identify this as propaganda rather than a literal statement of fact.
2. B. This is an appeal to get on the bandwagon and join all the other fans. A merely
gives the information.
3. A. You nice people and little ole product reveal a use of the plain-folks device. The folksy,
friendly manner is common with certain high-pressure salespeople.
4. B. This is an example of snob appeal, stimulating the desire to be unique, special.
5. B. Penny Walker is not necessarily an expert on shampoos. Of course, winning two
Academy Awards does suggest that she is a competent actress. The two talents
do not necessarily go together.

Question: Recognizing Propaganda

Read each of the following passages and answer the question at the end of each.

1. “ Please let me take the car to the dance, ’ ’ pleaded Roberto. “Joey
says I’m a good driver. Ellen likes to have me drive. I promise
to be more careful than last time.”

In his effort to get permission to use the family car, Roberto

(a) uses previous experience as a reason (b) quotes his friends as
testimonials (c) appeals to his parents’ easygoing nature
(d) tells why he wants to go to the dance. 1. -

Parti. Reading Skills 107

2. The sign on the restaurant said, “Welcome, all you good people.
Gome in where your friends are. Enjoy a good, tasty, nourishing
meal without fancy sauces or frills—just good honest value at a
price you can afford.”

The sign appeals to each of the following EXCEPT (a) economy

(b) plain folks (c) bandwagon (d) snobbishness. 2. -

3. The television ad declared, “Allsport, the after-shave lotion for

men, is not just a smooth, soothing, cooling aid for tired skin. It
also has a masculine scent that women find attractive and other
men secretly admire.”

To persuade consumers to buy the product, the advertisers use

(a) an appeal to masculine hopes and dreams (b) recommendations
by others (c) outright lies (d) the prestige of science. 3. -

Answers
Let’s examine the possible answers.

1. (b) By mentioning Joey and Ellen, Roberto is using the testimonial device, as though
his two friends are experts on driving.
2. (d) It appeals to economy by saying at a price you can afford. Therefore, (a) is wrong.
By using such phrases as all you good people andjyourfriends, it is using the plain-folks
device. Therefore, (b) is wrong. Come in where your friends are tells prospective
customers to get on the bandwagon. Therefore, (c) is wrong. The sign nowhere
appeals to snobbishness (d). Quite the opposite!
3. (a) Mention of women’s and men’s reactions to the product appeals to a man’s wish
to be attractive to women and popular with men.

On Your Own
Read the following passage and answer the questions at the end.

Support Andy Lewis, your classmates’ choice for

President of the Student Council. All right-thinking
students have been impressed by his integrity, his hard¬
working seriousness combined with a keen sense of
humor that delights his friends. As you all know, his
opponent is Martha Callahan. She is a sweet, pleasant
girl, but she lacks the leadership ability so often demon¬
strated by Andy. The next year will be a crucial one for
all the students of Central High. Many changes in the
curriculum and student organization have been
promised. They will sap the energy of everyone. It will
be comforting to realize that we have as our premier
student representative a person who can lead all of us,
his dear friends, at a difficult time. The election is this
coming Tuesday. Don’t fail to vote—for the person who
is so highly qualified: Andy Lewis.

108 Building Power in Reading and Writing

1. Which of the following titles best summarizes the content of the
passage?

(a) An Election at Central High

(b) Andy Lewis: An Outstanding Candidate
(c) The Problems of President of the Student Council
(d) The Friends of Andy Lewis 1.

2. Which of the following statements may be classified as propa¬

ganda? Which are more direct statements of fact? Write Pfor each
example of propaganda and F for each fact.

(a) All right-thinking students have been impressed by his integ¬

rity, his hard-working seriousness combined with a keen sense 2.
of humor that delights his friends. a.
(ib) As you all know, his opponent is Martha Callahan. b.
(c) Many changes in the curriculum and student organization
have been promised. c.
(d) It will be comforting to realize that we have as our premier
student representative a person who can lead all of us, his dear
friends, at a difficult time. d.
(e) The election is this coming Tuesday. e.
(/) Don’t fail to vote—for the person who is so highly qualified:
Andy Lewis. f.

3. As used in the fourth sentence of the passage, she is a sweet, pleasant

girl is (a) actually insulting (b) a tribute to a nice girl (c) a secret
slap at Andy Lewis (d) NOT an example of propaganda. 3.

4. Which of the following is an example of figurative language?

(a) His opponent is Martha Callahan.

(b) She lacks the leadership ability so often demonstrated by
Andy.
(c) They will sap the energy of everyone.
(d) The election is this coming Tuesday. 4.

5. As used in the fifth sentence of the passage, crucial means (a) happy
(b) amusing (c) interesting (d) important. 5.

Parti. Reading Skills 109

Bonus

Read the following passage and answer the questions at the end.

For an up-to-date, reliable, accurate reference

source, buy the New National Dictionary. All over the
country, college professors are recommending this
outstanding book to their students. In thirty-three
colleges sampled, the New National Dictionary is by far the
most popular dictionary sold to serious students of
language. For those with a discriminating taste and a
sincere love for scholarship, thismew edition will meet
all needs.

This new edition contains more than 12,000 words

not listed in the previous editions. New words from
science, like Jarvik heart, make their first appearance, as
do other new words like computer hacker, anchorperson, and
workaholic. Definitions are crisply clear, models of sharp
observation, brilliantly phrased. Sample sentences show
how the words are used in the senses defined. The dictio¬
nary clearly distinguishes subtle differences between one
synonym and another.
There are many other attractions in this superlative
example of modern scholarship. An improved pronun¬
ciation guide takes some of the hesitation out of deciding
how a word should be pronounced. Instead of hunting
in special supplements, readers now find biographical
and geographical names in the all-inclusive body of the
text. Major literary characters also appear in the main
listing, along with important foreign phrases. Because
maps are best treated in a section of their own, a supple¬
ment provides detailed maps of every corner of the globe.
This is truly a magnificent new book.

Follow a librarian’s advice. Put this high-powered,

intelligently organized brilliant new dictionary on your
shelves. Don’t let your children be outpaced by their
friends who already own this new reference tool.

KNOW THESE WORDS

computer hacker: computer enthusiast

outpaced: outdone; left behind

110 Building Power in Reading and Writing

1. Write the letter of the statement that best expresses the main
idea.

(a) Dictionaries are the most useful of all reference books.

(A) The New National Dictionary is a dictionary worth buying.
(c) A new dictionary should contain the new words that have
entered the language.
(d) The New National Dictionary has been especially designed for
children, not adults.

2. Which of-the following statements may be classified as propa¬

ganda? Which are more direct statements of fact? Write Pfor
each example of propaganda and Pfor each fact.

(a) All over the country, college professors are recommending 2.

this outstanding book to their students. a.
(,A) In thirty-three colleges sampled, the New National Dictionary
is by far the most popular dictionary sold to serious students
of language. A.
(c) For those with a discriminating taste and a sincere love for
scholarship, this new edition will meet all needs. c.
(d) This new edition contains more than 12,000 words not listed
in the previous edition.
(e) New words from science, Wkejarvik heart, make their first
appearance. e.
(/) Definitions are crisply clear, models of sharp observation,
brilliantly phrased. /
(g) Sample sentences show how the words are used in the senses
defined. g-
(A) There are many other attractions in this superlative example
of modern scholarship. h.
(i) Follow a librarian’s advice. i.
(J) Put this high-powered, intelligently organized brilliant new
dictionary on your shelves. j-

3. An example of figurative language is the expression (a) how a

word should be pronounced (b) this new edition (c) every corner of the globe
(d) accurate reference source. 3.

4. The figurative expression anchorperson suggests {a) the person

who is responsible for getting advertisers to support a television
program (A) an expert in boating and marine affairs (c) the main
broadcaster in a news program (d) an officer in the United States
Navy. 4.

5. This is truly a magnificent new book is an example of (a) a factual

statement (A) an opinion (c) an obvious lie (d) a figurative expres¬
sion. 5.

Parti. Reading Skills 111

6. All the following are listed as new words in the dictionary
EXCEPT (a) Jarvik heart (b) anchorperson (c) computer hacker
(id) chocoholic.

7. According to the passage, the dictionary publishers

(a) sampled thirty-three colleges (b) designed entirely new maps
(c) sold more books to libraries than to schools (d) used high-
quality paper for the new dictionary.

8. The number of new words included is (a) about a thousand

(b) more than 12,000 (c) 33,000 (d) not mentioned.

9. The word workaholic has been formed on alcoholic and probably

means a person who (a) hates any kind of strenuous effort
(ib) finds it difficult to keep a job (c) neglects other activities for
work (d) works best at certain times of day.

10. From the descriptions given, the new dictionary (a) seems like
an improvement over the previous edition (b) should be
especially useful for those interested in the language of television
(c) has more biographical and geographical names than other
dictionaries (d) is used more often by college professors than
college students.

11. As used in paragraph 1, discriminating means (a) especially keen

(ib) fairly undeveloped (r) hasty but reliable (d) ordinary.

12. As used in paragraph 3, superlative means (a) new (b) planned

(c) interesting (d) excellent.

112 Building Power in Reading and Writing

 14. Studying the Author’s Role
All the members of the unruly mob pushed and shoved
their way through the jammed shopping streets, their blank
faces reflecting the emptiness of their lives.

All the members of the good-natured crowd moved cheer¬

fully along the popular shopping streets, their happy faces
reflecting the joys of the holiday season.

Writing is done by people, not machines. People have points of view. They
have human strengths and failings and sometimes human prejudices. They have
personal likes and dislikes and individual ways of seeing things. The writers of the
two sentences above are describing the same scene. One writer sees only the negative
side of the picture. He or she uses negative words like unruly, pushed, shoved, blank,
and emptiness. The other writer sees the positive side of the picture. He or she uses
positive words like good-natured, cheerfully, happy, and joys. Two different writers have
given two entirely different interpretations of the same event. When you read
something, remember that there is a human being behind the printed page.

The Author’s Tone

“Watch out!”

If you shout a warning to a friend who doesn’t see an oncoming car, the tone
of your voice will suggest sharp concern. In writing, tone is suggested by the words
used. In the first sentence at the beginning of this section, the negative words give
the sentence a tone of angry disapproval. In the second sentence, the positive words
give the sentence a tone of heartwarming approval.

To achieve an emotional tone, authors use happy words, sad words, angry
words. To achieve a tone of impartiality, fairness, and evenness, authors use factual
words, objective words, literal words. Unskilled authors are usually not aware of
the tone they are giving their writing. Skilled authors, however, are usually aware
of the tone in their writing and try to control it.

Practice 1: Studying an Author’s Tone

Read the following sentence and answer the question at the end.

My heart leaps up when I behold

A rainbow in the sky. (William Wordsworth)

The tone of this sentence can best be described as (a) loud and demanding
(b) quietly joyous (c) bitterly sarcastic {d) strangely mistrustful.

Your answer:-

Parti. Reading Skills 113

Answer

The poet’s reaction to the rainbow is one of pleasure. He suggests that pleasure
through a beautiful figure of speech (page 85). The tone of his description is quiet,
thoughtful, joyous (b).

Practice 2: Studying an Author’s Tone

Read the following sentence and answer the questions at the end.

Clumsy Denny came last to the picnic, forgot the

lemonade, spilled ketchup on my T-shirt, poked me in the eye
during volleyball, and thoroughly enriched what had promised
to be a good day.

1. A word that seems to conflict with the author’s tone is

(a) clumsy (b) spilled (c) poked (d) enriched. 1• -

2. The author probably introduced that word for (a) humor (b) excite¬
ment (c) the sake of Denny (d) approval. 2. -

Answers
1. (d) Since Denny has done everything wrong to the author, the word that seems out
of place is enriched.
2. (a) An author will sometimes do the opposite of the expected to bring a smile to the
reader’s face. The use of enriched instead of the more likely spoiled is meant to jolt
the reader and make a humorous point. (The author’s purpose is dealt with later
in this section.)

The Author’s Attitude

Closely related to tone is the author’s attitude toward what he or she is writing.
If the author is angry about the subject, the tone will be sharp, bitter. On the other
hand, if he or she is happy, the words will reveal that feeling. William Wordsworth’s
attitude toward the rainbow is one of admiration and joyful appreciation.

Practice 3: Studying an Author’s Attitude

Read the following sentence and answer the question at the end.

The perfect weather, warm surf, excellent accommoda¬

tions, and outstanding food made our weekend at Fripp Island
a vacation to remember.

The author’s attitude can best be described as one of (a) mild disapproval (b)
sophisticated indifference (c) qualified anger (d) enthusiastic approval.

Your answer: _

114 Building Power in Reading and Writing

Answer

Words like perfect, warm, excellent, outstanding, and a vacation to remember clearly signal
that the author’s attitude is one of enthusiastic approval (d).

The Author’s Purpose

The new attractions at Epcot make this brother of Walt

Disney World a satisfying place to visit again and again,
especially during less crowded months like May and November.

When authors write, they have a purpose: to entertain, amuse, confirm,

inform, describe, contradict, persuade, protest, poke fun at, or explain. In the
sentence above, the author is trying to persuade readers to visit Epcot. His attitude
toward Epcot is favorable. The tone of the sentence is quietly factual.

Practice 4: Studying the Author’s Purpose

Read the following ad and answer the questions at the end.

Hurry! For three more days, you may still buy a wide selec¬
tion of videocassette recorders at simply unbelievable prices.
Don’t miss the opportunity of a lifetime. We cannot keep the
offer open much longer.

1. The author ’ s purpose in writing this ad is to (a) explain (b) persuade

(c) describe (d) entertain. 1. -

2. The tone of this ad can best be described as (a) instructional

(b) scholarly (c) urgent (d) thoughtful. 2. -

3. The author’s attitude is one of (a) uncritical approval (b) partial

acceptance (c) delighted amazement (d) mild distaste. 3. -

Answers
1. (b) The author wants to sell videocassette recorders and is trying to persuade his or
her readers to act.
2. (c) Use of words like hurry, opportunity of a lifetime, and open much longer suggest an urgent
tone.
3. (a) The author’s breathless plea to buy the product suggests an attitude of uncritical
approval.

Parti. Reading Skills 115

The Author’s Assumptions

Since women should avoid any job requiring physical

strength, Linda’s parents urged her to become a secretary.

An assumption is something taken for granted. It may or may not be true.

In the sentence above, the author is assuming that women cannot handle jo s
requiring physical strength. The assumption is false and out-of-date. Yet the aut or
apparently accepts the erroneous idea as true. Authors make all kinds of assump¬
tions, either consciously or unconsciously. Identifying these assumptions is a step

to better reading.

Here are some examples of assumptions that make their way into writing from

time to time.

An only child lives a life of loneliness and unhappiness.

If a movie critic likes a movie, it will be a success.

All boys naturally like to watch football on TV.

Girls generally like school more than boys do.

All politicians are unreliable and always forget their promises

after they are elected.

Practice 5: Studying the Author’s Assumptions

Read the following and answer the question at the end.

Floriana, that new perfume sponsored by the movie

star Marsha Major, goes on sale tomorrow. It is an
unusual new product, especially designed by Miss Major
herself. It combines several floral scents in a fascinating
way. It is, as you would expect, quite expensive. I’m
sure it is excellent.

The author assumes that (a) perfumes have floral scents (b) the advertising
for Floriana is better than average (c) Floriana must be good since it is expensive
(d) movie stars should not sponsor commercial products.

Your answer: -

116 Building Power in Reading and Writing

Answer

The author is not talking about other perfumes; therefore (a) is wrong. There is no
comparison of the advertising for various products; therefore (b) is wrong. There is no
suggestion that movie stars should avoid sponsoring commercial products; therefore (d)
is wrong. There is a strong implication that the author considers something to be good
if it is expensive (c). Though expense is often linked with quality, the linkage does not
always hold true. This is a weak assumption.

Question: Studying the Author’s Role

Read the following passage and answer the questions at the end.

A gardener was bothered by the dandelions in his

lawn. He wrote to the county agricultural agent and got
some suggestions for removing them. The suggestions
didn’t work. He wrote again. No luck. Then he wrote
a third time. This time the harried county agent wrote
back wearily, ‘ ‘ Learn to love them. ’ ’ This is good advice
for everyone.

The writer Samuel Pickering, Jr., once wrote,

“The real American Beauty is not the rose but the
dandelion.” Why did he come out so strongly for the
lowly dandelion? There are many good and sound
reasons.

The dandelion came from somewhere in Europe,

but nobody knows where or when. Like the immigrants,
the “huddled masses,” it found a new and better life
in the New World. It rolled up its sleeves and went to
work. It made the wastelands bloom. Where there was
formerly a barren patch of exhausted soil, there came
a field of dandelions, tossing their golden heads in every
breeze. Where other flowers feared to tread, the dande¬
lion grew well. When other flowers fell to the onslaught
of storms and rough weather, the dandelion lay still,
waiting for the sun. Even a hailstorm couldn’t break the
spirit of the dandelion. Appropriately, the dandelion’s
name is pure poetry. It comes from two French words
meaning lion’s tooth.

The dandelion is a friendly plant. It can furnish

nourishing greens when it is young. Children can weave
a garland of flowers with the showy heads and stems of
mature plants. It is a respectable member of the commu¬
nity , opening and blooming at sunrise, then going to bed
when the sun goes down. It has 100-200 tiny florets in
every bloom. Then as the flower matures, the florets
turn to silver, forming a beautiful globe. A passing

Parti. Reading Skills 117

 breeze or a child’s breath sends off the seeds, with their
little parachutes. Someone has observed that the change
from flowers to seeds can be fancifully described in this
way: “The suns of the dandelions turned into moons.”

Why not make the dandelion our national flower?

It is not limited to any state or region. It is everywhere—
in the deserts of Arizona, the orange groves of Florida,
the mountains of Colorado. It is a bright sign of hope-
on any day in the year. If the winter snows beat against
your windowpane, take heart. Somewhere the dande¬
lion is blooming.

KNOW THESE WORDS

barren: lifeless; empty

tread: walk; set foot
garland: wreath of flowers
florets: small flowers, part of a larger flower

1. Which of the following titles best summarizes the content of the

passage?

(a) The Dandelion: An Insufficiently Appreciated Flower

(b) How to Raise Dandelions
(c) Plants, Weeds, and Flowers
(d) The Pleasures of Growing Dandelions

2. The author’s purpose in writing this passage was to (a) suggest

ways of growing dandelions (b) change people’s views about
dandelions (c) emphasize the practical value of dandelions
(d) show how dandelions resemble immigrants.

3. The tone of this passage is (a) serious but well-intentioned

(b) bland and colorless (c) lighthearted and entertaining
(d.) hilariously funny.

4. The author’s attitude toward dandelions may best be described

as (a) indifferent (b) antagonistic (c) rather silly (d) favorable.

5. The author assumes that (a) the reader has an interest in flowers
(b) the reader is a gardener (c) the dandelion is a bit too common
(d) roses are not as colorful as dandelions.

6. In the figurative expression “The suns of the dandelions turned

into moons,” the word suns refers to the (a) seeds (b) tiny
individual florets (c) full-blooming flower heads (d) flowers
at night.

118 Building Power in Reading and Writing

7. Which of the following statements contain figurative language?
Write F for each example of figurative language. 7.

(a) He wrote to the county agricultural agent. a.

(b) This is good advice for everyone. b.
(c) It rolled up its sleeves and went to work. c.
(d) There came a field of dandelions, tossing their golden heads
in every breeze. d.
(e) Where other flowers feared to tread, the dandelion grew
well. e.
(/) Even a hailstorm couldn’t break the spirit of the dandelion. f.
(g) It h^s 100-200 tiny florets in every bloom. g.
(h) As the flower matures, the florets turn to silver. h.
(i) A passing breeze or a child’s breath sends off the seeds, with
their little parachutes. i.
(j) Somewhere the dandelion is blooming. j.

8. Which of the following is an opinion?

(a) A gardener was bothered by the dandelions in his lawn.

(b) He wrote again.
(c) “The real American Beauty is not the rose but the dande¬
lion.”
(d) It is not limited to any state or region. 8.

9. One reason that the dandelion may not be fully appreciated is

that it (a) is not particularly pretty (b) grows everywhere without
care (c) is too difficult to establish in ar traditional garden (d.) is
sometimes fragile. 9.

10. If the gardener wrote to the county agent about dandelions a

fourth time, the agent would probably (a) send a copy of the
second letter he or she had written (b) visit the gardener (r) send
some other flower seeds (d) fail to answer. 10.

11. As used in paragraph 1, harried means (a) overworked and upset

(b) friendly and helpful (c) energetic and lively (d) intelligent and
reliable. H-

12. As used in paragraph 3, onslaught means (a) gentle arrival

(b) empty threat (c) heavy snows (d) vigorous attack. 12.

Parti. Reading Skills 119

Answers
First read the entire passage. As you will see, it is all about dandelions, WIjte*J by
a highly sympathetic author. Understanding the entire passage makes the individual
questions easier.
I. (fl) This captures the point of the passage. There is nothing about raising dandelions
(b) or (A Choice (c) is too general and indefinite.
2 (b) The author nowhere talks about cultivating or growing dandelions (a), i he passage
mentions qualities of dandelions other than the practical (c). The resemblance of
dandelions to immigrants is a minor detail (d). The author is trying to make peop e
look at dandelions in a new and positive way (b).
3. (c) The opening paragraph, with its lighthearted anecdote, sets the tone, ihe passage
is entertaining without being hilariously funny, serious, or colorless.
4. (d) The author loves dandelions as is shown by the admiring descriptions of the
dandelions’ appearance and durability.
5. (a) The author’s vivid picture of dandelions and their place in nature would appeal
especially to those with an interest in flowers. One doesn’t have to be a gardener
(6) to have an interest in flowers.
6. (t) The passage says that the change is from flowers to seeds. The seeds would resemble
moons, not suns. Therefore (a) is wrong. The individual florets would not look
like suns (b). Since the flowers close at night (d) is wrong.
7. The figurative expressions are these:
(t) The dandelion is personified, compared with a person who rolls up his or her
sleeves.
(,d) The heads are compared with the metal gold.
(*) The dandelion is again personified, compared with a person walking.
(/) The dandelion doesn’t actually have a spirit.
(h) The florets do not actually turn to silver.
(i) The floating seeds are compared with parachutes.
8. (c) Since beauty is in the eye of the beholder, the statement is an opinion.
9. (b) If something is commonplace, it is often unappreciated.
10. (d) Since the agent gave a harried ‘ ‘final answer” by saying, Learn to love them,
the agent would probably fail to answer if a fourth query arrived.
II. (a) Since the agent has already replied twice before to the same question and since
he or she writes wearily, we can assume that the agent is overworked and upset.
12. (d) Gentle arrival (a) doesn’t suit storms and rough weather. A dangerous storm with
rough weather is no empty threat (b). The storms are not necessarily snowstorms
(c). We can be sure the onslaught is a dangerous, vigorous attack (d).

120 Building Power in Reading and Writing

On Your Own

Read the following passage and answer the questions at the end.

“Mosquito!”

The cry inside a house sends everyone on a chase,

trying first to find and then to swat this unpopular pest.
A buzzing in the ears in a darkened bedroom is a most
unwelcome sound. Snapping on the lights often fails to
Reveal the wily intruder.

A mosquito may weigh 35 millionths of an ounce,

but its power for damage is awesome. Mosquitoes cause
300 million cases of malaria yearly around the world,
killing a million African children alone. Yellow fever
and encephalitis are other diseases associated with
mosquitoes.

Nearly everyone has been attacked by a mosquito.

People talk about mosquito bites or mosquito stings, but
neither word is quite accurate. The mosquito actually
saws her way through the skin into the flesh, then pumps
up the blood into her stomach. She can double her body
weight in a little more than two minutes. The “bite”
itself is probably painless, but the victim experiences
pain in about three minutes. By that time, the mosquito
has gone. The pronoun she .indicates that the blood¬
suckers are female. Male mosquitoes live on nectar and
plant juices. They seem to be gentle, law-abiding
citizens.

The peculiar zigzag flight of the mosquito is not

aimless. She is looking for a warm-blooded meal ticket.
Moist air plumes arise from a warm-blooded animal.
The mosquito follows this plume, going back and forth
to keep on the right track. Movement, lactic acid, and
other chemical cues guide the mosquito to her deadly
meeting. The best natural defense against attack is to
lie still: calm, cool, and dry. But when we hear a
mosquito, we rush about, sweating, raising our body
temperatures and blood pressures, making ourselves
more discoverable by the mosquito. Insect repellents
don’t actually repel mosquitoes. They block the sensory
apparatus that helps mosquitoes find us.

Parti. Reading Skills 121

 Most people think that tropical diseases are carried
only by mosquitoes in the tropics. When Napoleon sent
an army to the area we now call the Louisiana Purchase,
it was almost wiped out by mosquito-borne yellow fever.
In 1803, we were able to buy the Louisiana Territory
from France largely because of this episode. There have
been epidemics of yellow fever in places like New
Orleans, Philadelphia, and New York City. Malaria
was a killer during the American Civil War, persisting
as late as World War II. In most of the United States,
we haven’t succeeded in eradicating the mosquitoes that
carry these plagues. We have succeeded in getting rid
of the diseases for the most part, but the mosquitoes that
could do the damage are still with us. The disease
encephalitis, however, is still a serious problem in parts
of North America.

The name mosquito comes from Latin through

Spanish. It literally means little fly. There is another
word derived from the Latin word musca, or fly. That
word is musket. Some people think the pain a mosquito
can cause is a lesser version of the pain caused by a
musket shot. If there were a vote for the most unwanted
of all the world’s creatures, the mosquito would have a
spot near the top of the list.

KNOW THESE WORDS

awesome: causing fear

sensory: of the senses
apparatus: equipment
epidemics: widespread diseases

1. Write the letter of the statement that best expresses the main
idea.

(a) Only the female mosquitoes attack warm-blooded animals.

(b) Mosquitoes do most damage in Africa.
(c) The mosquito is a worldwide pest, fragile but durable.
(d) To protect yourself from mosquitoes, keep calm. 1

2. The author’s purpose in writing this passage is to (a) warn

Americans against yellow fever and malaria (b) provide general
information about the mosquito (c) explain the difference
between bites and stings (d) recommend more research into the
disease-carrying mosquito. 2

3. The tone of this passage is (a) urgently persuasive (b) bitterly

sarcastic (c) quietly indifferent (d) direct and straightforward. 3

122 Building Power in Reading and Writing

4. The author’ s attitude toward mosquitoes may best be described
as (a) disapproving (b) admiring (c) despairing (d) confused. 4.

5. The author assumes that (a) most people have experienced

mosquito bites (b) mosquitoes are less dangerous than large
game animals (c) yellow fever is more serious than malaria
(d) once seen, mosquitoes are easily killed. 5.

6. Which of the following is an example of figurative language?

(a) A mosquito may weigh 35 millionths of an ounce.

(b) She Can double her body weight in a little more than two
minutes.
(c) Most people think that tropical diseases are caused only by
mosquitoes in the tropics.
(<i) Some people think the pain a mosquito can cause is a lesser
version of the pain caused by a musket shot. 6.

7. Which of the following is an opinion?

(a) Mosquitoes cause 300 million cases of malaria yearly around

the world.
(b) The pronoun she indicates that the bloodsuckers are female.
(c) They seem to be gentle, law-abiding citizens.
(d) They block the sensory apparatus that helps mosquitoes
find us. 7.

8. The best word to describe the attack of the mosquito is (a) bites
(b) saws (e) stings (d) squeezes. 8.

9. The disease mentioned as still being a serious problem in North

America is (a) malaria (b) yellow fever (c) encephalitis {d) influ¬
enza. 9.

10. There have been epidemics of yellow fever in each of the

following cities EXCEPT (a) Boston (b) New York (c) Phila¬
delphia (d) New Orleans. 10.

11. As used in paragraph 2, wily means (a) friendly (b) unexpected

(c) crafty (d) harmless. 11-

12. As used in paragraph 6, eradicating means (a) increasing

(b) studying (c) finding (d) eliminating. 12.

Parti. Reading Skills 123

Bonus

Read the following passage and answer the questions at the end.

Little Boy Blue,

Come blow your horn,
The sheep’s in the meadow,
The cow’s in the corn.

You surely have heard this favorite nursery rhyme,

and you have probably visualized what a meadow looks
like. You have seen many fields qlive with wildflowers,
but the chances are that you have not seen a natural
meadow. What you have probably seen is an old field
that was once cultivated and has since been neglected.
A natural meadow is a permanent grassland. In most
parts of the country, what you might call a meadow will
become a woodland in twenty years or less if left
untended.

Natural meadows occur only in areas where shrubs

and trees cannot thrive. Otherwise, these woody plants
take over and crowd out the wildflowers. Natural grass¬
lands thus occur in areas where environmental factors
prevent the growth of woody plants. Alpine meadows
occur on mountains where the climate is unfavorable for
trees or shrubs. Coastal meadows border the sea because
the salt spray inhibits the growth of woody plants. Desert
meadows depend upon low precipitation to keep away
trees. Fires and recurring droughts prevent the growth
of woody plants on the prairies.

Farmers, loggers, and other workers on the land

have created temporary meadows. If a farmer’s field is
left idle for a few years, it becomes a meadow, alive with
wildflowers. Cattle grazing on a field may provide ideal
conditions for a meadow. Farmers may help by elimi¬
nating any trees that seem to gain a foothold. The
nation’s roads have created thousands of small
meadows. The areas beside the roads may be cut once
or twice a year, killing woody plants before they get a
chance to survive. Some areas on the Blue Ridge
Parkway of North Carolina have been designated
wildflower areas and qualify as meadows. Young trees
and shrubs are eliminated from these fields. These small
sections are beautiful through the summer.

124 Building Power in Reading and Writing

 V ariations of the meadow may be found in odd and
unexpected places. The embankments along railroad
tracks harbor many lovely wildflowers. Some hardy
plants survive even in the roadbed itself, between the
railroad ties. If a lawn is left untended for a while,
wildflowers will begin to appear amidst the grasses. Even
city wastelands will grow wildflowers from seeds spread
by the wind or dropped by birds.

Every area has what is called climax vegetation, the

plants that eventually take over if the area is undis¬
turbed. In the Northeast, for example, the climax
vegetation might be a beech-maple forest or a hemlock-
pine forest. The meadow is a climax in only parts of the
country. But people have altered the natural processes
and have given us meadows everywhere—even if some
of these are doomed to be taken over eventually by oaks,
poplars, or hickories.

KNOW THESE WORDS

precipitation: rainfall
droughts: long dry spells
embankments: raised structure on both sides of railroad
tracks.
untended: uncared for

1. Which of the following titles best summarizes the content of the

passage?

(a) The Prairie: A Magnificent Natural Meadow

(b) All About Meadows—Natural and Temporary
(c) The Part Played by Farmers and Loggers
(d) Beauty Along the Railroad Tracks L

2. The author’s purpose in writing this passage is to (a) explain

what a true meadow is (b) congratulate farmers and loggers for
creating meadows (c) suggest that gardeners try creating
meadows instead of lawns (d) emphasize the part played by
climate in creating a meadow. 2.

3. The author inserts the Little Boy Blue verse at the beginning
to (a) add some humor (b) provide a moment of relaxation
(c) show that Mother Goose rhymes can deal with nature
(<f) suggest that meadow is a word we know from childhood. 3.

4. The tone of this passage is (a) stiff (b) hurried (c) relaxed
(d) angry. * 1 2 3 4-

Part I. Reading Skills 125

5. The author’s attitude toward meadows may best be described
as (a) uncertain (b) approving (c) disapproving (d) indifferent.

6. The author assumes that (a) readers have seen fields of

wildflowers (b) farmers create meadows for the beauty of the
wildflowers (c) children especially enjoy wildflowers (d) native
wildflowers are better than flowers in a garden.

7. The figurative expression to gain a foothold means (a) trip careless

hikers (b) be trampled underfoot (c) grow a foot or two apart
(d) begin to grow successfully.

8. Which of the following is an opinion?

(a) A natural meadow is a permanent grassland.

(b) Otherwise these woody plants take over and crowd out the
wildflowers.
(c) These small sections are beautiful throughout the summer.
(d) Some hardy plants survive even in the roadbed itself,
between the railroad ties.

9. If a house is deserted in the Northeast and the lawn is completely

uncared for, it will eventually be taken over by (a) tall grasses
(b) small shrubs (c) trees (d) none of these.

10. All the following are mentioned as natural meadows EXCEPT

(a) alpine (b) coastal (c) high plains (d) desert.

11. As used in paragraph 3, inhibits means (a) discourages

(b) supports (c) allows (d) spreads.

12. As used in paragraph 3, recurring means (a) seriously damaging

(b) happening again (c) completely unexpected (d) generally
mild.

126 Building Power in Reading and Writing

 15. Reading for Information
Reading for enjoyment is one of the major pleasures of life, but there is another
kind of reading. It is reading for information. You might call it “bread-and-butter
reading” or “survival reading.” This kind of useful reading influences how well
you do in school, at home, or on the job. It has an impact on every part of your
life. In this section, you will meet some of these everyday reading challenges and
gain some insights into how to handle them more effectively.

Table of Contents
The first group of challenges includes many skills used in working with books.
At the top of the list is the table of contents.

Practice 1: Using a Table of Contents

Turn to pages v-vii at the front of this book and answer the following questions.

1. Of the following topics, the one that comes first in the table of
contents is (a) Studying Cause and Effect ff) Drawing Inferences
(c) Studying Sequence ffl) Finding Details. 1. _

2. For additional practice in reading skills you would turn to Part

(a) I (b) II 0) III (d) IV. 2. _

3. All the following are included in Review of Writing Skills EXCEPT

(a) business letters (b) paragraphs (c) reports (a') essays. 3. -

4. A review of common usage errors is probably included to (a) help

students write better (b) show that punctuation is even more
important than capitalization (c) study nouns, verbs, and adjec¬
tives principally (d) suggest that spelling is easy to master. 4. -

5. Writing Practice Test 1 begins on page (a) 216 iff) 274 ff) 330
{d) 336. 5. -

Answers
1. {d) Finding Details, which is #4, precedes the others.
2. ff) Part IV, which contains the practice tests, provides extra practice in reading.
3. id.) Essays are nowhere mentioned in the table of contents.
4. (a) Since the competency test requires technical writing skills, this text includes a review
of common usage errors to help students write better. Note that the other three
choices are wrong.
5. (c) Part IV contains this material.

Index
The table of contents is an excellent guide to broad topics and the organization
of a book. If you are seeking a specific bit of information, however, you must turn
to the alphabetical index at the back of the book. If you are looking up information
on a chow in a book about dogs, for example, you will find the page or pages covering
that particular breed in the index.

Parti. Reading Skills 127

Practice 2: Using an Index

Read the following excerpt, or portion, of an index and answer the questions
at the end.

Shakespeare, William, 8, 33, 36

Metaphor, 25
Shaw, George Bernard, 10, 38
Middle English, 8, 22
Shortening words, 33
Midland speech, 38
Sign language, 2
Milton, John, 8
Signals in grammar, 4-5
Miracle Worker, The, 60
Morphology, 4-5 Signs, 62, 78 y

Movable type, 16 Simile, 25

Slang, 32-35, 36

New words, 19-20 Socrates, 63

News Gothic, 17 Sounds, 9-10, 12, 14, 26-27

Nonverbal communication, 63-69, 78 Southern speech, 38

Northern speech, 38 Specialized language, 35-36, 61-62

Noun, 6, 43 Speech, 2-4, 9-10

Numbers, 12 areas, 38-39

and colloquial English, 31-32

Obsolete English, 36 patterns, 4-5

Odysseus, 18 Spelling, 8, 13, 42, 52

Old English, 8 Spoken language, 2-3, 9-10, 12, 31-32

Origins of language, 1 Standard English, 30-31

Overworked words, 50 Structural grammar, 5-6
Structure of English, 4-7, 58

Pantomime, 65 Substandard English, 30

Paradise Lost, language of, 8 Suffix, 23-24
Paradox, 80-81 Symbols, 9, 11-16
Parts of speech, 5-6, 43 signs and, 62
Phonetic alphabet, 10 words as, 59-63, 78, 80
Phonetics, 9-10 Synonyms, 49-50, 73, 75
Pictographic writing, 12-13, 14 Syntax, 4-5
Pioneers, English of, 19, 24-25
Play, language, 26-27, 32 Thinking and language, 80-86
Poetic words, 37 Times Roman, 17
Poetry, 26, 37 Tone, 67-69, 78
“Pooh-pooh” theory, 1 Traditional grammar, 5-6
Prefix, 22-24 Transformational grammar, 5-6
Presymbolic language, 67 Type faces, 17
Primitive languages, 1
Printing, 13, 16-18 Varieties of English, 3, 29-39
Problem solving, 84-86 Verb, 6
Pronunciation, 8, 9, 12, 13, 14, 37, 43, 61 Vocabulary, 19
Pun,27 growth, 35, 40-56
use, 35
Rationalizing, 82-83, 86 variations, 37
Reasoning, faulty, 81-84 Vowel sound, 9, 16
cause and effect, 81-82
half-truth, 83-84 Word
rationalizing, 82-83 form, 4-5, 43
Regional variation, 37-39 order, 4-5
Reports origins, 19-24, 33
and clear thinking, 80 Word study exercises, 10, 18, 28, 39,
contrasted with judgments, 76-77, 78 56, 69, 79, 86
verifiable, 76 Words often misused or confused, 52-55
Rhyme, 8 Written language, 3, 8-18, 32
Right word, 29-30
“Yo-he-ho” theory, 1
Semantics, 57-79

128 Building Power in Reading and Writing

1. You would find information about sign language on page (a) 2
(b) 4 (c) 62 (d) 78. 1.

2. All the following names are mentioned EXCEPT (a) Socrates

(b) William Shakespeare (c) George Bernard Shaw (d) Adam
Smith. 2.

3. From the excerpt, you may infer that rationalizing is a form of

(a) pronouncing words (b) colloquial English (c) faulty reasoning
(d) speaking rhythmically. 3.

4. Patterns of speech are discussed on pages (a) 9-10 (b) 4-5 (c) 38-
39 (d) 31-32. 4.

5. From the index excerpt, you may infer that it was taken from a
book dealing principally with (a) social studies (b) pronunciation
(ic) language (d) poetry. 5.

Answers

1. (a) Sign language appears in alphabetical order and is easy to find.

2. (d) A check of the alphabetical listing shows that Adam Smith is not included.
3. (c) Rationalizing appears in two places: in its own place in the alphabet and under
Reasoning, faulty.
4. (b) Although patterns does not appear by itself in the alphabetical listing, it does appear
under Speech.
5. (c) Practically every item deals with language in some form or other. Pronunciation (b)
and Poetry (d) are details. Social studies (a) is neither mentioned nor implied.

Card Catalog

What the index does for a single book, the library card catalog does for all
books. It provides a handy index for finding a book on the library shelves. Your
public library or school library may have its card catalog in microfilm or microfiche
machines. There are three types of cards: author cards, title cards, and subject
cards. The following excerpts from catalog cards illustrate all three types.

Author Card

Keillor, Garrison
Lake Wobegon days/Garrison Keillor
New York, Viking c 1985
337 p.

Title Card

Lake Wobegon days

Keillor, Garrison
Lake Wobegon days/Garrison Keillor
New York, Viking c 1985
337 p.

Parti. Reading Skills 129

 Subject Card

796.426 MARATHON RUNNING—TRAINING

Schreiber, Michael
Training to run the perfect marathon/by
Michael Schreiber
ill. by J.T. Sevier—Santa Fe, NM
J. Muir Publications c 1980

Three important abbreviations used on these cards are the following.

p.—pages v
c—copyright
ill.—illustrated

The number at the upper left of the subject card is a Dewey Decimal number, which
will help you to locate the book on the shelves.

Practice 3: Using Catalog Cards

All questions refer to the excerpts from catalog cards.

1. J.T. Sevier is (a) an author (b) a publisher (r) an editor (d) an artist. 1. -

2. The Schreiber book would probably be classified as a (a) history

of the marathon (b) criticism of how marathons are promoted (c)
how-to book about running (d) fictional account of a great runner. 2. -

3. Viking and J. Muir are (a) authors (b) librarians (c) publishers
(d) runners. 3. -

4. If you were looking for a book on quilting, you would look for
(a) author cards (b) title cards (c) subject cards (d) both author and
title cards. 4. -

5. Knowing the copyright date would be most important if you were

looking for a book on (a) repairing furniture (b) science
(c) writing fiction (d) chess. 5. -

Answers
1. (d) The clue is the abbreviation ill. J.T. Sevier is the artist who illustrated the book.
2. (c) Training to Run the Perfect Marathon obviously emphasizes how to train. The other
choices don’t fit.
3. (c) J. Muir Publications clearly indicates J. Muir is a publisher. You may infer that
Viking is also a publisher.
4. (r) Author and title cards do not help in finding a particular subject.
5. {b) Advances in science make this subject the one requiring the most up-to-date book.
Books of a few years ago may be out-of-date.

130 Building Power in Reading and Writing

Readers’ Guide to Periodical Literature

The Readers’ Guide to Periodical Literature is another kind of index, this time
for material found in magazines. At the beginning of each volume of the Readers’
Guide, you will find a list of abbreviations used. Abbreviations used in the selection
below include the following:

Ap—April

My—May

Je—June

il—illustrations

pors—portraits

18:158-9—Volume 18, pages 158-9

Practice 4: Using the Readers’ Guide

Examine the following excerpt from the Readers’ Guide* and answer the
questions at the end.

Music, African
See also
Phonograph records—African music
Music, American
See also
Compact discs—American music
Jazz music
Dictionaries and encyclopedias
The New Grove dictionary of American music. J. Idema.
Smithsonian 18:158-9 Ap ’87
Music, Caribbean
Sounds of the Caribbean. D. Palmer, il Black Enterp
17:42-4 My ’87
Music, Church See Religious music
Music, Electronic
See also
Computers—Musical use
Musical instruments, Electronic
Videotapes—Electronic music
Music, Experimental
See also
Compact discs—Experimental music

*From Readers’ Guide to Periodical Literature, August 1987, page 402. Copyright © 1987 by the H.W. Wilson
Company. Material reproduced by permission of the publisher.

Parti. Reading Skills 131

 Music, Latin American
Music. See issues of Americas beginning May/June 1984
The spicy bite of Latin music. F. Hernandez. i\ Essence 17:30
Ap ’87
Music, Spanish
See also
Phonograph records—Spanish music
Music and animals See Animals and music
Music and children
See also
Phonograph records—Children’s music
Music and fashion See Fashion and music
Music and literature
A movie star goes to Watts to make sure the Bard gets a good
rap [work of J. Agutter] K. Hubbard, il pors People Wkly
27:83-4 Je 29’87 v
Music and the blind
Blind boy, 3, learns to play 50 songs on piano [J. Gardner]
D. M. Cheers, il pors Jet 72:22-3 My 25 ’87
Blind piano player, 3, visits Stevie Wonder [J. Gardner] il
pors Jet 72:18 Je 22 ’87
Blind since birth and barely 4, Jermaine Gardner happily
hits all the right keys—and heartstrings. K. Hubbard, il
pors People Wkly 27:53+ Je 22 ’87
Music and the handicapped
See also
Pianists, Handicapped
Music critics and criticism
See also
Opera reviews
Operetta reviews
Oratorio reviews
Cleveland rock critic Jane Scott maybe pushing 70, but she’s
still got the beat. K. Myers, il pors People Wkly 27:91-2
Je 8 ’87
Rock’s most influential album? [reaction to Sgt. Pepper]
M. Goldberg. Roll Stone p57 + Je 18 ’87
Music education See Music—Study and teaching

1. The main topic of this section of the Readers ’ Guide is (a) Literature
(b) Dictionaries (c) Music (d) Africa. 1.

2. An article on Stevie Wonder can be found in the magazine (a) People

Weekly (b) Jet (c) Essence (d) Smithsonian. 2.

3. Jermaine Gardner is described as a (a) movie star (b) critic (c) blind
musician (d) Latin American singer. 3.

4. A person interested in Latin American music would find infor¬

mation in the magazine (a) Essence (b) Life (c) Jet (d) Smithsonian. 4.

5. K. Hubbard is a writer for (a) Jet (b) People Weekly (c) the New Grove
Dictionary (d) The New Yorker. 5.

132 Building Power in Reading and Writing

Answers

1. (c) Since every topic begins with the word music, the major topic is obvious.
2. (b) Stevie Wonder is mentioned under the topic Music and the Blind, which contains an
article about him.
3. (c) Jermaine Gardner is the subject of three articles mentioned under the topic Music
and the Blind. In the first two articles, he is identified within brackets: [J. Gardner],
In the third, his name appears in the title of the article.
4. (a) Under the topic Music, Latin American, an article by F. Hernandez is listed for the
magazine Essence.
5. (b) Two articles are listed for K. Hubbard. One is under Music and Literature. The other
is under Music and the Blind. Both indicate that K. Hubbard writes for People Weekly.

Dictionaries

Dictionaries contain more information than just definitions. They usually

indicate an acceptable pronunciation of a word. The key to pronunciation is at the
bottom of the dictionary page. Dictionaries indicate the part of speech for the defini¬
tion that follows. They often give the origin of the word. They may provide
synonyms. They may provide a cross reference to enrich the meaning of a word.
They may provide a context for the word defined. At least one dictionary, Webster’s
Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary, suggests the date at which the word probably entered
the language. The guide words at the top of a dictionary page tell you which words
appear on that page.

Examples from excerpt, Webster’s Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary, page 776

pronunciation \ maiint-i-baqkX

part of speech vt (transitive verb — vi =

intransitive verb)

word origin [mounted policeman]

synonym CHARLATAN

cross reference more at MUSKETEER

context chocolate — (mousse)

date of entry 13c (13th century)

into language

guide words mountain time • movement

Practice 5: Using a Dictionary

Study the dictionary excerpt* on the next page and answer the questions at
the end.

»By permission. From Webster’s Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary © 1988 by Merriam-Webster Inc., publisher
of the Merriam-Webster ® dictionaries.

Parti. Reading Skills 133

 776 mountain time © movement
: MUMBLE (~ed his words) 2 : to take into the mouth; esp : EAT ~ vi
mountain time n, often cap M (1883): the time of the 7th time zone west 1 a : to talk pompously : RANT — often used with off b . to talk
of Greenwich that includes the Rocky mountain states of the U.b. — insolently or impudently — usu. used with off 2 : to move the mouth
see time zone illustration . esp. so as to make faces — mouth-er n
moun-tain-top \’maunt-:ln-1t'ap\ n (1593): the summit of a mountain mouth-breed-er Vmauth-,bred-ar\ n (1927) : any of.“veralfishles that
moun-tainy \'maunt-sn-e, *maunt-ne\ adj (1613) 1 . mountainous 2 carry their eggs and young in the mouth; esp : a No. African percold
; of, relating to, or living in mountains fish (Haplochromes multicolor) often kept in aquariums
‘moun-te-bank \'maunt-i-,bai]k\ n [It montimbanco, fr. montare to mouthed ymauthd, *mautht\ adj (14c) : having a mouth esm of a speci¬
mount (fr.—assumed—VL) 4- in in, on (fr. L) + banco, banco bench fied kind — often used in combination (a soft-mouthed fish) ....
— more at bank] (1586) 1 : a person who sells quack medicines from mouth-ful Vmauth-,ful\ n (15c) 1 a : as much as a mouth will hold b
a platform 2 : a boastful unscrupulous pretender : CHARLATAN — : the quantity usu. taken into the mouth at one time 2 t a small quan¬
moun-te-bank-ery \-,ban-k(3-)re\ n . ,_ ^ tity 3 a : a very long word or phrase b : a comment or a statement
‘mountebank vf, obs (1607) : to beguile or transform by trickery (I
their loves —Shak.) ~ vi: to play the mountebank rich in meaning or substance .
mouth hook n (1937) : one of a pair of hooked larval mouthparts ot
Mount-ie \'maunt-e\ n [mounted policeman] (1914) : a member ot the
some two-winged flies that function as jaws
Royal Canadian Mounted Police
mounting \'maunt-ii)\ n (1563) : ‘MOUNT 2 mouth organ n (1866) : HARMON1CA2
mourn \'m6(^m, 'mo(3)rn\ vb [ME mournen, fr. OE murnan; akini to mouth-part Ymaiith-,part\ n (1799) : a structure or appendage near the
OHG mornen to mourn, Gk mermera care — more at memory] vi (.bet.
12c) 1 : to feel or express grief or sorrow 2 : to show the customary mouth-piece \-,pes\ n (1607) 1 : something placed at or forming a
signs of grief for a death; esp : to wear mourning 3 : to murmur mouth 2 ; a part (as of an instrument) that goes in the mouth or to
mournfully — used esp. of doves ^ vi 1 : to feel or express grief or which the mouth is applied 3 a : one that expresses or interprets
sorrow for 2 : to utter mournfully — mourn-er n — mourn-mg-ly another's views : SPOKESMAN b slang : a criminal lawyer
mouth-to-mouth ad; (1909) : of, relating to, or being a method of artifi-
Vmor-nin-le, 'mor-\ adv cial respiration in which the rescuer’s mouth is placed tightly over tne
mourn-fulYmoMm-fal, 'm6(3)m-\ adj (15c) I : expressing sorrow
* sorrowful 2 : full of sorrow : sad 3 : causing sorrow : sadden¬ victim’s mouth in order to force air into his lungs by blowing forcefully
ing— mourn-ful-ly \-fa-le\ adv— mourn-ful-ness n enough every few seconds to inflate them
mourn-ing \'mor-nin, 'mor-\ n (13c) 1: the act of sorrowing 2 a : an mouth-wash \'mauth-,wosh, -,w'ash\ n (1840) : a usu. antiseptic liquid
outward sign (as black clothes or an armband) of gnef for a person s preparation for cleaning the mouth and teeth or freshening the breath
death (is wearing b ; a period of time during which signs of gnet mouthy \'mau-the, -the\ adj mouth-i-er; -est (1589) 1: excessively
are shown . „ talkative : GARRULOUS 2 : marked by or given to bombast
mourning cloak n (1898) : a blackish brown butterfly (Nymphalis anti- mou-ton Ymii-.tan, mii-\ n [F, sheep, sheepskin, fr. MF, ram — more at
opa) with a broad yellow border on the wings found in temperate parts mutton] (1944) : processed sheepskin that has been sheared and dyed
of Europe, Asia, and No. America .. .* to resemble beaver or seal
mourning dove n (1833) : a wild dove CZenaidura macrourc carolinensis)
of the U.S. with a plaintive call _,T_
'mouse \‘maus\ n, pi mice \'mls\ [ME, fr. OE mus; akin to OHG mus
mouse, L mus, Gk mys mouse, muscle] (bef. 12c) 1 : any of numerous
small rodents (as of the genus Mus) with pointed snout, rather small ‘movable ~or moveable n (14c) : something (as an article of furniture)
ears, elongated body, and slender tail 2 a slang : woman b : a timid that can be removed or displaced . . .
person 3 : a dark-colored swelling caused by a blow; specif: black ‘move V'muvX vb moved; mov-ing [ME moven, fr. MF mo voir, tr. L
EYE 4 ; a small mobile manual device that controls movement of the moverc] vi (13c) 1 a (1) : to go or pass from one place to another
cursor on a computer display t . t . - with a continuous motion {movedinto tne shade) (2): to proceed in a
2mouse \'mauz\ vb moused; mousing vi (13c) 1 ; to hunt tor mice z certain direction or toward a certain state or condition (moving up the
; to search or move stealthily or slowly ^ vt 1 obs a : bite, gnaw b executive ladder) (moved into second place in the tournament); also
; to toy with roughly 2 : to search for carefully — usu. used with out : to become transferred during play (checkers ~ along diagonally
mouse-ear \'mau-,si(3)r\ n (13c) 1 ; a European hawkweed adjacent squares) (3) : to keep pace (moving with the times) b : to
(Hieracium pilosella) that has soft hairy leaves and has been introduced start away from some point or place : depart c : to change one s
into No. America 2 : any of several plants other than mouse-ear that residence or location 2 : to carry on one’s life or activities m a speci¬
have soft hairy leaves v . , fied environment (~s in the best circles) 3 : to change position er
mouse—ear chickweed n (1731) : any of several hairy chickweeds (.esp. posture : STIR (told him to be quiet and not to ~) 4 : to take action
Cerastium vulgatum and C. viscosum) : act 5 a : to begin operating or functioning or working in a usual
mous-er \'mau-z3r\ n (15c): a catcher of mice and rats; esp : a cat profi¬ way b : to show marked activity (after a brief lull things reallybegan
cient at mousing p _ to ~) c : to move a piece (as in chess or checkers) during one s turn
'mousetrap \'mau-,strap\ n (14c) 1 : a trap for mice 2 : a stratagem 6 : to make a formal request, application, or appeal 7 : to change
that lures one to defeat or destruction 3 : trap 2b hands by being sold or rented (goods that were moving slowly) 8 of
2mousetrap vf (ca. 1890) : to snare in or as if in a mousetrap the bowels : evacuate ~ vt 1 a (1) : to change the place or posi¬
Mous*que*taire \,mu-sk3-'ta(3)r, -'te(3)r\ n [F — more at musketeer] tion of (2) : to dislodge or displace from a fixed position : BUDGE b
(1705) : a French musketeer; esp : one of the royal musketeers of the : to transfer (as a piece in chess) from one position to another 2 a
17th and 18th centuries conspicuous for their daring and their dandi- (1) : to cause to go or pass from one place to another with a continu¬
ous motion (moved the flag slowly up and down) (2) : to cause to
mous*sa*ka ^mii-sa-'kaX n [NGk mousakas] (1931) : a Middle Eastern advance b : to cause to operate or function t actuate (this button ~s
dish of ground meat (as lamb or beef) and sliced eggplant often topped the whole machine) c : to put into activity or rouse up from inactivity
with a seasoned sauce f . _ . 3 : to cause to change position or posture 4 : to prompt or rouse to
mousse \'mus\ n [F, lit., froth, fr. LL mulsa hydromel; akin to L met the doing of something : persuade (the report moved the facultv to
honey — more at mellifluous] (1892) 1 : a light spongy food usu. take action) 5 a : to stir the emotions, feelings, or passions of (was
containing cream or gelatin 2 : a molded chilled dessert made with deeply moved by such kindness) b : to affect in such a way as to lead
sweetened and flavored whipped cream or egg whites and gelatin to an indicated show of emotion (the story moved her to tears) 6 a
(chocolate ~) . , . obs : beg b : to make a formal application to 7 : to propose formally
mous-se-line \,rniis-(o-),len\ n [F, lit., muslin — more at muslin] [1696] in a deliberative assembly (moved that the meeting adjourn) 8 : to
1 : a fine sheer fabric (as of rayon) that resembles muslin 2 a : a cause (the bowels) to void 9 : to cause to change hands through sale
sauce (as hollandaise) to which whipped cream or beaten egg whites
or rent
have been added b : mousse 1 (salmon ~). . syn move, actuate, drive, impel mean to set or keep in motion, move
mousseline de soie \-da-'swa\ n, pi mousselines de soie \same\ [F, lit., is very general and implies no more than the fact of changing position;
silk muslin] (l 850) : a silk muslin having a crisp finish ACTUATE stresses transmission of power so as to work or set in motion;
mous-tache \'m3s-,tash, (,)m3s-‘\ var of mustache drive implies imparting forward and continuous motion and often
mousda-chio \(,)mss-\ var of mustachio stresses the effect rather than the impetus; impel suggests a greater
Mous-te-ri-an \mu-'stir-e-sn\ adj [F mousterien, fr. Le Moustier, cave in
Dordogne, France] (1890) : of or relating to a middle Paleolithic cul¬ impetus producing more headlong action.
ture that is characterized by well-made flake tools often considered the ‘move n (1656) I a : the act of moving a piece (as in chess) b : the
turn of a player to move 2 a : a step taken so as to gain an objective
work of Neanderthal man
mousy or mous-ey \'mau-se, -ze\ adj mous-i-er; -est (1853) : of, relating : maneuver (a — to end the dispute) b : the action of moving from a
to, or resembling a mouse: as a : QUIET, stealthy b : TIMID, retiring motionless position c : a change of residence or location — on the
c : grayish brown — mous-idy \-sa-le, -za-\ adv — mous-i-ness \-se- move 1: in a state of moving about from place to place (a salesman is
nss, -ze-\ n constantly on the move) 2 : in a state of moving ahead or making
‘mouth \'mauth\ n, pi mouths Vmautbz also 'mauz, 'mauths; in syuec- progress (said that civilization is always on the move)
dochic compounds like “blabbermouths" ths more frequently\ often move in vi (1898): to occupy a dwelling or place of work — move in on
attrib [ME, fr. OE muth; akin to OHG mund mouth, L mandere to ; to make advances or aggressive movements toward
chew, Gk masasthai to chew, mastax mouth, jaws] (bef. 12c) 1 a (1) move-less \'miiv-bs\ adj (1578) : being without movement : fixed,
: the opening through which food passes into the body of an animal immobile— move-less-ly adv — move-less-ness n
(2) : the cavity bounded externally by the lips and internally by the move-ment Vmiiv-mantV n (14c) 1 a (1) : the act or process of mov¬
pharynx that encloses in the typical vertebrate the tongue, gums, and ing; esp : change of place or position or posture (2) : a particular
teeth b : grimace (made a ~> c : an individual requiring food (had instance or manner of moving b (1) : a tactical or strategic shifting
too many ~s to feed) 2 a : voice speech (finally gave ~ to her feel¬ of a military unit : maneuver (2) : the advance of a military unit c
ings) b : mouthpiece 3a c (1) : a tendency to excessive talk (2) : action, ACTIVITY — usu. used in pi. 2 a : TENDENCY. TREND (de¬
: saucy or disrespectful language t impudence 3 : something that tected a ~ toward fairer pricing) b : a series of organized activities
resembles a mouth esp. in affording entrance or exit: as a : the place working toward an objective; also : an organized effort to promote or
where a stream enters a larger body of water b : the surface opening attain an end (the civil rights ~> 3 : the moving parts of a mechanism
of an underground cavity c : the opening of a container d : an open¬ that transmit a definite motion 4 a : MOTION 7 b : the rhythmic
ing in thfi side of an organ flue pipe — mouth-like Vmauth-.lfkX adj — character or quality of a musical composition c : a distinct structural
down in the mouth : dejected, sulky unit or division having its own key, rhythmic structure, and themes
‘mouth ymauth also 'mauth\ vt (14c) 1 a : speak, pronounce b : to and forming part of an extended musical composition d : particular
utter bombastically : declaim c : to repeat without comprehension or rhythmic flow of language : CADENCE S a ; tne quality (as in a paint¬
sincerity (always ~ing platitudes) d : to form soundlessly with the ing or sculpture) of representing or suggesting motion b : the quality
lips (the librarian ~ed the word "quiet”) e : to utter indistinctly in literature of having a quickly moving plot or an abundance of inci-

134 Building Power in Reading and Writing

1. Mouse-ear is defined as (a) an animal (b) a cloth (c) a plant (d) a kind
of person. 1.

2. When the word mouse means “search or move stealthily,” it is

used as (a) n (b) adj (c) ado (d) vt. 2.

3. The word muscle is related to the word {a) mourn (b) mousse (c) mustache
(d) mouse. 3.

4. Sad is provided as a synonym of (a) mourn (b) mournful (c) mourning

(d) mousetrap. 4.

5. If you wish to find out more about the word mousse, look up
(a) mellifluous (V) mouse (c) moussaka (d) mousseline. 5.

6. Mousseline is a (a) cloth (b) dessert (c) hair spray (d) hair style. 6.

7. Mousetrap entered the language in the (a) 12th century (b) 13th
century (c) 14th century (d) 15th century. 7.

8. You would expect to find all the following words on page 776
EXCEPT (a) mountaintop (b) mouth (c) movable (d) much. 8.

Answers
1. (c) The definition specifically identifies mouse-ear as “a hawkweed” or “any of several
plants.”
2. (d) The label vi is listed right after the entry itself, indicating that in the definitions
following, mouse is used as an intransitive verb.
3. (d) The explanation of mouse’s origin includes a reference to the Greek (Gk) mys mouse,
muscle.
4. (b) Sad is listed as a synonym for mournful, along with sorrowful.
5. (a) More at MELLIFLUOUS appears after the word mousse.
6. (a) Mousseline is defined as a “fine, sheer fabric.”
7. (c) The explanation 14c after mousetrap indicates that the word entered the language
in the 14th century.
8. (d) Much is not included within the guide words mountain time—movement.

Maps

You will undoubtedly own a car someday and plan trips to other cities, scenic
areas, or theme parks like Walt Disney World. Do you know how to read a road
map?

Parti. Reading Skills 135

On Your Own

Study the following road map and answer the questions at the end.

1. If you wanted to travel from Asheville to East Flat Rock, you would
take the route numbered (a) 26 (b) 40 (c) 25A (d.) 280. 1. -

2. The distance between Crabtree and Lake Junaluska is (a) 3 miles

(b) 6 miles (c) 9 miles (d) not given. 2. -

3. A characteristic of the Blue Ridge Parkway is that (a) it is very short

(b) it flows in a very straight line (c) it avoids towns and cities
(d) it goes through both Waynesville and Maggie Valley. 3. -

4. The shortest route between Gatlinburg and Cherokee passes

through (a) Newfound Gap (b) Bryson City (c) Whittier
(d) Birdtown. 4. -

5. Trust and Luck are (a) mountains (b) towns (c) lakes (d) museums. 5. -

Recipes

Cookbooks are among the most popular books published every year. Everyone
is interested in cooking—or at least in the results of cooking. Following a recipe
is not too difficult, but there is always one danger: you may omit one important
step and ruin your project! How well can you read a recipe?

On Your Own

Study the following recipe and answer the questions at the end.

136 Building Power in Reading and Writing

 Toffee Butter Cookies

Ingredients
1 cup butter 1 teaspoon vanilla
1 cup brown sugar 2 cups sifted flour
1 egg 8 plain milk chocolate bars
Vi cup chopped nuts (your choice)

Procedure
Whip the butter and brown sugar until they are fluffy. Mix the egg and
vanilla together and add to the butter and sugar. Then add the 2 cups of
sifted flour to the above and mix thoroughly. Spread mixture on a 9 x 13
cookie pan. Don’t put the batter too near the edge. Bake for 15 minutes in
a 350-degree oven.
Take the cookie pan from the oven and set it on a surface that will
not scorch. Break up the chocolate bars and place pieces all over the
cookie dough. When they start to melt, spread the chocolate evenly over
the baked cookie batter. Sprinkle nuts over the top of the chocolate. Let
cool and cut into desired sizes for cookies.

1. Of the following steps, the one that comes before the others is (a)
sprinkling the nuts (b) adding the chocolate (t) baking for 15
minutes (d) whipping the butter and brown sugar. 1.

2. The milk chocolate is added (a) right after the batter is spread on
the cookie pan (b) before the vanilla is added (c) after the nuts have
been added (d) while the baked batter is still hot. 2.

3. When the cookie pan comes out of the oven, (a) the cookies have
still not been separated (b) the brown sugar must still be added
(r) only half the flour has been used (d) the butter and brown sugar
are still fluffy. 3.

4. When the flour is added to the mixture, it should be (a) partly

baked (b) sifted (c) filled with nuts (d) heated. 4.

Part I. Reading Skills 137

Charts

Information is often presented in graphic form. Charts compress a great deal

of information in a small space. Can you read and understand a chart?

On Your Own

A major problem of all modern societies is the disposal of garbage and other
solid wastes. The problem can be presented in the form of a chart. Study the
following chart and answer the questions at the end.

THE PROBLEM OF LANDFILLS

Years of Use
Remaining

It takes five years

to prepare a landfill.
More than a third of
communities will run
out of landfill space
within five years.

1. The statement that “more than a third of communities will run

out of landfill space within five years” is found by adding together
the percentages (a) 13 % and 22 % (/>) 17 % and 27 % (c) 22 % and
17% (d) 13% and 21%.

2. The percentage of landfills with a life of 10 to 20 years is

0) 13% (b) 17% 0) 21% (d) 27%. 2.

3. From the statistics presented, you may infer that (a) communities
are planning adequately for the disposal of solid wastes (b) the
landfill situation is inadequate for long-term needs (c) new landfills
are being created at the rate of several each year {d) the collection
of solid wastes is not a problem. 3.

138 Building Power in Reading and Writing

Statistics

What is the highest mountain in the continental United States? Who won the
Pulitzer Prize for Poetry in 1979? What two teams played in the 1987 Super Bowl?
How many passenger cars did the United States export last year? Which state
produces more corn, Illinois or Iowa? To find answers to questions like these, you’ll
have to consult lists of statistics as reported in various almanacs.

On Your Own

Study th€ following statistics* about principal rivers of the world and answer
the questions at the end. Confluence means a flowing together.

Principal Rivers of the World

(For other U.S. rivers, see Index)

Approx, length

River Source Outflow miles km

Nile Tributaries of Lake Mediterranean Sea 4,180 6,690

Victoria, Africa
Amazon Glacier-fed lakes, Atlantic Ocean 3,912 6,296
Peru
Mississippi-Missouri- Source of Red Rock, Gulf of Mexico 3,880 6,240
Red Rock Montana
Yangtze Kiang Tibetan plateau, China China Sea 3,602 5,797
Ob Altai Mts., U.S.S.R. Gulf of Ob 3,459 5,567
Yellow (Huang Ho) Eastern part of Kunlan Gulf of Chihli 2,900 4,667
Mts., west China
Yenisei Tannu-Ola Mts., western Arctic Ocean 2,800 4,506
Tuva, U.S.S.R.
Parana Confluence of Paranaiba Rio de la Plata 2,795 4,498
and Grande rivers
Irtish Altai Mts., U.S.S.R. Ob River 2,758 4,438
Congo Confluence of Lualaba and Atlantic Ocean 2,716 4,371
Luapula rivers, Zaire
Amur Confluence of Shilka Tatar Strait 2,704 4,352
(U.S.S.R.) and Argun
(Manchuria) rivers
Lena Baikal Mts., U.S.S.R. Arctic Ocean 2,652 4,268
Mackenzie Head of Finlay River, Beaufort Sea (Arctic Ocean) 2,635 4,241
British Columbia, Canada
Niger Guinea Gulf of Guinea 2,600 4,184
Mekong Tibetan highlands South China Sea 2,500 4,023
Mississippi Lake Itasca, Minnesota Gulf of Mexico 2,348 3,779
Missouri Confluence of Jefferson, Mississippi River 2,315 3,726
Gallatin, and Madison
rivers, Montana
Volga Valdai plateau, U.S.S.R. Caspian Sea 2,291 3,687

*From 1988 INFORMATION PLEASE ALMANAC. Copyright (c) 1987 by Houghton Mifflin Company.
Reprinted by permission of Houghton Mifflin Company.

Part I. Reading Skills 139

1. The rivers are arranged according to their (a) alphabetic order
(b) length (c) source (d) outflow. 1- -

2. The longest river in the U.S.S.R. is the (a) Ob (b) Yenisei

(c) Irtish (d) Amur. 2. -

3. The river that flows into the Rio de la Plata is the (a) Nile (b) Volga
(r) Missouri (d) Parana. 3. -

4. Among the following, the shortest river is the {a) Congo (b) Nile
(r) Mississippi {d) Volga. 4- -

5. The approximate length of the Ob River (in miles) is (a) 4,180

(b) 3,459 (c) 2,600 (d) 2,291. 5. -

6. The river whose source is in Peru is the (a) Nile (b) Amur
(c) Amazon (d) Missouri. 6. -

7. Another name for the Yellow River is the (a) Ob (b) Huang Ho
(c) Lena {d) Irtish. 7. -

8. The number of rivers that flow into a strait is (a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3
(d) 4. 8. -

Want Ads
Many people find jobs by reading the “Help Wanted” section of the daily
newspaper. Some are disappointed, however, because they fail to read carefully
before they apply. Can you read a want ad accurately?

On Your Own
Study the following want ad and answer the questions at the end.

NOW HIRING

Busy Seafood Restaurant now hiring a line

cook, waiter/waitress, part-time hostess/host,
and part-time salad person. Also secretary,
temporary, for two months. Experience in typing
and filing essential. Apply 2-4 P.M., Tuesdays
and Thursdays only: Seascape Restaurant,
Shore Road and Bahama Drive.

1. A part-time job is open for a (a) line cook (b) cashier

(r) secretary (<7) salad person. 1. _

2. The only job that specifies that experience is necessary is for a

(a) cook (b) secretary (c) salad person (d) hostess/host. 2. _

3. Wages or salaries have not been mentioned, probably because

(a) different jobs earn different pay (b) waiters and waitresses earn
tips (c) a host or hostess requires more skill than a secretary
(id) the owners always pay more than minimum wage. 3. _

4. A suitable time for applying for any of the jobs would be (a) all
day Monday, after the weekend (b) Friday morning (c) 3:00 P.M.
on Thursday {d) 2:30 P.M. on Wednesday. 4. _

140 Building Power in Reading and Writing

Job Applications

Some employers require written job applications. Neatness, accuracy, and

completeness in filling out an application are essential.

On Your Own

The following form is a portion of an application for a bank job. Study the
excerpt and answer the questions at the end.

EDUCATION AND/OR TRAINING

Name & Location Major/Minor From To Type Degree Received

High School
Business or
Technical
College or
University
Graduate
School
Additional Business
Courses
Typing Shorthand Right Handed/ Other
Speed_Speed_ Left Handed_ Skills

EMPLOYMENT INTEREST

Position(s) Applied For

Areas of
Career Interest_

Date Available Location Preference

Are you willing to: Work Part Time Yes □ No □ Travel Yes □ No □
Work at Night Yes □ No □ Relocate Yes □ No □
Work on a Temporary Basis Yes □ No □
Work on an On-Call Basis Yes □ No □

PREVIOUS EMPLOYMENT

(Begin with current or last employment. Please complete even if you have submitted a resume.)

Date
Company Name- From _ To_ Phone i_)_
Area
Present or
Address- _ Last Supervisor_
(Street) (City) (State) (Zip)
Reason May We Contact?
for Leaving- _ Yes □ No □

Positions Held/Last Salary Duties/Dates

Parti. Reading Skills 141

1. All the following information is requested EXCEPT (a) previous
job information (b) schooling (c) willingness to travel (d) condition
of health. ^‘

2. The request for information about additional business courses is

probably included to (a) help the bank fit the job to the applicant
(£) eliminate anyone who doesn’t have a business course (c) see
whether the applicant has friends in another bank (d) satisfy the
curiosity of the personnel officer. 2. -

3. The bank is probably interested in learning an applicant’s reason

for leaving a previous job so that it can (q) provide a perfect job
for the applicant (b) reject a possibly troublesome applicant
(c) learn something about competitors (d') make a substantial
reduction in the salary offered. 3. -

4. Previous jobs are to be listed starting with your (a) first job
(b) favorite job (c) most recent job (d) best paying job. 4. -

Where to Look for Information

For success in school and later, you need to know which reference books to
use, where to find them, and how to use them when you find them. It is a good
idea to browse through the reference section of your school or public library. F amil-
iarize yourself with dictionaries, almanacs, and encyclopedias. You 11 find them
extremely helpful.

Bonus

Read the following passage and answer the questions at the end.

As an intelligent citizen, what should you know

about reference books? Of course, you should own a
good dictionary and should know how to use the large,
unabridged dictionaries. In addition to traditional
dictionaries, there are many specialized dictionaries,
like the Dictionary of American Biography and Webster’s
Biographical Dictionary.

You should also be able to use an almanac, or book

of facts. Two of the most popular are the World Almanac
and Book of Facts and the Information Please Almanac. Here
you will find up-to-date information about every country
in the world, statistics on industrial production, and a
history of space exploration, among many other things.

142 Building Power in Reading and Writing

 Encyclopedias provide in-depth material only
touched upon in almanacs and dictionaries. You will
find extensive articles on thousands of subjects alpha¬
betically arranged. Cross-references and indexes
provide even more help in finding just the information
you are seeking. The World Book Encyclopedia is intended
for young people. The Encyclopedia Britannica is written
at a more adult level and goes into greater depth in many
areas. Other encyclopedias include Collier’s Encyclopedia,
Encyclopedia Americana, and the truly remarkable one-
volume New Columbia Encyclopedia.

If you are trying to locate an African nation like

Zaire, use an atlas. There are many fine atlases avail¬
able, like the Rand McNally International World Atlas and
the New York Times Atlas of the World. Some atlases
include the term gazetteer in the title, like the Columbia-
Lippincott Gazetteer of the World. Gazetteers, along with
many atlases, include a dictionary of geographical
names.

There are many other sources of information.

Among the various directories available is the telephone
directory, a most important source of information about
people, organizations, commercial establishments, and
industry. You should know how to use the classified
directory, often called the Yellow Pages, to find the service
or store you want.

Periodicals are also important resources. The daily

newspaper is a major source of information, much of it
not available on the shorter television reports.
Magazines provide follow-up on newspaper stories and
go into greater depth. Encyclopedias, for all their special
qualities, cannot be as up-to-date as newspapers and
magazines. Encyclopedias should be used for
background material; newspapers and magazines, for
current information.

Many people have a glancing, superficial knowl¬

edge of current events and their background. To go
beneath the surface and add depth to what you know,
become familiar with all the reference material easily
available.

Parti. Reading Skills 143

 KNOW THESE WORDS

unabridged: not shortened

gazetteer: geographical dictionary
periodicals: newspapers and magazines
superficial: on the surface only

1. Which of the following titles best summarizes the content of the

passage?

(a) Encyclopedias: The Key to Knowledge

(b) All about Words and Their Origins
(c) Major Reference Books and Other 3ources
(d) The Well-Informed Citizen

2. Write the letter of the sentence that best expresses the main idea.

(a) Many people have a glancing, superficial knowledge of

current events and their background.
(b) You will find extensive articles on thousands of subjects
alphabetically arranged.
(r) Encyclopedias provide in-depth material only touched upon
in almanacs and dictionaries.
(d) To go beneath the surface and add depth to what you know,
become familiar with all the reference material easily avail¬
able.

3. As used in paragraph 3, extensive means (a) intensive (b) far-

reaching (c) interesting (d) well-written.

4. All the following reference books are mentioned EXCEPT

(a) New World Dictionary (b) Information Please Almanac (r) World
Book Encyclopedia (d.) New York Times Atlas of the World.

5. To find the latest figures on the U.S. cotton crop, you would
probably consult (a) the Rand McNally International World Atlas
(b) Webster’s Biographical Dictionary (c) the World Almanac and Book
of Facts (d) the Encyclopedia Britannica.

6. Which of the following is an opinion?

(a) Space exploration is mentioned in almanacs.

(b) The classified directory is often called the Yellow Pages.
(c) Encyclopedias use cross-references and indexes.
(d) For general use the World Book Encyclopedia is better than the
New Columbia Encyclopedia.

144 Building Power in Reading and Writing

7. From the passage, we may infer that (a) gazetteers always
include a geographical dictionary (b) the unabridged dictionary
is better than a desk dictionary for everyday use (c) the Infor¬
mation Please Almanac is more up-to-date than the World Almanac
and Book of Facts (d) atlases always include a geographical dic¬
tionary.

8. The key term that distinguishes newspapers and magazines from

encyclopedias is (a) industrial (b) up-to-date (c) adult (d)
unabridged. 8.

9. Which of the following sentences contains figurative language?

(a) As an intelligent citizen, what should you know about refer¬

ence books?
(b) Of course, you should own a good dictionary.
(tr) Encyclopedias provide in-depth material only touched upon
in almanacs and dictionaries.
(d) Among the various directories available is the telephone
directory, a most important source of information about
people, organizations, commercial establishments, and
industry. 9.

10. As used in the last paragraph, the figurative expression glancing

means (a) shallow (b) profound (c) uninterested (d) calm. 10.

11. The author’s purpose in writing this passage was to

(a) inform (b) entertain (c) arouse (d) pass the time. 11.

12. The tone of the passage is (a) indifferent (b) inspirational

(c) argumentative (d) matter-of-fact. 12.

Part I. Reading Skills 145

 PART II
Review of Common
Usage Errors
\

In the writing part of many competency tests, you may be asked to write a
letter, a report, or some other form of composition. Your writing should be reason¬
ably free of usage errors, including errors of spelling, punctuation, and capital¬
ization. This section of the book provides a quick but inclusive review of usage
rules that you should already know but may have forgotten. By refreshing your
memory about problems of usage, you will be more likely to write letters, reports,
and compositions with confidence—and competence.

1. Problems with Sentence Structure

There are three basic kinds of sentences. The names of them are less important
than your ability to write them correctly. However, knowing their names makes
it possible to discuss them clearly.

Simple Sentences
In school, you have learned that a sentence must have a subject and a verb.
The verb is often called a predicate. In the following sentences, the subject has
one line under it; the verb has two.

Maria sang.

A section of the bridge fell during the recent storm.

The above are simple sentences. Each one contains a subject and a verb. Either
the subject or the verb, or both, may be compound. Something that is compound
has two or more parts.

146
 Simple Sentences with Compound Parts

compound subject: Maria and Jeffrey sang.

compound verb: Maria sang and danced.

COMPOUND SUBJECT
and verb: Maria and Jeffrey sang and danced.

Practice 1: Creating Simple Sentences with Compound

'Parts

Each numbered line consists of two sentences. You are to combine each pair
into one simple sentence with compound parts. The finished sentence may have
either a compound subject or a compound verb. (You will have to make some minor
changes.)

1. Mario plays tennis. Carla also plays tennis.

2. The boat caught fire. It finally sank.

3. We visited Washington, D.C. We toured the city.

4. Helen bought some roses. She put them in a vase on the table.

5. The Tigers play their games in our stadium. The Lions, too, play their games
in our stadium.

Answers

1. Mario and Carla play tennis.

2. The boat caught fire and finally sank.
3. We visited Washington, D.C., and toured the city.
4. Helen bought some roses and put them in a vase on the table.
5. The Tigers and the Lions play their games in our stadium.

Part II. Review of Common Usage Errors 147

 Compound Sentences

Two or more simple sentences can be combined to form a compound sentence.

SIMPLE sentence: Dogs show affection for their masters.

simple sentence: Cats are more aloof.

compound sentence: Dogs show affection for their masters, but cats
are more aloof. \

The parts of a compound sentence are often joined together by and, but, or,
or nor. These “joining words” are called coordinating conjunctions.

When two sentences are joined to make a compound sentence, the two main
parts are called clauses. Because these two parts can stand by themselves as complete
sentences, they are called independent clauses.

compound sentence: The bells rang, AND students quickly filled the
corridors.

compound sentence: Are you coming to the game, OR have you made
other plans?

compound sentence: Helen doesn’t like lima beans, NOR does she care
for okra. (To identify subject and verb, arrange
the sentence in subject-verb order: “she does care
for okra..”)

Practice 2: Creating Compound Sentences

Combine each pair of sentences to form a good compound sentence. Use and,
but, or, or nor. Make slight changes in wording, if necessary.

1. You may think of Dobermans as vicious dogs. Many of them are gentle.

2. Babies require care and attention. They become sickly.

3. Lightning struck the tree. The bark peeled off in layers.

148 Building Power in Reading and Writing

4. Jim did not mow the lawn. He did not trim the rosebushes.

5. The rain poured down. The sun was shining.

Answers

1. You may think of Dobermans as vicious dogs, but many of them are gentle.
2. Babies require care and attention, or they become sickly.
3. Lightning struck the tree, and the bark peeled off in layers.
4. Jim did not mow the lawn, nor did he trim the rosebushes.
5. The rain poured down, but the sun was shining.

Complex Sentences

A complex sentence has two or more clauses, too, but at least one of the clauses
cannot stand by itself as a sentence. Note the following example.

complex sentence: If Paula calls, give her my message.

first clause: If Paula calls, (subordinate clause)

second clause: give her my message. (independent clause)

Thejirst clause cannot stand by itself as a sentence. Although it has both a subject
and a verb, it needs something to complete its thought. It is a subordinate clause.
The second clause can stand by itself. It is an independent clause with the understood
subject you.

Subordinate Clauses

Many students have difficulty with subordinate clauses in their writing. They
sometimes make the mistake of punctuating subordinate clauses as if they were
complete sentences.

Subordinate clauses begin with ‘ ‘joining words” called subordinating conjunc¬

tions. Here’s a partial list.

after before than until

although how though when
as if till while
because since unless why

Part II. Review of Common Usage Errors 149

 In the following sentences, the conjunctions are capitalized; the subordinate
clauses are circled; and the independent clauses are underlined.

complex sentence: Juan went home (WHEN the game ended?)

complex sentence: ^BEFORE the movie started?) Eleanor bought popcorn.

Practice 3: Finding Subordinate Clauses

Circle the subordinate clause in each sentence. Draw a line under each clause
that could stand by itself as a sentence.

1. After the newscast ended, I began my homework.

2. I won’t leave until Cindy arrives.

3. The rain will get heavier before it stops.

4. Although Martha loves ice cream, she is going on a diet.

5. When the snapshots are ready, get them from the camera store.

Answers
1. (After the newscast endecQ I began my homework.

2. I won’t leave (until Cindy arrives)

3. The rain will get heavier (before it stops?)

4. (Although Martha loves ice creamj) she is going on a diet.

5. (When the snapshots are ready,) get them from the camera store.

More on Subordinate Clauses

Another type of subordinate clause begins with who, which, or that. In the
following sentences, the subordinate clauses are circled. As you see, they cannot
stand by themselves as sentences.

complex sentence: Ellen is the girl (wHO won the golf match^

complex sentence: Brooklyn, (wHICH is now part of New York City^) was
once a separate city.

complex sentence: The part of the movie (THAT I liked best() was the ending.

150 Building Power in Reading and Writing

Practice 4: Subordinate Clauses with WHO, WHICH,
and THAT

Circle the subordinate clause in each sentence. Be careful not to circle a part
of the independent clause.

1. Georgia Bonesteel, who teaches a course in lap quilting, is a friend of Nancy’s.

2. The Statue of Liberty is the sight that greeted millions of new immigrants.

3. Basketball,'which was invented by an American, is now played around the

world.

4. Itzhak Perlman is a man who has overcome serious physical disabilities.

5. One plant that everyone should avoid is poison ivy.

Answers
1. Georgia Bonesteel, (who teaches a course in lap quilting,^ is a friend of Nancy’s.

2. The Statue of Liberty is the sight (that greeted millions of new immigrants.)

3. Basketball, ( which was invented by an AmericanQ is now played around the world.

4. Itzhak Perlman is a man (who has overcome serious physical disabilities?)

5. One plant (that everyone should avoid ) is poison ivy.

On Your Own

Identify each sentence by writing SIMPLE, COMPOUND, or COMPLEX

on the line.
_ 1. The movie was very interesting, but I enjoyed the book
more.

_ 2. Her flight was canceled, and the trip was postponed.

_3. Alton Cramer, who was chosen to represent our school,

could not attend the meeting.

_4. The teachers and the students stood together.

_ 5. The car skidded and almost struck a utility pole.

_ 6. Lisa replaced the record that she had broken.

_ 7. Are you planning a new wardrobe?

_ 8. She used her personal computer to do her longer

homework assignments.

Part II. Review of Common Usage Errors 151

__ 9. When buses are delayed, students are usually late for
school.
_ 10. Disneyland and Hollywood are popular places to visit in
California.

Bonus

Combine each pair of sentences to make one strong complex sentence. If you
need help, look again at the list of subordinating conjunctions on page 149.

1. The sunrise was beautiful. A storm rolled in by eleven.

-— “

2. Roger came home early. Marjorie was late.

3. Tom plays professional football. His brother is more skilled in baseball.

4. My brothers Rodney and Sid are going skiing. The snow is deep enough.

5. I wrote to the senator. She never received my letter.

6. I will have to wait a long time to buy my concert ticket. The lines of people
are blocks long.

7. Jeff is on the track team. He finished next to last in the first race.

8. Don’t forget to water the flowers. They require more moisture at this time
of year.

9. The lawyer rose slowly. The jury glanced at him with expectation.

10. Angelo was studying in his room. Noisy construction was going on outside.

152 Building Power in Reading and Writing

 Sentence Fragments

It is important to be able to write complete sentences. Competency tests check

for your ability to do this. When a group of words does not express a complete
thought, it is a sentence fragment. Here are some examples of sentence fragments.
Although they contain end punctuation, they are not complete sentences. Study
the ways that they can be made into complete sentences.

no verb: Alice, along with a friend of hers from Dallas.

compLete sentence: Alice arrived, along with a friend of hers from

Dallas.

no verb: A small puppy running unsteadily across the

lawn. (The word running by itself is not a verb. It
needs a helper like is or was.)

COMPLETE SENTENCE: A small puppy was running unsteadily across the

lawn.

no subject: Took the train from Boston to New Haven.

COMPLETE SENTENCE: He took the train from Boston to New Haven.

NO VERB, NO SUBJECT: Near the telephone on the table.

COMPLETE SENTENCE: A lamp stood near the telephone on the table.

NO VERB, NO SUBJECT: Going to the movies with Eva and Jill.

COMPLETE SENTENCE: I am going to the movies with Eva and Jill.

Practice 5: Making Fragments into Complete Sentences

Rewrite each sentence fragment into a complete sentence. Add whatever words
are necessary.

1. At the bus stop on the corner near the K-Mart store.

Part II. Review of Common Usage Errors 153

2. Phil, unhappy with the test results.

3. Lost my new wristwatch somewhere in the locker room.

4. Enjoying the cool breezes of the Pocono Mountains.

5. A rerun of Star Wars playing at the local theater.

6. A television set in one corner and a videocassette recorder nearby.

7. Carried the groceries from the car to the kitchen.

8. The football team lining up for the kickoff.

9. Winning the game at the final whistle.

10. The lead singer with the band behind him on the stage.

Answers

Answers to this exercise will vary.

154 Building Power in Reading and Writing

Subordinate Clauses as Fragments

Subordinate clauses are not complete sentences

SUBORDINATE CLAUSE! Unless you are here by six o’clock.

COMPLETE SENTENCE! Unless you are here by six o’clock, I will have to
leave.

SUBORDINATE CLAUSE: When suddenly the traffic on Main Street came

to a halt.

COMPLETE SENTENCE: We were driving home when suddenly the traffic

on Main Street came to a halt.

SUBORDINATE CLAUSE: Which is a major Egyptian industry.

COMPLETE SENTENCE: Much money comes into the country from

tourism, which is a major Egyptian industry.

A sentence fragment that consists of a subordinate clause can be corrected in

two ways. One way is by eliminating the subordinating conjunction. The other
way is by adding words to complete the thought.

SUBORDINATE CLAUSE: When Julia won.

COMPLETE SENTENCE: Julia won. (The subordinating conjunction when

is eliminated.)

COMPLETE SENTENCE: I was happy when Julia won. (Words are added
to complete the thought.)

Practice 6: Correcting Sentence Fragments

Make each fragment into a complete sentence. In any five of the sentences,
eliminate the subordinating conjunction. In the other five, add words to complete
the thought.

1. Although I had never seen Joan before.

2. Unless Charles changes his mind.

3. Why the refrigerator made a loud noise

Part II. Review of Common Usage Errors 155

4. After we had packed a picnic lunch.

5. Until the coach decides on a starting pitcher.

6. If a blizzard hits the city tonight.

7. Since you are a good friend of Nelda’s.

V

8. When we won the first four games.

9. Since we arrived at the concert on time.

10. As storm clouds threatened.

Answers
1. I had never seen Joan before. OR Although I had never seen Joan before, I knew
I would recognize her.

2. Charles changes his mind. OR Unless Charles changes his mind, he is going to the
game.

3. The refrigerator made a loud noise. OR When the power went off, the refrigerator
made a loud noise.

4. We had packed a picnic lunch. OR After we had packed a picnic lunch, we decided
to buy hot dogs and hamburgers.

5. The coach decides on a starting pitcher. OR Until the coach decides on a starting
pitcher, the batting order will not be posted.

6. A blizzard hits the city tonight. OR If a blizzard hits the city tonight, we may not
have school tomorrow.

7. You are a good friend of Nelda’s. OR Since you are a good friend of Nelda’s, I thought
you would ask her to go with you.

8. We won the first four games. OR When we won the first four games, the number of
fans increased.

9. We arrived at the concert on time. OR Since we arrived at the concert on time, we

found our seats easily.

10. Storm clouds threatened. OR We sat on the patio as the storm clouds threatened.

156 Building Power in Reading and Writing

 Run-on Sentences

Writing sentence fragments is a serious error. Writing run-on sentences is an

equally serious error. A run-on sentence is two or more sentences written as if they
were one sentence.

run-on sentence: I enjoy puzzles they keep me entertained on rainy

days.

SEPARATE SENTENCES: I enjoy puzzles. They keep me entertained on

(correct) rainy days.

RUN-ON sentence: There was a loud splash, Fido had jumped into
the pond.

SEPARATE SENTENCES: There was a loud splash. Fido had jumped into
(correct) the pond.

Practice 7: Correcting Run-on Sentences

Rewrite the following run-ons. Make them into two separate sentences.

1. That cabinet is beautiful, it adds to the decor of the room.

2. Teresa enjoys swimming her brother Tom prefers boating and fishing.

3. Are you ready to leave do you have the tickets?

4. I dislike the laugh track on television comedies, the laughs sound so false.

5. The business of renting videotapes is booming there are two new rental stores
in town.

Part II. Review of Common Usage Errors 157

Answers
1. That cabinet is beautiful. It adds to the decor of the room.

2. Teresa enjoys swimming. Her brother Tom prefers boating and fishing.

3. Are you ready to leave? Do you have the tickets?

4. I dislike the laugh track on television comedies. The laughs sound so false.

5. The business of renting videotapes is booming. There are two new rental stores m town.

Change Run-ons to Compound and Complex Sentences

Some run-on sentences can be corrected by adding an appropriate connecting

word.

run-on sentence: Video games require good coordination, players

must react quickly.

compound sentence: Video games require good coordination, and

(correct) players must react quickly.

run-on sentence: Phyllis goes to evening school, she wants to

become an X-ray technician.
' "£4

complex sentence: Phyllis goes to evening school because she wants

(correct) to become an X-ray technician.

The following words can lead to run-on sentences: also, hence, nevertheless, then,
therefore, and thus. These words are not conjunctions. They cannot join sentences
with only a comma.

run-on sentence: The driver stopped, then he got out of his car.

SEPARATE SENTENCES: The driver stopped. Then he got out of his car.
(correct)

RUN-ON sentence: My best subject is science, therefore I took a

science elective this year.

SEPARATE SENTENCES: My best subject is science. Therefore, I took a

(correct) science elective this year.

158 Building Power in Reading and Writing

Practice 8
Change the following run-ons into compound or complex sentences.

1. The Jets are a winning team, they have a good defense.

2. Maryanne practiced ballet for two hours, she is in a special performance.

3. The light was shining in my eyes, I pulled the shade down.

4. George entered the supermarket, he went to the bakery section.

5. Julie was driving too fast, she slowed down very soon.

6. I opened the door the phone rang.

7. Rosita got a good grade on the test, she studied very hard.

8. Mr. Carson doesn’t jog every day, he doesn’t swim anymore.

9. Shake the bottle of medicine, take two drops in water.

10. She listened to the radio, she had earphones on.

Answers
1. The Jets are a winning team because they have a good defense.
2. Maryanne practiced ballet for two hours since she is in a special performance.
3. I pulled the shade down because the light was shining in my eyes.
4. When George entered the supermarket, he went to the bakery section.
5. Julie was driving too fast, but she slowed down very soon.
6. As I opened the door, the phone rang.
7. Rosita got a good grade on the test because she studied very hard.
8. Mr. Carson doesn’t jog every day, nor does he swim anymore.
9. Shake the bottle of medicine and take two drops in water.
10. She listened to the radio while she had earphones on.

Part II. Review of Common Usage Errors 159

On Your Own
Get rid of all sentence fragments. Correct the run-on sentences. Add or elimi¬
nate words as needed.

1. If she were elected president of the Spanish Club.

2. Have you ever seen the locks on the St. Lawrence Seaway, they are fascinating.

3. With a cry of triumph at the end of the long, hard tennis match.

4. Visited my grandmother in Greenville.

---------- *

5. The dog barked noisily, then a car pulled into the driveway.

6. Why don’t you plan a visit to the American Museum of Natural History, it
has a superb collection of gems.

7. When bats fluttered low over our campsite.

8. Four runners standing on the starting line.

9. Which had been closed for repairs.

160 Building Power in Reading and Writing

10. The hoys’ team won four of their matches the girls’ team won five of theirs.

Bonus

Follow the directions carefully to create the sentences below.

1. Write a simple sentence with a compound subject.

2. Write a compound sentence.

3. Write a complex sentence.

4. Write a complex sentence with a subordinate clause beginning with that.

5. Write a simple sentence with a compound subject and a compound verb.

6. Write a compound sentence using or.

7. Write a simple sentence with a compound verb.

8. Write a complex sentence with two subordinate clauses.

9. Write a sentence with a subordinate clause beginning with if.

10. Write a complex sentence with two independent clauses.

Part II. Review of Common Usage Errors 161

 2. Problems with Nouns

There are two main problems with nouns. The first is forming plurals. The
second is forming possessives. When you have to form plural possessives, you are
faced with both problems.

Plurals of Nouns

1. To form the plurals of most nouns, add S.

\

apple—apples friend—friends
desk—desks shoe—shoes
train—trains message—messages

2. To form the plurals of nouns ending in S, ch, Sh, X, or Z, add es. (This
gives the word an extra syllable and makes it easier to pronounce.)

address—addresses tax—taxes
church—churches waltz—waltzes
dish—dishes lunch—lunches

3. To form the plurals of nouns ending in y preceded by a CONSONANT,

change y to / and add es.

ally—allies lady—ladies
company—companies navy—navies
country—countries secretary—secretaries
cry—cries ferry—ferries

The vowels are a, e, /, O, and U. The consonants are all the other letters of
the alphabet. The lettery acts as a vowel in words like myth and a consonant
in words likeyes.

Nouns ending in y preceded by a VOWEL add only S.

alley—alleys ray—rays
valley—valleys holiday—holidays
alloy—alloys attorney—attorneys

4. To form the plurals of some nouns ending in f or fe, add S.

belief—beliefs handkerchief—handkerchiefs
fife—fifes roof—roofs
gulf—gulfs safe—safes
chief—chiefs proof—proofs

162 Building Power in Reading and Writing

5. To form the plurals of other nouns ending in f or fe, change the f to V
and add es.

calf—calves knife—knives
leaf—leaves life—lives
shelf—shelves loaf—loaves
wife—wives self—selves

Nouns ending in ff always add S.

cliff—cliffs cuff—cuffs

Practice 1: Writing Plurals

Write the plural form of each of the following nouns.

1. baby _ 9. pony

2. bunch _ 10. stone

3. crash _ 11. story

4. puff 12. tank

5. glass 13. tray

6. half 14. key

7. miss 15. wax

8. pinch _

Answers
1. babies 6. halves 11. stories
2. bunches 7. misses 12. tanks
3. crashes 8. pinches 13. trays
4. puffs 9. ponies 14. keys
5. glasses 10. stones 15. waxes

form the plurals of most nouns ending in 0, add S.

alto—altos piano—pianos
dynamo—dynamos rodeo—rodeos
Eskimo—Eskimos soprano—sopranos

These familiar nouns ending in O have plural forms with es.

echo—echoes tomato—tomatoes

hero—heroes veto—vetoes
potato—potatoes torpedo—torpedoes

Part II. Review of Common Usage Errors 163

 7. To form plurals of most compound nouns, add S.

classroom—classrooms cupful cupfuls

schoolbook—schoolbooks teaspoonful teaspoonfuls

8. A few nouns form their plurals in special ways, without adding

child—children mouse—mice
deer—deer ox—oxen
foot—feet series—series
goose—geese tooth—teeth
man—men woman—women

Practice 2

Write the plural form of each of the following nouns.

1. mouthful 6. piano

2. echo 7. roof

3. foot 8. hero

4. textbook 9. potato

5. sheep 10. tooth

Answers

1. mouthfuls 6. pianos
2. echoes 7. roofs
3. feet 8. heroes
4. textbooks 9. potatoes
5. sheep 10. teeth

On Your Own

Write the plurals of these nouns.

1. strawberry 6. saleswoman

2. chef 7. branch

3. government 8. attorney

4. bookshelf 9. family

5. radio 10. foot

164 Building Power in Reading and Writing

 Possessives of Nouns

To show possession, use the possessive form: the boy’s bicycle. The possessive
singular is easy to form. The possessive plural takes some thought.

9. To form the possessive of a singular noun, add ’s.

cat + ’s -cat’s
woman + ’s -^ woman’s
son-in-law + ’s -^ son-in-law’s
*

Practice 3: Writing Singular Possessives

Write the singular possessive form of each of the following nouns.

1. animal 7. igloo

2. attorney-general - 8. sister

3. brother 9. nurse

4. commander in chief - 10. week

5. fox 11. man

6. girl 12. year

Answers
1. animal’s 7. igloo’s

2. attorney- general ’ s 8. sister’s

3. brother’s 9. nurse’s

4. commander in chief’s 10. week’s

5. fox’s 11. man’s

6. girl’s 12. year’s

Part II. Review of Common Usage Errors 165

10. To form the plural possessive of any noun, take the following two steps,
one at a time.

FIRST: Write the plural. (Don’t omit this step!)

Notice the last letter in the plural form.

If plural ends in s: If plural does not end in s.

artist—artists child—children
astronaut—astronauts man—men
rocket—rockets sheep—sheep
trainer—trainers woman—women
\

SECOND: (a) If the plural form ends in s, add an

apostrophe (’).
(Jo) If the plural form does not end in s,
add an apostrophe and an s (’s).

If plural ends in s, If plural does not end in s,

add an apostrophe. add an apostrophe and an s.

artists’ easels children’s games

astronauts’ training men’s jackets
rockets’ red glare sheep’s clothing •it

trainers’ advice women’s movement

That’s all there is to it. If you follow the two steps, you will never go wrong.

Practice 4: Writing Plural Possessives

Write the plural possessive form of each of the following nouns. Remember: First
write the plural. Then add an ’ or’s as needed.

1. athlete 7. mouse

2. city 8. month

3. salesman 9. parent

4. four-year-old 10. search

5. goose 11. tree

6. house 12. wolf

Answers

1. athletes’ 7. mice’s
2. cities’ 8. months’
3. salesmen’s 9. parents’
4. four-year-olds’ 10. searches’
5. geese’s 11. trees’
6. houses’ 12. wolves’

166 Building Power in Reading and Writing

On Your Own

Write the singular possessive, plural, and plural possessive of each of the
following nouns.

Singular Plural
Singular Possessive Plural Possessive

1. book _ _ _

2. man , _ _ _

3. box _ _ _

4. lady _ _ _

5. sheep__ _

6. brush _ _ _

7. rose _ _ _

8. punch _ _ _

9. calf - - -

10. safe - - -

Bonus

Write the correct form of the noun in parentheses as required by the sense
of the sentence.

1. He left two of his (book)-on the bus.

2. The (book) __cover was torn.

3. Bill drove his (sister)-— car.

4. The two (sister)_bought two (house)-

5. The hunter shot three (goose)-

6. The ranger found that many of the (goose) -wings were

broken.

7. Two of Mr. Dixon’s (daughter)-own a computer store.

8. The two (daughter)-store is on Main Street.

9. Both of my (brother)-- belong to the (school)-

bowling team.

10. Ten of the hotel’s (doorman)-—— worked on Sunday.

Part II. Review of Common Usage Errors 167

 3. Problems with Verbs

Every sentence has one or more verbs. When you construct sentences, you
have to pay close attention to the verbs. You must choose the correct tense of the
verb. You must also make the verb agree with its subject. The following review
will refresh your memory about the use of verbs.

Using the Correct Tense

Tense means “time.” The form of a verb shows the time of the action that
the verb expresses. Be sure to use the correct tense in your writing.

PRESENT TENSE: A statue of Thomas Jefferson stands in W ashington, D. C.

past tense: The old Brooklyn Dodgers played at Ebbets Field.

FUTURE TENSE: Shirley will meet the bus at 5:00 this afternoon.

present perfect tense: The Pyramids have lasted for thousands of years.

PAST PERFECT TENSE: By late afternoon, all the guests had left.

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE: By the year 2000, people’s taste in popular music with
have changed.

Keeping to the Same Tense

A common mistake is to mix the present and the past in a sentence. Stick to
the same tense. Study the two examples to see how to correct errors.

mixed tenses: I lose my keys and waited for my mother to come home.
present past

same tense: I lose my keys and wait for my mother to come home.
present present

same tense: I lost my keys and waited for my mother to come home.
past past

mixed tenses: Because she misses the bus, she walked to school.
present past

same tense: Because she misses the bus, she walks to school.
present present

same tense: Because she missed the bus, she walked to school.
past past

168 Building Power in Reading and Writing

Practice 1: Keeping to the Same Tense

The following sentences show inconsistent use of tense, mixing present and
past. Make each pair of verbs consistent.

In 1-3, make all verbs present tense:

1. I get up at 7:00 A.M. and took a quick shower.

2. Children splashed in the neighborhood pool while the lifeguards supervise

carefully.

3. The puppies played at Mother’s feet as she knits quietly in the rocker.

In 4-6, make all verbs past tense:

4. The school bus was late, but I get an excuse note from the driver.

5. We hike up the Mt. Greylock trail and rested on the summit.

6. I asked our football coach to put me on the team, but he says I am too late.

Answers
1. I get up at 7:00 A.M. and take a quick shower.

2. Children splash in the neighborhood pool while the lifeguards supervise carefully.

3. The puppies play at Mother’s feet as she knits quietly in the rocker.

4. The school bus was late, but I got an excuse note from the driver.

5. We hiked up the Mt. Greylock trail and rested on the summit.

6. I asked our football coach to put me on the team, but he said I was too late.

Part II. Review of Common Usage Errors 169

 Principal Parts of Verbs

Regular Verbs

Most verbs are regular. They form tenses (express time of an action) in regular,
predictable ways.

I wash the dishes.

(.Expresses an action taking place, or an action always true.)

I washed the dishes.

(Expresses an action gone by.)

I have washed the dishes.

(Expresses an action completed at the time of speaking.)

Irregular Verbs

Some verbs are irregular. They cause trouble because they do not form their
tenses in the usual way.

I see a UFO.

(Expresses an action taking place.)

I saw a UFO.

(Expresses an action gone by.)

I have seen a UFO.

(.Expresses an action completed at the time of speaking.)

Principal Parts of Irregular Verbs

A speaker or writer of correct English must know the principal parts of verbs.
For example,

we don’t say: We swimmed to the float.

we DO say: We swam to the float.

we don’t say: Dad has went to the office.

we DO say: Dad has gone to the office.

we don’t say: The girls have ate their lunch.

we DO say: The girls have eaten their lunch.

170 Building Power in Reading and Writing

Here is a list of the trickiest irregular verbs. Study them thoroughly.

PRINCIPAL PARTS OF 40 IRREGULAR VERBS

Present Past Past Participle

am was (have) been

become became (have) become
begin began (have) begun
blow blew (have) blown
break broke (have) broken
bring brought (have) brought
catch caught (have) caught
choose chose (have) chosen
come came (have) come
do did (have) done
draw drew (have) drawn
drink drank (have) drunk
drive drove (have) driven
eat ate (have) eaten
fall fell (have) fallen
find found (have) found
freeze froze (have) frozen
get got (have) gotten or got
give gave (have) given

go went (have) gone

hold held (have) held
know knew (have) known
leave left (have) left
lie lay (have) lain
ride rode (have) ridden
rise rose (have) risen
say said (have) said
see saw (have) seen
shake shook (have) shaken
sit sat (have) sat
speak spoke (have) spoken
stick stuck (have) stuck
swim swam (have) swum
take took (have) taken
teach taught (have) taught
tear tore (have) torn
throw threw (have) thrown
win won (have) won
wind wound (have) wound
write wrote (have) written

Part II. Review of Common Usage Errors 171

Practice 2: Choosing the Correct
Principal Part of the Verb

In each sentence, underline the correct form of the verb.

1. At the fair, we (saw, seen) a tractor-pulling contest.

2. The Coopers (brought, brung) the hot dogs to the picnic.
3. Phyllis has (chose, chosen) dramatics as her English elective.
4. Mr. Esposito (did, done) a good job in landscaping his yard.
5. You missed Vera. She has (gone, went) to the movies.
6. I have never (ate, eaten) a more delicious dish than stuffed flounder.
7. Oh, I’ve (tore, torn) my jacket. \
8. Melanie has (drawn, drew) a picture of our cabin in the Catskills.
9. I (been, have been) taking tennis lessons this summer.
10. The old maple tree in the forest has (fallen, fell) at last.
11. Bud (came, come) late to the Camera Club meeting.
12. That old hat has (laid, lain) on the desk for a week.
13. Yesterday’s storm has (shaken, shook) most of the apples from the tree.
14. Raul (swam, swum) forty laps in the pool yesterday.
15. Have you (gave, given) old clothes to the Dramatics Club?
16. As we entered town, the village clock (began, begun) to strike.
17. During our move to Phoenix, three of our lamps were (broke, broken).
18. Paolo thought he (knew, knowed) the girl who had just entered the store, but
he was wrong.
19. Has any quarterback ever (throwed, thrown) a football 70 yards?
20. The weather at the soccer game turned cold, and we were nearly (froze, frozen)
by the end of the game.
21. “Lazy Days” is the best composition Doreen has ever (written, wrote).
22. Have you ever (ridden, rode) on a Pasofino horse?
23. The noon whistle (blew, blowed) ten minutes late today.
24. Have you ever (spoke, spoken) before a full auditorium?
25. Sue has never (driven, drove) a car at night.

Answers

1. At the fair, we saw a tractor-pulling contest.

2. The Coopers brought the hot dogs to the picnic.
3. Phyllis has chosen dramatics as her English elective.
4. Mr. Esposito did a good job in landscaping his yard.
5. You missed Vera. She has gone to the movies.
6. I have never eaten a more delicious dish than stuffed flounder.
7. Oh, I’ve torn my jacket.
8. Melanie has drawn a picture of our cabin in the Catskills.
9. I have been taking tennis lessons this summer.
10. The old maple tree in the forest has fallen at last.
11. Bud came late to the Camera Club meeting.
12. That old hat has lain on the desk for a week.
13. Yesterday’s storm has shaken most of the apples from the tree.
14. Raul swam forty laps in the pool yesterday.
15. Have you given old clothes to the Dramatics Club?

172 Building Power in Reading and Writing

16. As we entered town, the village clock began to strike.
17. During our move to Phoenix, three of our lamps were broken.
18. Paolo thought he knew the girl who had just entered the store, but he was wrong.
19. Has any quarterback ever thrown a football 70 yards?
20. The weather at the soccer game turned cold, and we were nearly frozen by the end
of the game.
21. “Lazy Days” is the best composition Doreen has ever written.
22. Have you ever ridden on a Pasofino horse?
23. The noon whistle blew ten minutes late today.
24. Have you ever spoken before a full auditorium?
25. Sue has never driven a car at night.

Agreement of Subject and Verb

A verb must agree with its subject in number. That is, if the subject of a sentence
is singular, the verb must also be singular: “The child is lost.” If the subject is
plural, the verb must also be plural: “Yourfriends are here.”

Singular Plural

First person: I enjoy we enjoy

Second person: you enjoy you enjoy
Third person: he, she, it enjoys they enjoy

The verb to be, the commonest verb in English, is, alas, irregular. These are
the present-tense forms:

First person: I am we are

Second person: you are you are
Third person: he, she, it is they are

These are the past-tense forms:

I was we were
you were you were
he, she, it was they were

The important verb to have is worth a look. These are the present-tense forms:

First person: I have we have

Second person: you have you have
Third person: he, she, it has they have

These are the past-tense forms:

I had we had
you had you had
he, she, it had they had

Part II. Review of Common Usage Errors 173

 Most native speakers of English tend to use the right form in sentences, like
the one below, in which the verb follows the subject.

A tree stands at the front gate.

In other sentences, subject-verb agreement, not as simple as the above, is the

cause of some common mistakes. So study these few rules.

1. A difficulty comes when there are words (those in parentheses below)

between the subject and the verb.

A tree (with green leaves) stands at the front gate.

\

Some people would mistakenly write stand in the belief that leaves is the subject.
It is not.

2. Expressions like together with, according to, including, as well as, and others
do not affect subject-verb agreement.

The players, including the coach, are going to the game by

plane.

In the above sentence, players is the subject, not coach.

3. Another common difficulty arises in agreement when the subject is

compound. The words and, or, nor, either ... or, neither . . . nor signal the
presence of a compound subject.

a. When two subjects are connected by and, the subject is plural and the
verb is usually plural.

High seas AND dense fog have slowed the rescue operation.

b. When two singular subjects are joined by or or nor, the subject is

singular and the verb is singular.

Rain OR snow is the forecast for today.

174 Building Power in Reading and Writing

 c. When two subjects of different number are joined by neither ... nor or
either ... or, the verb agrees with the nearer subject.

NEITHER Fran NOR her brothers are going to the state

convention.

EITHER these telephone numbers OR that address is wrong.

Practice 3: Making Verbs Agree

with Their Subjects

In each sentence, underline the correct form of the verb.

1. The books on that shelf (are, is) biographies.

2. The coach, together with his players, (are, is) having pictures taken.
3. The elm and the chestnut (is, are) subject to a deadly disease.
4. Neither the president nor the other officers (was, were) present at the lecture.
5. A good food for dogs (contain, contains) the right balance of vitamins and
minerals.
6. Either the Denby Brothers or Wu Chen (are, is) my choice for first place in
the competition.
7. The windows as well as the door (was, were) locked.
8. A woman from one of the local consumer organizations (speak, speaks) tonight
in the auditorium.
9. The two lamps on my father’s desk (are, is) old but still in working order.
10. A hamburger or a frank (are, is) not enough for my lunch.

Answers
1. The books on that shelf are biographies.
2. The coach, together with his players, is having pictures taken.
3. The elm and the chestnut are subject to a deadly disease.
4. Neither the president nor the other officers were present at the lecture.
5. A good food for dogs contains the right balance of vitamins #nd minerals.
6. Either the Denby Brothers or Wu Chen is my choice for first place in the competition.
7. The windows as well as the door were locked.
8 A woman from one of the local consumer organizations speaks tonight in the audito¬
rium.
9. The two lamps on my father’s desk are old but still in working order.
10. A hamburger or a frank is not enough for my lunch.

Part II. Review of Common Usage Errors 175

 Troublesome Verb Pairs
Some verb pairs seem to cause more than their share of difficulty. Learn to
use correctly each verb in the following pairs.

Lie, Lay

First, study the forms of these tricky verbs.

Present Present Participle Past Past Participle

lie (“rest,” “recline”) lying lay lain

lay (“put” or “set down”) laying x laid laid

Notice these correct forms:

Angela is lying down. She lay down an hour ago. She has lain
on the couch without stirring.

Mr. Winters is laying the tile. He laid most of the tile yesterday.
He has laid tile for a number of builders.

Sit, Set

Present Present Participle Past Past Participle

sit (“occupy a chair”) sitting sat sat

set (“place,” “put in order”) setting set set

Notice these correct forms:

Nathan is sitting on the front porch. He sat in his favorite rocker.

He has sat in that chair many times.

The twins are setting the table. They set it this morning, too.
They have set it every day this week.

Learn, Teach

To learn is to gain knowledge. To teach is to give knowledge. Notice these correct

forms:

When Miss Trapani teaches science, I learn more easily.

176 Building Power in Reading and Writing

Bring, Take

To bring usually calls for motion toward the speaker. To take usually calls for
motion away from the speaker. Notice these correct forms:

When you come home from school today, please bring me an

evening newspaper.

Please take this overdue book to the library.

Adapt, Adopt

To adapt means to change, to adjust. To adopt means to take as one’s own.

Notice these correct forms:

Animals like the opossum learn to adapt to new climates and

living conditions.

Our dog Sabrina has adopted the kitten Doug brought home.

Practice 4: Using Troublesome Verbs Correctly

In each sentence, underline the correct form in parentheses.

1. Wake up Dad. He has (laid, lain) in that hammock all afternoon.

2. At my brother’s graduation, our family was (setting, sitting) in the third row
of the auditorium.
3. Nobody can (teach, learn) you anything if you resist instruction.
4. Please (bring, take) this saw down to the workbench in the basement.
5. A species that cannot (adapt, adopt) to changing conditions is doomed to
extinction.

Answers
1. Wake up Dad. He has lain in that hammock all afternoon.
2. At my brother’s graduation, our family was sitting in the third row of the auditorium.
3. Nobody can teach you anything if you resist instruction.
4. Please take this saw down to the workbench in the basement.
5. A species that cannot adapt to changing conditions is doomed to extinction.

Part II. Review of Common Usage Errors 177

On Your Own

On line (b), rewrite sentence (a) by changing the agreement of the subject and
verb. If the subject is singular, make it plural. If plural, make it singular. The first
one is done for you.

1. (a) Joanne walks to the library.

(b) Joanne and Bill walk to the library.

2. (a) Two rosebushes grow by the door.

(b) ----
V

3. (a) The child plays ball.

(*) -----

4. (a) The whistle blows at noon.

(b) --

5. (a) The bill is overdue.

.?

iP) ---

178 Building Power in Reading and Writing

 4. Problems with Modifiers

Nouns and verbs carry the essential thought of a sentence. These are the bread-
and-butter words, the key content words, the power words. Other kinds of words,
called modifiers, add exactness and color to sentences. Notice the difference they
make.

1. Monkeys chattered.
* 2. A hundred monkeys chattered noisily.

The bare sentence in 1 is considerably enriched by the added modifiers in

sentence 2.

An adjective modifies (tells something about) a noun. An adverb modifies (tells

something about) a verb. In sentence 2 above, hundred, an adjective, modifies the
noun monkeys. Noisily, an adverb, modifies the verb chattered.

Adjectives and Adverbs Confused

A common problem with modifiers is to confuse adjectives with adverbs. The

usual error is to use an adjective when an adverb is needed.

1. Pierce did well on his science test. (NOT good)

2. Jerry sometimes speaks too rapidly. (NOT rapid)

3. Young birds in nests must be fed regularly. (NOT regular)

4. Meg looked thoughtfully at her test paper before beginning to write. (NOT
thoughtful)

5. To teach any animal tricks, you must work patiently with it. (NOT patient)

Practice 1: Choosing the Correct Modifier

In each sentence, underline the correct modifier in parentheses.

1. You cannot do (good, well) if you don’t have enough sleep.

2. The runaway truck careened (wild, wildly) down the road before running into
a ditch.
3. After only two lessons, Mary plays golf very (good, well).
4. The river current was rushing too (swift, swiftly) for safe swimming.
5. Our relay team ran (good, well), but we still came in second.

Part II. Review of Common Usage Errors 179

Answers

1. You cannot do well if you don’t have enough sleep.

2. The runaway truck careened wildly down the road before running into a ditc .
3. After only two lessons, Mary plays golf very well.
4. The river current was running too swiftly for safe swimming.
5. Our relay term ran well, but we still came in second.

Double Negatives

A negative is a ‘ ‘no” word such as no, not, never, nobody, nothing, hardly, or scarcely.
The n’t in a contraction (as in don’t) is a negative. A double negative occurs when
TWO negatives are mistakenly used to make one negative statement. The remedy?
Simply remove one of the negatives.

The examples below show two ways of removing one of the negative words.

Negatives

TWO: I don’t have no homework tonight.

ONE: I have no homework tonight.
ONE: I don’t have any homework tonight.

TWO: Joan isn’t going to have nothing to do with you.

ONE: Joan is going to have nothing to do with you.
ONE: Joan isn’t going to have anything to do with you.

TWO: Don’t never read the final pages of a detective story first.
ONE: Never read the final pages of a detective story first.
ONE: Don’t ever read the final pages of a detective story first.

TWO: There aren’t hardly any sandwiches left.

ONE: There are hardly any sandwiches left.
ONE: There are almost no sandwiches left.

TWO: Nobody isn’t left to play quarterback.

ONE: Nobody is left to play quarterback.
ONE: There isn’t anybody left to play quarterback.

Practice 2: Avoiding Double Negatives

In each sentence, underline the correct word in parentheses.

1. That haircut makes Brian look as if he hasn’t (any, no) hair.

2. There isn’t (any, no) more lemonade in the jug.
3. Pauline doesn’t go (anywhere, nowhere) without her pocket calculator.
4. The light was so dim I (could, couldn’t) hardly read the message.
5. Don’t (ever, never) cross the street against the light.

180 Building Power in Reading and Writing

Answers

1. That haircut makes Brian look as if he hasn’t any hair.

2. There isn’t any more lemonade in the jug.
3. Pauline doesn’t go anywhere without her pocket calculator.
4. The light was so dim I could hardly read the message.
5. Don’t ever cross the street against the light.

Other Common Errors

1. Don’t add s to anyway, anywhere, everywhere, nowhere, somewhere.

My Spanish book must be somewhere/ around here.

2. Don’t say this here or that there to describe a noun.

This Jrer^cake was made without eggs.

3. Don’t use more with an -er word (more wiser) or most with an -est word
(most prettiest).

Our cat isjjreilf smarter than our cocker spaniel.

4. Don’t use them as the subject of a verb.

Those
Tjheiffare the best pancakes I’ve ever eaten.

Practice 3: Avoiding Some Common Errors

In each sentence, underline the correct form in parentheses.

1. (That, That there) innocent-looking plant is poison ivy.

2. We searched all morning, but our beagle was (nowhere, nowheres) to be found.
3. The (most newest, newest) show on television is a science-fiction special.
4. (Them, Those) are the peaches I bought at the supermarket.

Answers
1. That innocent-looking plant is poison ivy.
2. We searched all morning, but our beagle was nowhere to be found.
3. The newest show on television is a science-fiction special.
4. Those are the peaches I bought at the supermarket.

Part II. Review of Common Usage Errors 181

On Your Own

In each sentence, underline the correct modifier in parentheses.

1. Don’t answer too (rapid, rapidly).

2. The gymnast performed her routine (careful, carefully).
3. The car (isn’t, is) hardly moving.
4. Fred doesn’t have (any, no) work to do tonight.
5. (Anyway, Anyways), he never works on Tuesdays.
6. The old man was (more wiser, wiser) than his grandson.
7. (Them, Those) boats are unsafe in deep water.
8. (This here, This) bike is better than that one.
9. Which do you think is the (more, most) expensive of the two cars?
10. (Nowheres, Nowhere) in the parking lot was there an empty space.

182 Building Power in Reading and Writing

 5. Problems with Pronouns

Personal Pronouns

Subjects and Objects

Five pronouns cause more trouble than all the rest put together. These personal
pronouns, as they are called, have different forms when used as subjects and as
objects. Here are the troublemakers:

Singular Plural

AS SUBJECTS: I he she we they

AS OBJECTS: me him her us them

Notice that these pronouns are paired. Your choice in a sentence would be
between I and me, for example. / is the form used for the subject and me for the
object.

I watched the Bears game Monday night.

(/ is the subject of the verb watched.)

Helen told me about the surprise party for Luis.

[Me is the object of the verb told.)

Most pronoun difficulties occur when two pronouns are joined by and.
When in doubt, say what you would say if each pronoun stood alone.

Laura and she (not her) competed in the spelling bee.

She is one-half of the compound SUBJECT of the verb competed.

Check yourself. Say:

Laura competed.
She competed.
Laura and she (not her) competed.

Mr. Foster gave Mollie and me (not I) a chance to play in the mixed-
doubles tournament.

Me is one-half of the compound OBJECT of the verb gave.

Check yourself:
Mr. Foster gave Mollie.
Mr. Foster gave me.
Mr. Foster gave Mollie and me (not I).

Part II. Review of Common Usage Errors 183

 Go with Margo and him (not he) to the flea market.

Him is one-half of the compound OBJECT of the preposition with.

Say to yourself:
Go with Margo.
Go with him.
Go with Margo and him (not he).

Study these additional examples of pronoun difficulties. Don t be fooled

by the words swimmers and students in these two sentences. They do not affect
the pronouns to be used.

We (not Us) swimmers are competing in the county championships.

(We is a SUBJECT of the verb are competing.)

Mr. Edmonds took us (not we) students on a tour of the Edison home in
Fort Myers.
(Us is an OBJECT of the verb took.)

Watch out for sentences that leave out a verb because it is understood.

Gwen is already as tall as he (not him).

(He is the SUBJECT of the understood verb is. Think of the sentence
as reading, “Gwen is already as tall as he is tall.”)

Practice 1: Using the Correct Pronouns as Subjects

In each sentence, underline the correct form of the pronoun in parentheses.

1. (We, Us) students are late for class.

2. Maria and (her, she) are fond of swimming.
3. When I’m reading, nobody else can be as happy as (I, me).
4. Tod and (I, me) went to the Lakers-Celtics game.
5. Sharon, Mike, and (he, him) are studying together.

Answers

1. We students are late for class.

2. Maria and she are fond of swimming.
3. When I’m reading, nobody else can be as happy as I.
4. Tod and I went to the Lakers-Celtics game.
5. Sharon, Mike, and he are studying together.

184 Building Power in Reading and Writing

Practice 2: Using the Correct Pronouns as Objects

In each sentence, underline the correct form of the pronoun in parentheses.

1. Mike bought shakes for him and (I, me).

2. Joyce saw Greg and (them, they) on the bus.
3. The coach awarded letters to all of (us, we) members of the team.
4. We found our cat Max and (she, her) asleep in the hammock.
5. Play with Ralph and (I, me) in the band concert.

Answers '

1. Mike bought shakes for him and me.

2. Joyce saw Greg and them on the bus.
3. The coach awarded letters to all of us members of the team.
4. We found our cat Max and her asleep in the hammock.
5. Play with Ralph and me in the band concert.

On Your Own

In each sentence, underline the correct form of the pronoun in parentheses.

1. (Her, She) and her partner will travel to Cleveland for the match.
2. Lucy prepared a hot dinner for him and (I, me).
3. (Us, We) gardeners are entering our vegetables in the county fair.
4. Sue caught sight of Lester and (them, they) on the bus to Lockport.
5. (Them, They) are applying for American citizenship as soon as possible.
6. Rover and (I, me) climbed Mt. Washington together.
7. When it comes to arithmetic, Don is as quick as (her, she).
8. Mr. Ortiz brought Nathan and (her, she) some homemade fudge.
9. The treasurer asked all of (us, we) club members to pay our back dues.
10. Joanna and (them, they) made all the sandwiches for the picnic.

Agreement of a Pronoun
with Its Antecedent

A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in number. (The word

antecedent comes from two Latin words meaning “going before.”)

A wolf is gentle with its young.

Its refers to wolf. Wolf is the antecedent of its. Wolf is singular. Therefore its
is singular. (Notice that the antecedent “goes before” the pronoun.)

Wolves are gentle with their young.

Part II. Review of Common Usage Errors 185

 Their refers to wolves. Wolves is the antecedent of their. Wolves is plural. Therefore
their is plural.

Look at these additional correct forms.

The boy from the visiting team left his jacket on the bus.
(Boy is the subject of the sentence. Boy is the antecedent of his. Both
are singular.)

>P--- i.
The girls on the tennis team take good care of their rackets.
(Girls is the subject of the sentence. Girls is the antecedent of their. Both
are plural.)

Practice 3: Making Pronouns Agree

with Their Antecedents

In each sentence below, write a pronoun that agrees with its antecedent.

1. A girl leaving the store stumbled and dropped-ice-cream cone.

2. Marilyn has a new dress, but has not worn-yet.

3. Michael knows that_will make the team.

4. Janice likes cats, but Adele hates-

5. The building will have_roof repaired.

Answers
1. A girl leaving the store stumbled and dropped her ice-cream cone.
2. Marilyn has a new dress, but has not worn it yet.
3. Michael knows that he will make the team.
4. Janice likes cats, but Adele hates them.
5. The building will have its roof repaired.

Indefinite Pronouns

Many problems of agreement arise with the words on the following list.
They are called indefinite pronouns. A personal pronoun that has one of these
words as an antecedent must be singular.

anybody either neither one

anyone everybody nobody somebody
each everyone no one someone

186 Building Power in Reading and Writing

 Note the use of the correct forms.

i ; ; i
Each of the girls must bring her track shoes.
[Each is singular. Her is singular.)

Everybody must report to his or her adviser.

(Everybody is singular. His . . . her with or is singular. Even though every¬
body “sounds” plural, it isn’t. The use of their with everybody [or with
any other word on the list] is incorrect in formal English.)

With either ... or or neither . . . nor, use the nearer antecedent when
choosing a pronoun.

£ I
Either Jill or Claire will bring her records to the dance.
{Jill . . . Claire is a compound subject. Since Jill is singular and Claire
is also singular, the singular her is used.)

Neither Norm nor his cousins buy their groceries here.

{Norm is singular but cousins is plural. Therefore, the plural their is used
to agree with the nearer antecedent, cousins.)

Practice 4: Making Personal Pronouns Agree

with Indefinite Pronouns

In each sentence below, underline the correct form of the pronoun in paren¬
theses.

1. Someone on the girls’ field hockey team forgot (her, their) hockey stick.
2. No one on the swimming team gave (his or her, their) approval to the coach’s
plans.

3. An elephant forms a close bond with (its, their) trainer.

4. Neither Boris Spassky nor Bobby Fischer kept (his, their) chess title for very
long.
5. Everybody brought (their, his or her) own golf clubs.

Answers
1. Someone on the girls’ field hockey team forgot her hockey stick.
2. No one on the swimming team gave his or her approval to the coach’s plans.
3. An elephant forms a close bond with its trainer.
4. Neither Boris Spassky nor Bobby Fischer kept his chess title for very long.
5. Everybody brought his or her own golf clubs.

Part II. Review of Common Usage Errors 187

 Still another error is using a plural verb with one of the singular subjects
listed on page 186, the indefinite pronouns. Note these correct forms.

Everyone at the meeting has a stake in the decision.

(.Everyone is singular. Has is singular.)

Each of the members was asked to vote.

(Each is singular. Was is singular.)

Neither the twins nor she wants to go to camp this summer.

(Twins is plural, but she is singular. The singular verb, wants, agrees
with the nearer subject, she, which is also singular.)

Some indefinite pronouns usually require a plural verb: several, many,

both, some, few.

Some were not invited to Yolanda’s party.

Many of the apples are still green.

I-1
Several in the stands cheer whenever Buck comes to bat.

Practice 5: Making Verbs Agree

with Indefinite Pronouns

Underline the correct form of the verb in parentheses.

1. Either Paul or she (are, is) running in Saturday’s marathon.

2. Nobody in the class (are, is) satisfied with the wall decorations.
3. A few of the audience (is, are) leaving before the end of the play.
4. One of the rear tires (have, has) gone flat.
5. Both of the children (were, was) late to school because the bus broke down.
6. Neither Kim nor his two sisters (is, are) above the age of twelve.

Answers

1. Either Paul or she is running in Saturday’s marathon.

2. Nobody in the class is satisfied with the wall decorations.
3. A few of the audience are leaving before the end of the play.
4. One of the rear tires has gone flat.
5. Both of the children were late to school because the bus broke down.
6. Neither Kim nor his two sisters are above the age of twelve.

188 Building Power in Reading and Writing

 Possessive Pronouns

Those pesky pronouns can cause problems in yet another area—possessives.

You have already worked with noun possessives. With nouns, you used apostrophes
to show possession.

The possessives of personal pronouns, however, have NO apostrophes.

Note the following correct forms.

, Is thisjyoun- or hers?
Those books are theirs, not ours.
Where is its collar?

Look carefully at the last one. You have seen the word it’s, with an apos¬
trophe. It is a contraction of it is. Whenever you wonder whether its needs an
apostrophe, simply replace its with it is. If the sentence does make sense, use an
apostrophe. If it doesn’t make sense (as in “Where is it is collar?), don’t use the
apostrophe.

The possessives of indefinite pronouns, unlike personal pronouns, DO use

apostrophes.

Somebody’s briefcase is on the kitchen table.

Everyone’s job is nobody’s job.
No one’s opinion is more valued than Janet’s.

Practice 6: Choosing Correct Possessive Pronouns

In each sentence, underline the correct form in parentheses.

1. The idea for improving the lunchroom is (theirs, their’s).

2. The Joneses own the Chrysler. (Ours, Our’s) is the Ford.
3. (Its, It’s) starting to rain. Cover the chairs.
4. Ms. Maloney is (everybodys, everybody’s) favorite history teacher.
5. The book of Emily Dickinson’s poems is (hers, her’s).
6. Is this (someone’s, someones) science textbook?
7. The puppy limps because it injured (its, it’s) paw.
8. The accident was (nobodys, nobody’s) fault.
9. The Wilsons spent Thanksgiving with friends of (theirs, their’s).
10. (Its, It’s) time for a new ribbon in the typewriter.

Part II. Review of Common Usage Errors 189

Answers
1. The idea for improving the lunchroom is theirs.
2. The Joneses own the Chrysler. Ours is the Ford.
3. It’s starting to rain. Cover the chairs.
4. Ms. Maloney is everybody’s favorite history teacher.
5. The book of Emily Dickinson’s poems is hers.
6. Is this someone’s science textbook?
7. The puppy limps because it injured its paw.
8. The accident was nobody’s fault.
9. The Wilsons spent Thanksgiving with friends of theirs.
10. It’s time for a new ribbon in the typewriter.

On Your Own v
In each sentence, underline the correct form in parentheses.

1. (We, Us) parents are willing to help our youngsters.

2. Jane says that book is (hers, her’s).
3. Go with John and (I, me) to the, movie on Broadway.
4. One of the girls (were, was) dismissed from the chorus.
5. Neither of the boys (plays, play) chess.
6. (They, Them) are the teachers from our school.
7. Everyone on the girls’ soccer team had (her, their) name read aloud at
assembly.
8. Few brought (his or her, their) own pencils.
9. Between you and (I, me), I thought the acting was very poor.
10. Pedro and (I, me) liked the book very much.

Bonus
Write the missing pronouns in the following sentences.

1. Alicia was in an accident. She broke_leg.

2. You ordered this watch and paid for it. Take it. It is_

3. John and I are neighbors. _lives next door to me.

4. Linda and Sue are our friends. We like_very much.

5. The ball fell right into your hands, but you could not hold_

6. Thelma gave Johnny the book. _had bought it especially for

7. One of the boys played in every game. _was exhausted.

8. The coach and the team prepared for the game._still lost.

9. Did you know the last answer?_was easy, wasn’t it?

10. Mr. and Mrs. Lee made the last payment on their car. Now it belongs to

190 Building Power in Reading and Writing

 6. Problems with Punctuation
A complete list of the rules of punctuation would fill a small book. Fortunately,
you don’t have to learn them all. Mastery of a few basic rules will help you avoid
most of the pitfalls in punctuating sentences. The following review covers the main
points.

End Punctuation

Every sentence ends with a period, a question mark, or an exclamation

point.

statement: A Pekingese has a longer life expectancy than a Saint

Bernard.

command: Read this book about how to repair a faucet.

polite request: May I hear from you soon.

question: Have you ever visited Acadia National Park?

STRONG FEELING: What a wonderful time we had at Sea World!

Practice 1: Writing Correct End Punctuation

Copy these sentences, writing the proper end punctuation marks.

1. Where did you put the hammer

2. Please pass the butter

3. How beautiful that sunset is

4. Why didn’t you cut the lawn

5. The word paper comes from the Egyptian word for papyrus

Part II. Review of Common Usage Errors 191

Answers

1. Where did you put the hammer? 4. Why didn’t you cut the lawn?
2. Please pass the butter. 5. The word paper comes from the
3. How beautiful that sunset is! Egyptian word for papyrus.

The Comma

The comma has many uses. Three important uses that you should review are
commas in a series; commas to show interrupters; and commas in letters, dates,
and addresses.

Commas in a Series

Use a comma to separate items in a series.

At camp we hiked, swam, golfed, and played softball.

My brother collects stamps, coins, and picture postcards.

(Some writers omit the comma before the and. This can be confusing
in some sentences, however. The safest practice is to include the final
comma in all such sentences.)

Commas to Show Interrupters

Use a pair of commas to enclose most interrupting words or expressions.

Our Mr. Pooch, like most beagles, is a friendly dog.

Siamese cats, on the other hand, are more reserved.
Tallahassee, not Miami, is the capital of Florida.
I’m surprised, Madge, that you believe his story.
She admitted that, yes, she could see his point of view.
A scarlet oak, a magnificent tree, stands in the park.
The old car, rusted and dented, was not worth fixing.

When an interrupter comes at the beginning or at the end of a sentence,

only one comma is needed.

Like most beagles, our Mr. Pooch is a friendly dog.

On the other hand, Siamese cats are more reserved.
The capital of Florida is Tallahassee, not Miami.
I’m surprised that you believe his story, Madge.
Yes, I admit that I can see your point of view.
In the park stands a scarlet oak, a magnificent tree.
Rusted and dented, the old car was not worth fixing.

192 Building Power in Reading and Writing

Practice 2: Punctuating Correctly

Copy these sentences, adding all needed punctuation. (Notice that end
punctuation must be added, too.)

1. Saturday was a dark cold dreary day

2. The leopard like the lion is an outstanding hunter

3. No I strongly object to your remarks

4. Did you ever find your missing notebook Tammy

5. Blue not red is Sue’s favorite color

6. Marilyn however prefers green especially light green

7. Vince is a fine swimmer diver golfer and soccer player

8. Are you aware that George Washington our first President served two terms

9. William Henry Harrison on the other hand served only a month

10. The rutabaga or yellow turnip is my favorite vegetable

Part II. Review of Common Usage Errors 193

Answers

1. Saturday was a dark, cold, dreary day.

2. The leopard, like the lion, is an outstanding hunter.
3. No, I strongly object to your remarks.
4. Did you ever find your missing notebook, Tammy?
5. Blue, not red, is Sue’s favorite color.
6. Marilyn, however, prefers green, especially light green.
7. Vince is a fine swimmer, diver, golfer, and soccer player.
8. Are you aware that George Washington, our first President, served two terms?
9. William Henry Harrison, on the other hand, served only a month.
10. The rutabaga, or yellow turnip, is my favorite vegetable.

Commas in Letters, Dates, and Addresses

1. When dates and addresses occur within sentences, you punctuate them as
in the following examples.

Write to Meg Acieri, 908 Beechwood Drive, Hendersonville,

NG 28739.
(Notice that there is no comma between the name of the state
and the ZIP code.)

Mr. Blakiston was born on June 19, 1917, in Chicago, IL.

(Notice that there is a comma after the year as well as in front
of it.)

2. When dates and addresses appear in the heading or the inside address of
a letter, you punctuate them like this:

33 Barrett Street
Elmira, NY 14904
August 22, 19—

Mr. Stephen Dorney

La Bravura Drive
Beverly Hills, CA 90213

The U.S. Postal Service recommends two-letter state abbreviations for

addressing letters. These abbreviations have no periods (NY, not N.Y.), and they
often differ from traditional abbreviations (CA, not Cal. or Calif.). If you are unsure
of the two-letter abbreviation, write out the state name. A list of official postal
abbreviations follows.

194 Building Power in Reading and Writing

Alabama*. AL Kentucky. KY Ohio. OH
Alaska. AK Louisiana. LA Oklahoma. OK
Arizona. AZ Maine. ME Oregon . OR
Arkansas. AR Maryland. MD Pennsylvania. PA
California. CA Massachusetts. MA Puerto Rico. PR
Colorado. CO Michigan. MI Rhode Island. RI
Connecticut .... CT Minnesota. MN South Carolina.... SC
Delaware. DE Mississippi . MS South Dakota. SD
Dist. of Col. DC Missouri. MO Tennessee. TN
Florida. FL Montana. MT Texas . TX
Georgia.GA Nebraska . NE Utah. UT
Guam. GU Nevada. NV Vermont. VT
Hawaii. HI New Hampshire.... NH Virginia. VA
Idaho . ID New Jersey. NJ Virgin Islands. VI
Illinois. IL New Mexico . NM Washington. WA
Indiana. IN New York. NY West Virginia. WV
Iowa. IA North Carolina. NC Wisconsin. WI
Kansas. KS North Dakota. ND Wyoming. WY

3. Use a comma after the salutation of a friendly letter and the complimentary
close of all letters. (See page 201.)

Dear Carole, Sincerely,

Dear Uncle Frank, Very truly yours,

4. Use a colon after the salutation of a business letter.

Gentlemen: Dear Ms. Valenzuela:

(For the proper form of a business letter, see pages 242-244.)

Practice 3: Punctuating Dates and Addresses

Copy these sentences, adding all needed punctuation. (Notice that end
punctuation must also be added.)

1. The Massachusetts Bureau of Markets is now located at 100 Cambridge Street

Boston MA 02202

2. Was it July 16 1969 when the Apollo 11 lunar expedition set out for the moon

Part II. Review of Common Usage Errors 195

3. The United Negro College Fund has offices at 500 East 62 Street New York
NY 10001

4. Write to the Lyndon B. Johnson National Historical Park P.O. Box 329 Johnson
City TX 78636

5. John Adams and Thomas Jefferson died dn July 4 1826 exactly fifty years after
signing the Declaration of Independence

Answers
1. The Massachusetts Bureau of Markets is located at 100 Cambridge Street, Boston,
MA 02202.
2. Was it July 16, 1969, when the Apollo 11 lunar expedition set out for the moon?
3. The United Negro College Fund has offices at 500 East 62 Street, New York, NY 10001.
4. Write to the Lyndon B. Johnson National Historical Park, P.O. Box 329, Johnson
City, TX 78636.
5. John Adams and Thomas Jefferson died on July 4, 1826, exactly fifty years after signing
the Declaration of Independence.

Quotation Marks

A direct quotation shows the speaker’s exact words. An indirect quotation

does not.

direct quotation: Dad said, “You can go to camp this

summer.” (Quotation marks needed)

indirect quotation: Dad said that I can go to camp this

summer. (No quotation marks)

196 Building Power in Reading and Writing

 Quotation marks always go in pairs. If you have opening quotation marks,
you must have closing quotation marks.

Ellen said, “I’m taking the school bus home.”

“I’m taking the school bus home,” Ellen said.

“When do you leave?” asked Carlos.

Carlos asked, “When do you leave?”

“I hope,” said Fran, “that you remember to take your science book
home.”

“When do we eat?” Billy asked. “I’m hungry.”

Did Billy say, “I’m hungry”? (The entire sentence is a question.)

“I had never seen a snow leopard before,” Maureen said. “Had you?”

Practice 4: Punctuating Quotations

Copy the following sentences. Add all needed punctuation.

1. Let’s go fishing in Murray Creek suggested Alice

2. Ron replied I promised Dad I’d trim the hedge

3. What book did you choose for a report asked Mr. Peterson

4. That was a great play yelled Paul

5. It was the first time said Alice that I’ve thrown the ball that far

Answers
1. “Let’s go fishing in Murray Creek,” suggested Alice.
2. Ron replied, “I promised Dad I’d trim the hedge.”
3. “What book did you choose for a report?” asked Mr. Peterson.
4. “That’was a great play!” yelled Paul.
5. “It was the first time,” said Alice, “that I’ve thrown the ball that far.”

Part II. Review of Common Usage Errors 197

 Punctuating Titles

In general, use quotation marks around the titles of short works—a short story,
an essay, a song, a magazine article, or the chapter of a book. Underline the titles
of longer works—a book, a film, a magazine, or a newspaper. (In printed material,
underlined words appear in italics.)

“I Am Born” is the title of a chapter in David Copperjield by Charles

Dickens.

“On Running After One’s Hat” is a classic essay by G. K. Chesterton.

“Memphis” is my favorite song from the Statler Brothers’ album Funny,

Familiar, Forgotten Feelings. \

I’ve seen the movie Back to the Future at least five times.

TV Guide is one of the most successful magazines ever published.

The Newark Star-Ledger publishes different editions for different counties.

(Be careful to capitalize the exact name of the newspaper. Usually the
is not capitalized as part of the name, but in The New York Times it is.
Sometimes the name of the city is part of the name of the paper, as
in the Chicago Sun-Times, and sometimes it isn’t.)

Practice 5: Writing Titles

Copy the following sentences. Punctuate each correctly.

1. The Red Badge of Courage is the book I have decided to read

2. The newspaper Newsday has many readers, but not as many as the Daily News
3. Did you see The Color Purple
4. She wrote a story called After Dark which was published in Seventeen magazine
5. Young Love was my mother’s favorite song

Answers

1. The Red Badge of Courage is the book I have decided to read.

2. The newspaper Newsday has many readers, but not as many as the Daily News.
3. Did you see The Color Purple?
4. She wrote a story called “After Dark,” which was published in Seventeen magazine.
5. “Young Love” was my mother’s favorite song.

198 Building Power in Reading and Writing

On Your; Own

Copy these sentences, adding all needed punctuation.

1. Did you go to the Dolphins games asked Mr. Gomez

2. Caroline went to see Rocky IV in Joplin MO

*
3. Janice bought new shoes sweaters skirts and jeans

4. I wonder said Janie where I put my new sunglasses

5. No I want you to do your homework first said her mother

6. James said that his new address would be 21330 Fronthill Avenue Torrance
CA 90505

7. My brother was born October 22 1984 on a Sunday

8. Sometimes it is confusing said Mr. Thomas but the New York Giants play
their home games in New Jersey

9. I’m surprised Rick that you did not bring your friend

10. I read an article called Without Fear in Time magazine

Part II. Review of Common Usage Errors 199

Bonus

Each of the sentences below contains an underlined part. There are four
suggested answers. Write the letter of the correct answer on the line at the right.

1. Oh its a long time until the end of the movie.

(a) Correct as is (b) Oh, its’

\c) Oh, its (d) Oh, it’s 1.

2. “Will you let me use the car” Jim asked?

(a) Correct as is (b) car?” Jim asked,

(c) car,” Jim asked? (d) car, Jim asked. 2.

3. Did you read Tom Sawyer.

(a) Correct as is (b) read, “Tom Sawyer”

(c) read Tom Sawyer? (d) read Tom Sawyer? 3.

4. It was June 12, 1986 when we went on the trip.

(a) Correct as is (b) June 12, 1986, when

(c) June 12 1986 when (d) June, 12, 1986, when 4.

5. What said Joey did you mean by that remark?”

(a) Correct as is (b) “What,” said Joey, “did

(c) “What,” said Joey “did (d) What said, Joey, Did 5.

200 Building Power in Reading and Writing

 7. Problems with Capitalization

The following review summarizes the important rules of capitalization.

In Letters

Capitalize the first word and all nouns in the salutation.

Dear James, Dear Mr. Patterson:

Dear Aunt Jane, Dear Miss McCloud:

Capitalize only the first word in the complimentary close.

Your friend, Very truly yours,

Your niece, Cordially yours,

In Quotations

A direct quotation begins with a capital letter.

Elizabeth Barrett Browning wrote, ‘‘How do I love thee?”

When a one-sentence quotation is interrupted, however, the second part

does not start with a capital.

“Can anyone,” the announcer asked, “name that tune?”

Review pages 196-197 for other examples of the capitalization of quotations.

First Words

Capitalize the first word of a complete sentence, the comments of each

new speaker in conversation, and each line of poetry or verse.

sentence: The antelope survives on dry plains.

conversation: “It is not cold which makes me shiver, said the

woman in a low voice.
“What, then?”
“It is fear, Mr. Holmes. It is terror.”
—from Arthur Conan Doyle’s “The
Adventure of the Speckled Band’ ’

Part II. Review of Common Usage Errors 201

 poetry: The pedigree of honey
Does not concern the bee;
A clover, any time, to him
Is aristocracy.
—Emily "Dickinson

Proper Nouns and Proper Adjectives

Capitalize proper nouns, their abbreviations, and proper adjectives

derived from proper nouns.

proper noun: New Mexico

abbreviation: N.M. (or NM, the postal abbreviation)

proper adjective: New Mexican (as in New Mexican art)

Practice 1: Capitalizing Correctly

A. Copy the following, adding needed capitals.

1. dear mr. keane: __——-

2. your friend, ___

3. dear henry, ___

4. sincerely yours, _.

5. dear mr. thomas: __

6. yours very truly, _

B. Copy the following, and capitalize each sentence correctly.

1. Once Dan Rather ended his newscast by saying, “courage.”

2. “Do you know,” asked the teacher, “Who serves as the Secretary of State?”

3. “Please do your homework before you go out,” Said her mother.

202 Building Power in Reading and Writing

 C. Correctly capitalize the following conversation.

“where were you born?” asked the interviewer,

marian said, “i was born in columbus, ohio.”
“when did you move to north Carolina?”

“in 1980, when my father accepted his new job here.”

Answers

A. 1. Dear Mr. Keane: 4. Sincerely yours,

2. Your friend, 5. Dear Mr. Thomas:
3. Dear Henry, 6. Yours very truly,

B. 1. Once Dan Rather ended his newscast by saying, “Courage.”

2. “Do you know,” asked the teacher, “who serves as the Secretary of State?”
3. “Please do your homework before you go out,” said her mother.

C. “Where were you born?” asked the interviewer.

Marian said, “I was born in Columbus, Ohio.”
“When did you move to North Carolina?”
“In 1980, when my father accepted his new job here.”

Here are some specific kinds of proper nouns that require capital letters.

Names of particular persons, real or imaginary

Linda, Jeremy, Dolly Parton, Tom Selleck, Sandra Day O’Connor, James Bond,
Lois Lane

Geographical names

Australia, New Jersey, Palm Beach County, Yosemite National Park, Fifth Avenue

Titles of organizations, companies, and buildings

Kiwanis Club, National Audubon Society, Ford Motor Company, World Trade
Center, Riverside Cathedral

Political parties, nations, religions

Republican, Democrat, France, Roman Catholic, Protestant, Hebrew, Presby¬

terian

Government bodies

House of Representatives, Department of the Interior, Internal Revenue Service

Part II. Review of Common Usage Errors 203

Names of planets, satellites, stars, and constellations

Jupiter, Ganymede, Sirius, the Big Dipper (The words sun, earth, and moon are
not usually capitalized.)

Names of days of the week, months, holidays

Thursday, March, Independence Day (The names of the seasons are not capital¬
ized.)

Titles

Gone with the Wind, Better Homes and Gardens, “The Night the Ghost Got In
(Articles—a, an, the—prepositions, and conjunctions are not capitalized unless
they occur at the beginning or end of a title.)

Brand names

Campbell’s soups, Pepperidge Farm bread, Andy Boy broccoli

Names referring to God, the Bible, or religions

the Almighty, Exodus, the Old Testament, Christianity, Buddhism

There are three kinds of items that require extra thought if you are to capitalize'
them correctly.

Sections of the country

the Southeast, the Northwest, the Southwest

Do not capitalize these words if they are merely compass points:

Philadelphia lies southwest of New York City.

Family relationships

Father, Sis, Cousin Gene, Aunt Gloria, Grandpa

Do not capitalize these family titles unless they are used before a name (Uncle
Sid) or as a name (Hi, Mom):

My sister, cousin, and aunt visited Duke Gardens.

School subjects: languages and numbered courses

English, French, Spanish, German, Mechanical Drawing 2, Social Studies 3,

Mathematics 4

Do not capitalize the names of unnumbered courses except for languages.

I’m taking mechanical drawing, social studies, mathematics, and German

in the fall.

204 Building Power in Reading and Writing

Practice 2

Draw a circle around each letter that should be capitalized.

1. my uncle in london 6. john jay high school

2. the republican candidate 7. raiders of the lost ark
3. english and history 8. grandma and aunt louise
4. the planet saturn 9. in the southwest near phoenix

5. fourth of july holiday 10. fire island national seashore

Answers *

The following words should be capitalized.

1. London 6. John Jay High School

2. Republican 7. Raiders, Lost Ark
3. English 8. Grandma, Aunt Louise
4. Saturn 9. Southwest, Phoenix
5. Fourth, July 10. Fire Island National Seashore

On Your Own

A. Copy these sentences, adding needed capitals.

1. mayor Selkirk spoke at the meeting of the rotary club.

2. the blue ridge parkway winds through some of the most beautiful mountain
scenery in the east.

3. my sister has already taken Spanish arid french in high school.

4. a Chrysler assembly plant is being built at the corner of spring street and linden
boulevard.

5. the only continent my uncle hasn’t visited is antarctica.

6. the empire state building is still a major tourist attraction in new york city.

Part II. Review of Common Usage Errors 205

7. the department of agriculture has charge of our national forests.

8. i saw venus and jupiter in the sky at twilight on labor day.

9. the first two books of the old testament are genesis and exodus.

10. my cousin, major andrea langer, has just returned from a tour of duty in the
northwest.

B. Copy the following poem, adding needed capitals. -*

and the night shall be filled with music,

and the cares that infest the day
shall fold their tents like the arabs,
and as silently steal away.
—Henry Wadsworth Longfellow

206 Building Power in Reading and Writing

 8. Problems with Spelling

You are more likely to misspell common words than uncommon ones. That
is because you probably look up the spellings of hard words, while you assume that
you know how to spell the easy ones.

Seventy-six Hard/Easy Words

The words in the following list are among the most commonly used in English.
Yet they are frequently misspelled. Review them and master them.

ache certain heard realize

acquaint character hospital really
across coming immediately says
agreeable committee instead scene
all right cough knew since
almost course knowledge speech
always disappear library straight
among disappoint meant studying
another doctor minute success
asked doesn’t necessary surely
athletic dropped occasion surprise
beautiful enough occurred though
before every often thought
believe exception once threw
benefit excitement piece together
boundary experience pleasant toward
break friend principal [school] until

built grammar privilege which

captain having probably woman

Practice 1

In each sentence below, there is a partially spelled word. Write the complete
word in the space at the right.

1. When Jan won the contest, there was a lot of

exci_ment at our house. 1. -—-

2. It is not nec_ry to answer my letter. 2. --

3. The teacher appointed a com-tee to

study the problem. 3. ---

4. I’ll meet you in the lib-y. 4.-

5. Jack is having a su-rise party for Gilda. 5.-—

Part II. Review of Common Usage Errors 207

 6. The new rules will ben-it eveiryone m
the class. 6. ----

7. A1 ip-hl, T’ll help with the refreshments

at the party. 7.

8. Mr. Parker wants those reports im

diately, not tomorrow. 8.

9. I think the most interesting char er in

David Copperjield is Mr. Micawber. 9.

10. I’m not cert n, but I think Andy will

take Ruth to the dance. 10.
\
Answers
1. excitement 6. benefit
2. necessary 7. All right
3. committee 8. immediately
4. library 9. character
5. surprise 10. certain

Words Commonly Used in Letter Writing

•>

This list contains words that are often misspelled in letters.

advertisement color forty, fourth secretary

appreciate coupon magazine separate
beginning decided ninety, ninth sincerely
business delivery prompt Thursday
busy describe purchased Tuesday
buy different receive Wednesday
choose February recommend wholesale
clothes first response writing

Practice 2

In the sentences below, there are partially spelled words. Fill in the missing
letters.

1. I am responding to your advert_ment in the Post.

2. I’ll ap_ciate an early reply to this letter.

3. As the sec-ry of our English class, I am writ_ng to invite you to

our Fun Fair.

4. The meeting of the Shutter Club is held on the first Wed_ay of each
month.

5. Could you rec_end a computer for personal use?

208 Building Power in Reading and Writing

6. I can meet you at the close of bu_ess on T_day or T-day.

7. I expected deli_ry by the first of the month, but the parcel has not yet
arrived.

8. I sent two sep_te orders, which have somehow become mixed up.

9. I was pleased to re_ve your pro_t reply.

10. We intend to order your magaz_in Feb-ry.

Answers
1. advertisement 7. delivery
2. appreciate 8. separate
3. secretary 9. receive
writing prompt
4. Wednesday 10. magazine
5. recommend February
6. business
Tuesday
Thursday

Words Often Confused

Note the correct spelling of the words in boldfaced type.

I’ll accept every package except the one with the torn wrapping.

We looked at old pictures. Then Peter was taller than Norm.

She’s too late to enter the race.

Because of the trees all around, our house is quite quiet.

Your necklace is loose. Don t lose it.

Whether we go or not depends on the weather.

It’s time to give the hamster its lunch.

You’re leading your opponent in the election.

They’re going there with their hopes high.

Where can I wear this formal gown?

Practice 3

In each sentence, underline the correct spelling.

1. I think Val’s report was (quiet, quite) interesting.

2. (Their, There) is no reason for becoming discouraged.

3. (Wear, Where) did you put the ice skates?

Part II. Review of Common Usage Errors 209

4. I hope I didn’t (loose, lose) my bracelet. I can’t find it anywhere.

5. Please (accept, except) our congratulations for the honor you have won.

6. That perky spaniel is older (than, then) that weary-looking terrier.

7. I don’t know (weather, whether) I’ll be able to finish my report in time.

8. Ginny was glad to learn that (your, you’re) coming to the basketball game.

9. Sometimes Marty can be just (to, too) relaxed.

10, (It’s, Its) your move.

Answers
\

quite 6. than
There 7. whether
Where 8. you’re
lose 9. too
accept 10. It’s

Seven Helpful Spelling Rules

These simple rules can help you to spell a great many words correctly.

1. Ei, Ie. Put i before e except after c, or when sounded like a as in neighbor and
weigh.

i before e: believe, chief, niece, field, shield

except after c: ceiling, receive, deceit, conceit, perceive
sounded like a: weight, veil, vein, reign, rein
exceptions: foreigner, leisure, either, neither, height

Practice 4

Fill in the missing letters, and write the complete word at the right.

1. Please answer br_fly. 1.

2. How much do the potatoes w-gh? 2.

3. Frank is your n_ghbor. 3.

4. What is your h_ght? 4.

5. We installed a c_ling fan. 5.

Answers

1. briefly 4. height
2. weigh 5. ceiling
3. neighbor

210 Building Power in Reading and Writing

2. Ly. Kepp the original I when adding ly to a word ending in I.

actually, beautifully, cheerfully, finally, really

Practice 5

Fill in the missing letters, and write the complete word at the right.

1. Look carefu_y before crossing the street. 1. ---

2. Lena strolled casua_y through the mall. 2. ---

3. Attendance was unusua-y large today. 3. --—

4. The host greeted his guests cordia_y. 4. -

5. That mischievous child tossed my book into the

lake intentiona_y. 5.-

Answers
1. carefully 4. cordially
2. casually 5. intentionally
3. unusually

3. Final E Before Vowel. Drop silent e before a suffix beginning with a vowel,

admirable, arguping, largpest, enclosping, scarcity

Practice 6

Fill in the missing letters, and write the complete word at the right.

1. Advers_ty is no stranger to some unfor¬

tunate people. -

2. This detergent made my white shirt look even

whit-r. 2.

3. The network is experienc-g technical diffi¬

culties. -

4. He plays wide receiv-r on the team. 4. --

5. Vacations are very desir-ble. 5.--

Answers

1. Adversity 4. receiver
2. whiter 5. desirable
3. experiencing

Part II. Review of Common Usage Errors 211

4. Final E Before Consonant. Keep final silent e before a suffix beginning with
a consonant.

amazement, atonement, hopeful, fortunately, useful

Practice 7

Fill in the missing letters, and write the complete word at the right.

1. There was a lot of excit- _ment about the

game. 1.

2. Jerry is hop- _lessly behind in his,grades,

but now that he is well again, he expects to catch
up. 2.

3. She was told to be very car_ful with the car. 3.

4. Saf_ty first! 4.

5. Lucy looks lov_ _ly in her new gown. 5.

Answers
1. excitement 4. Safety
2. hopelessly 5. lovely
3. careful

5. Final Y. If final y is preceded by a consonant, change y to i when you add a

suffix.

apply 4- ed = applied (Y changed to i.)

friendly + er = friendlier
noisy + est = noisiest

But notice the following forms.

apply + ing = applying (Y does not change to i if the suffix begins with i.)
play 4- er = player (Y does not change to i if y is preceded by a vowel.)

Practice 8

Fill in the missing letters, and write the complete word at the right.

1. The two girls hurr_d home after school. 1. _

2. The paint is dr_ng very fast. 2. _

3. This holiday, Mother is bus_er than ever. 3. _

4. The secretary has suppl_us with paper. 4. _

212 Building Power in Reading and Writing

5. The corppany was slow in repl .ng to my
letter. 5. -—

6. Father asked to have the car spra_ed. 6.-

Answers

1. hurried 4. supplied
2. drying 5. replying
3. busier 6. sprayed

6. Doubling Final Consonant—One-Syllable Words. Note the following

correct forms. Each final consonant is preceded by a single vowel.

bat + er = batter (The final consonant, t, is doubled.)

big + est = biggest
drop + ing = dropping
grin + ed = grinned

What happens when the final consonant is preceded by more than one vowel?

beat + en = beaten (The final consonant, t, is not

doubled.)
sail + ed = sailed
dream + er = dreamer
fool + ish = foolish
foam + ing = foaming

Practice 9

Fill in the missing letters, and write the complete word at the right.

1. The lost puppy was roa-ing the street. 1. -

2. Jessie was the last swi_er to reach the raft. 2. -

3. She was pla_ing to go to the store. 3. -

4. The rain sto_ed and the sun shone again. 4. -

5. Elizabeth fail_d to return the call. 5. -

Answers
1. roaming 4. stopped
2. swimmer 5. failed
3. planning

Part II. Review of Common Usage Errors 213

7. Doubling Final Consonant—Words of More than One Syllable. If a word
has more than one syllable and the accent is on the last syllable, the same rule
applies as for a one-syllable word.

commit + ed = committed (The accent is on the last syllable

t is doubled.)

control + ing = controlling

equip + ed = equipped
propel + er = propeller
refer + ed = referred

What happens if the word is not accented on the last syllable?

refer + ence = reference (The accent is not on er; r is

not doubled.)

Practice 10

Fill in the missing letters, and write the complete word at the right.

1. Don prefe_ed another doctor. 1.

2. The accident was regre_able. 2.

3. Who benefi_ed from the donation? 3.

4. The movie diffe_ed from the book. 4.

5. She is exce_ing in music. 5.

Answers

1. preferred 4. differed
2. regrettable 5. excelling
3. benefited

On Your Own

Applying all the spelling rules you have learned, fill in the missing letters in
the sentences below.

1. Priscilla wore a colorful handkerch_f as a head covering.

2. We usu-y visit Grandma once a month.

3. That tower is interfe-ng with television reception.

4. There were nin-een members on our last hike.

5. We have occup-ed our present house for three months.

6. The Stage Squad is plan-ng a post-performance party.

214 Building Power in Reading and Writing

7. Martha was a good piano player, but Louise excel_d on the violin.

8. The next meet_g of the Stamp Club will be held on Saturday.

9. In Othello, Iago dec_ves his trusting friend.

10. Have you ever tr_ed to play badminton?

11. When the rookie fina_y hit a home run, the spectators gave him a
standing ovation.

12. I am enclos_ng a photograph.

13. Computers-'are very us_ful.

14. Rhonda is friend_r than Sally.

15. Mark is the next ba_er at the plate.

Part II. Review of Common Usage Errors 215

 PART III
Review of Writing
Skills
Though there are many types of writing assignments, it is expository writing
that most commonly appears on tests of English competence. Of all types of exposi¬
tory writing, six are representative: the persuasive composition; the explanatory
composition; the business letter; the friendly letter; the report; and the
summary, or precis. For practice in sharpening your writing skills, you will be
asked to prepare first drafts of each of the six writing assignments and to revise
those drafts before the final writing.

Because each task will be brief—a composition of about 100-200 words there
should be no wasted words. Needless to say, the compositions should be written
in sound English. “Review of Common Usage Errors,” pages 146-215, has
refreshed your memory for correctness. Now you are ready to try your hand at
writing. Feel free to refer to the usage review at any time.

This part will begin with the single sentence, proceed to the paragraph, and
then (in later chapters) review specifically each of the six types you will be required
to write.

1. Writing the Single Sentence

The French writer Anatole France once wrote, “Caress

your sentence tenderly; it will end up smiling at you.”

All writing begins with the sentence; yet the sentence is often ignored, left to
watch out for itself. This section will direct your attention to the sentence. It will
ask you to judge between good and bad sentences. It will encourage you to write
some good sentences.

216
Characteristics of Good Sentences

Sentences are of many types, varied in style and subject matter. Yet good
sentences have certain qualities in common.

1. Good sentences don’t waste words. They use only enough words
to carry the thought. They don’t wander. They make their point
. . . and stop.

Wordy: The difficulties we cause in this all-too-brief life of

ours are often those that we bring upon ourselves,
even if unintentionally.

Economical: Most of the shadows of this life are caused by our

standing in our own sunshine. (Ralph Waldo
Emerson)

2. Good sentences have unity. They stick to one general topic in

a sentence.

Lacking in unity: Good tennis players don’t have to work very

hard, but golfers sometimes seem to enjoy the
game more.

Unified: If you see a tennis player who looks as if he is

working very hard, then that means he isn’t
very good. (Helen Wills Moody)

3. Good sentences are varied in structure. They do not always follow

a set pattern.

Monotonous: Edgar is handsome and rich. He is also a fine artist.

I envy him.

Varied: Edgar is not only handsome and rich, but also a

fine artist. How I envy him!

4. Good sentences call upon strong, specific nouns and vivid verbs
to carry the thought. They use adjectives and adverbs sparingly
but effectively.

Dull: The duck landed on the ice unsuccessfully and finally

came to a stop after a long slide along the ice on the pond.

Vivid: The mallard landed uncertainly on the ice, skidded and

flopped along for twenty feet, and then scrambled to its
feet with dignity.

Part III. Review of Writing Skills 217

 5. Good sentences are pleasing to read, usually an enjoyable part
of a larger whole (pages 146-152).
6. Good sentences are complete, neither fragments (pages 153-156)
nor run-ons (pages 157-159).
7. Good sentences are technically correct, using correct usage (pages
146-215) and correct spelling (pages 207-215).

Comparing Sentences

A helpful activity is to read good sentences written by others. An example of

a splendid, simple sentence is this by Martin Luther King, Jr.

“At the center of nonviolence stands the principle of love.’’

How much less effective it would have been if stated in this way:

People who believe in nonviolence and practice it are really

showing that they love others.

The first sentence is direct, clear, economical.

,,
Exercise 1

Which sentence in each pair do you consider better? Tell why.

1. a. We went on the roller coaster and then we went on the flume ride and then
we went on the monorail.
b. We went on the roller coaster, the flume ride, and the monorail.

2. a. At the library, I picked up a Sherlock Holmes detective story and a book

about photography.
b. I went to the library and I picked up a detective story about Sherlock Holmes
and a book that tells all about photography.

218 Building Power in Reading and Writing

Proverbs

Proverbs contain folk wisdom. They compress a lot of meaning into a small
space. Proverbs are usually good sentences to imitate. Here are ten proverbs—
short but complete sentences.

A burnt child dreads the fire.

Actions speak louder than words.
Soft words don’t scratch the tongue.
Always have two strings to your bow.
Every man is his brother’s keeper.
Man shall not live by bread alone.
Expect to be treated as you have treated others.
Don’t saw off the branch you’re sitting on.
If you want to lead, you must be able to follow.
The bigger they are, the harder they fall.

Exercise 2

Try your skill. Select three of the proverbs listed above. For each one write
a one-sentence restatement. Try to capture the same meaning. Study the examples
below.

EXAMPLES:

original: You never miss the water till the well runs dry.
restated: You often fail to appreciate things until you lose them.

original: As you make your bed, so you must lie on it.

restated: You must pay for the mistakes you make.

Part III. Review of Writing Skills 219

Completing Comparisons

“The baseball players gathered around the umpire like angry

bees.”

If you paid close attention to your speech, you would find that you use many
comparisons in the course of a day. Some are direct, with like or as: “as strong as
an ox,” “as timid as a mouse,” “like a lion.” Others are indirect: “Joan was a
tiger on the field.” (Joan played as savagely as a tiger.) Both of them are a kind
of poetry. Try your skill in writing sentences with comparisons.

Exercise 3 *

Select three of the following and complete each with an original comparison.
Study the example below.

EXAMPLE:

A book is like . . .

A book is like a treasure chest waiting to be opened.

1. A rainstorm is like ... *

2. A kitten is like . . .
3. A wild deer is like . . .
4. A forest fire is like . . .
5. Riding a bicycle is like . . .
6. The school cafeteria is like . . .
7. A good friend is like . . .
8. The city at night is like . . .
9. Lightning is like . . .
10. Swimming in the ocean is like . . .

220 Building Power in Reading and Writing

Exercise 4

Select five of the following and complete each to make a good sound sentence.

1. My major ambition in life is to . . .

2. This evening, after dinner, I am planning . . .
3. My favorite way to spend Saturday is to . . .
4. Last summer, I . . .
5. Television . . .
6. For dessert . . .
7. When the game was over . . .
8. I hope . . .
9. At the end of the movie . . .
10. Why didn’t . . .

Exercise 5

Write a good, single sentence that tells about each of the following.

EXAMPLE:

a favorite pet

I once had a parakeet named Humphrey, who enjoyed flying

around the room.

1. an unusual coincidence that occurred recently

2. a very happy moment in your life

3. something you are proud of

4. a surprise

5. the winning point

Part III. Review of Writing Skills 221

 2. Writing the Paragraph
You have been writing single sentences that are complete in themselves. The
next step in the art of writing is the paragraph. The ideal paragraph, like each of
the single sentences in the preceding section, develops one idea.

Paragraphs vary greatly in length, but each one says, in effect, Here is
something new.” The first line of a new paragraph is indented to indicate that
“something new” is coming.

As a general rule, when you write, begin a new paragraph:

in a description—when you change the mood or the point of view

in an explanation—when you begin to develop a new idea

in a story—when you change the time, the place, or the action

in a written conversation—when you change the speaker

The paragraph of explanation, often called the expository paragraph, is a

good paragraph to work with. It calls for all the skills you’ll need in writing any
paragraph. Paragraphs of this type have certain characteristics.

Characteristics of Good Expository Paragraphs ■*

1. A good paragraph develops one topic and sticks to that topic. It often provides
a topic sentence to help the reader know what’s ahead.
2. A good paragraph supports the topic sentence with examples, details, compar¬
isons.
3. A good paragraph is arranged in a sensible, easy-to-follow order. It uses
connecting words like this, since, when, and, but, which to tie parts of the paragraph
together.
4. A good paragraph has interest-catching beginnings and forceful endings.
5. A good paragraph uses vivid, exact words.

Study the following paragraph to see how these characteristics apply.

The earth has a diameter of nearly 8,000 miles, but life on

earth outside the sea depends upon a thin layer of topsoil. This
priceless resource, rarely more than a foot or two deep, supports
all the world’s agriculture. Every farmer in every land depends
upon the fertility of this fragile skin. All the cattle and other
domesticated animals depend upon it for grazing. All the trees
and shrubs need it for their food. Through the vegetation it
supports, the topsoil holds precious moisture in reserve, ready
for our use. When the soil is abused or lost through erosion,
an invaluable resource may be lost forever. Since our lives
depend upon this delicate layer, we all should be concerned
about its conservation.

222 Building Power in Reading and Writing

1. This paragraph develops one topic, the importance of topsoil, and sticks to that
topic. It opens with the topic sentence (underlined).
2. This paragraph uses details to support the topic sentence: importance to all
agriculture; dependence of farmers, cattle, trees, and shrubs; water retention.
3. The paragraph is easy to follow. It uses connecting words like but, this, when,
and since to tie parts of the paragraph together.
4. It has a good beginning. It also has a forceful ending (underlined).
5. For effect, it uses vivid words like priceless resource, fragile skin, and delicate layer.

Exercise 1

Now study a paragraph by yourself. Be ready to point out how this paragraph
displays each of the five characteristics mentioned above.

For more than a century, stamp collecting has remained

a most important hobby for people around the world. Its
popularity depends upon certain major appeals. First, stamps
are easy to study and store. They take up little space. Secondly,
stamps have many appeals for different people. Some hobbyists
collect stamps of one or two countries. Others open their albums
to the whole world. Still others collect topics like animals on
stamps. Thirdly, stamps are educational. They teach
geography, history, economics, art, architecture, current
events, and a host of other subjects. Finally, stamps open doors
to other nations. Collectors correspond with people in other
countries and learn something about how other people live. For
all these reasons, stamp collecting has flourished through
periods of depression and prosperity, through periods of war
and peace.

Exercise 2

Choose one of the topic sentences listed below and, on the lines (next page),
write a paragraph. Follow the suggestions listed previously.

1. When I look for a sport on television, I usually turn to football (baseball, hockey,
golf, tennis, or some other).
2. The most satisfactory hobby I know is quilting (coin collecting, woodworking,
playing video games, reading, playing the piano, or some other).
3. The importance of a proper diet is becoming increasingly clear.
4. We have owned some unusual pets in the past few years.
5. My favorite month of the year is October (or some other).
6. My favorite type of movie is the thriller (musical, science fiction, comedy, or
some other).

Part III. Review of Writing Skills 223

Exercise 3

Choose one of the topics listed below and write a paragraph. This time create
( ■

your own topic sentence. Follow the suggestions listed previously.

1. my favorite meal 6. my favorite school subject

2. a daydream I often have 7. a trip last summer
3. my goal in life 8. a book I enjoyed
4. what I look for in a friend 9. a television play I enjoyed
5. my strong points as a person 10. my favorite news anchor

224 Building Power in Reading and Writing

 3. Writing the Composition to
Persuade

Now that you have practiced writing single sentences and paragraphs, you
are ready for a longer assignment—the full-length composition. On competency
tests, you are often asked to write a composition of about 200 words. You may be
asked to persuade someone to agree with you, to think in a certain way, to change
a current procedure. You will be given certain specific instructions for doing so.
Let’s examine the longer composition.

The good longer composition has many of the characteristics of a good

paragraph.

Characteristics of Good Compositions

1. A good composition develops a topic at greater length than a paragraph does.

2. A good composition has a point of view and sticks to it.
3. A good composition is aware of the audience for which it is written.
4. A good composition hangs together, using connecting words to join parts.
5. A good composition avoids padding, such as unnecessary details.
6. A good composition is correctly written, free of errors in grammar and usage
(pages 146-215).

How a Composition Is Written

Let’s follow a composition from start to finish. Here is a typical composition

assignment.

Directions: Write a composition in which you try to persuade a local television

station to change its programing. Read all the information carefully before you
start to write.

Situation: You feel school news is not reported promptly enough. You think
the local station, WEXZ, should devote five minutes of its nightly
newscast to school news, such as announcements of coming school
events.

Your task: Write a composition of about 200 words persuading the managers
of WEXZ to include five minutes of school news in the nightly
newscast. Give two reasons to support your opinion. Explain each
reason.

In your composition be sure to:

• Keep in mind that you are persuading the managers of the

television station to act as you suggest.

Part III. Review of Writing Skills 225

 • State your opinion clearly.

• Give the managers of the television station two reasons for your
opinion.

• Explain each of your two reasons fully.

• Organize what you write.

There is the task. How should you begin? The first stage in the writing process
is prewriting. This includes all your planning before you begin to write the first
draft. Ordinarily when you decide to write, you must search for a topic. On a
competency test, however, the topic is given to you. Of course, you must still do
the planning.

Brainstorming

A good method of prying information from your memory is to brainstorm.

List everything that occurs to you on the topic, no matter how farfetched. You can
always eliminate those things that don’t belong. Your first step, though, is creative
and free.

Here are some things that might occur to you in brainstorming this topic.
These are numbered to help in referring to them later.

1. Benefits for school

2. Benefits for station
3. Nightly news at a convenient time
4. Five-minute segment helpful
5. Importance of WEXZ to community
6. Students and parents a large portion of the community
7. Interest of other adults
8. Local news often negative
9. School newspaper only every two weeks
10. School newspaper and television news
11. Announcements not up to date
12. Also help future students of Jefferson High School
13. School news would be positive
14. Information about school events, programs, goals
15. Television sometimes has plays about school life
16. Not enough television news about Jefferson High

Where do you go from here? First, look back at the task. If the composition
is to have about 200 words, you’ll probably need four paragraphs. The first will
introduce the topic. The second will give one of the reasons. The third will give
the other reason. The fourth will restate the topic.

226 Building Power in Reading and Writing

Writing the First Paragraph

Which numbers in the list might be used in paragraph 1? Number 5 looks

like a good sentence to begin with.

Television station WEXZ is an important force in our commu¬

nity.

Number 16 looks like a good source for two follow-up sentences, for it helps
to introduce the coming argument.

It provides information for all groups of our population, but

it is lacking in one important area. It does not give enough news
about Jefferson High School, even though the high school is an
important part of the community.

Number 4 provides the idea for a sentence that states your main argument.

I would like to suggest two reasons why I believe a five-minute

segment of the local news each evening should be devoted
entirely to school news.

There you have your first paragraph. Let’s look at it put together.

THE INTRODUCTION_

Television station WEXZ is an important force in our

community. It provides information for all groups of our
population, but it is lacking in one important area. It does
not give enough news about Jefferson High School, even
though the high school is an important part of the commu¬
nity. I would like to suggest t\Vo reasons why I believe a
five-minute segment of the local news each evening should
be devoted entirely to school news.

Now that’s a pretty good paragraph. It introduces the topic. It gets readers
interested by talking about a gap and a way to fill the gap. It uses connecting words
like it, but, and even though. But this is only the first paragraph. Where do you go
from here?

Writing Paragraph 2

A clue to the contents of the next two paragraphs is in the statement, “I would
like to suggest two reasons. ...” That means you’ll devote one paragraph to one
reason and one to another. But what two reasons can you think of? The brain¬
storming has suggested a good breakdown. Numbers 1 and 2 provide a good
division: benefits for the school and benefits for the station.

Part III. Review of Writing Skills 227

 Let’s take number 1 first. Here’s a good paragraph opener.

First, such a segment would benefit our school and its students.

This is a good topic sentence for the second paragraph. Now you must find
notes that show such benefits. Number 9 provides a good follow-up to number 1.
Here’s the sentence that uses this note.

Although we do have a school newspaper, it appears only every

two weeks.

Why is this a disadvantage? Another sentence explains.

During that two-week period, most of the news gets stale.

Number 11 provides another follow-up sentence.

At present, important announcements about coming events

cannot be kept up to date.

At this point, restating your suggestion adds punch to your argument.

A nightly five-minute segment would keep students and their

parents informed.

Number 12 suggests an idea for the paragraph’s concluding sentence.

It would enrich the lives of present students and give future

students a glimpse of what high school is like.

What does the second paragraph look like when assembled?

PARAGRAPH 2

First, such a segment would benefit our school and

its students. Although we do have a school newspaper, it
appears only every two weeks. During that two-week
period, most of the news gets stale. At present, important
announcements about coming events cannot be kept up
to date. A nightly five-minute segment would keep students
and their parents informed. It would enrich the lives of
present students and give future students a glimpse of what
high school is like.

228 Building Power in Reading and Writing

Writing Paragraph 3

The second paragraph has developed the idea of benefits to the school. The third
paragraph will develop the idea of benefits to the station.

Number 2 suggests the topic sentence for paragraph 3.

Secondly, such a segment would benefit the station.

Numbers 6 and 7 suggest the follow-up sentence.

*

Students, their parents, and other citizens interested in school

life are a large portion of your listeners.

Number 8 suggests a good opening for your major argument.

Much local news here, and around the country, is devoted to

negative events, like accidents, robberies, and murders.

Number 13 suggests the right contrast.

I feel sure that five minutes could be taken from these unhappy
news reports and devoted to something positive.

Notice how the preceding sentence restates the five-minute idea and ends the
paragraph on a strong note. What does the third paragraph look like?

PARAGRAPH 3

Secondly, such a segment’would benefit the station.

Students, their parents, and other citizens interested in
school life are a large portion of your listeners. Much local
news here, and around the country, is devoted to negative
events, like accidents, robberies, and murders. I feel sure
that five minutes could be taken from these unhappy news
reports and devoted to something positive.

Writing Paragraph 4

You have presented your arguments, but now you must provide a concluding
paragraph. This paragraph should urge the station managers to adopt your sugges¬
tion. It should also include a very brief summary of your two reasons. To see what
the fourth paragraph, with help from number 4, might look like, see the next page.

Part III. Review of Writing Skills 229

 THE CONCLUSION

I hope that you will seriously consider this suggestion.

I feel that a change of this kind would enlarge your audience
and also help keep our young people informed about our
school events, programs, and goals.

As you look back, you notice that you have not used numbers 3,10, and 15.
Brainstorming produces items that seem acceptable at first but do not quite fit when
the composition is written. Just disregard these items. When you come to the notes
used for writing reports, however (pages 258-266), then you must use every item.
What does the complete composition lookjike? Here it is in its entirety.

THE COMPLETE COMPOSITION

Gentlemen:

Television station WEXZ is an important force in our

community. It provides information for all groups of our
population, but it is lacking in one important area. It does
not give enough news about Jefferson High School, even
though the high school is an important part of the commu¬
nity. I would like to suggest two reasons why I believe a
five-minute segment of the local news each evening should
be devoted entirely to school news.

First, such a segment would benefit our school and

its students. Although we do have a school newspaper, it
appears only every two weeks. During that two-week
period, most of the news gets stale. At present, important
announcements about coming events cannot be kept up
to date. A nightly five-minute'segment would keep students
and their parents informed. It would enrich the lives of
present students and give future students a glimpse of what
high school is like.

Secondly, such a segment would benefit the station.

Students, their parents, and other citizens interested in
school life are a large portion of your listeners. Much local
news here, and around the country, is devoted to negative
events, like accidents, robberies, and murders. I feel sure
that five minutes could be taken from these unhappy news
reports and devoted to something positive.

I hope that you will seriously consider this suggestion.

I feel that a change of this kind would enlarge your audience
and also help keep our young people informed about our
school events, programs, and goals.

230 Building Power in Reading and Writing

 Let’s,look back for a moment. What special qualities does this longer compo¬
sition have?

1. This composition does more than a paragraph can do. It develops an argument
at greater length.
2. It has a consistent point of view. It states the case for devoting part of the evening
news to school affairs.
3. The composition attempts to persuade the managers of a local television station
to change their programming. It is clearly addressed to those individuals and
makes clear why a change would be to the station’s benefit.
4. The composition hangs together. It uses important signal words like first and
secondly. It uses other connecting words like but, although, and at present.
5. The composition does not bring in unnecessary details. It states its case and
then stops.
6. The composition is free of grammar and usage errors.

Exercise 1

Now study a composition by yourself. Be ready to point out how this compo¬
sition displays each of the characteristics mentioned above.

Situation: The school board is considering the twelve-month school-year

plan. Under this plan, the school building would be kept open
during the entire year. Students would continue to have two
months’ vacation, but groups of students would have their
vacations at different times.

Your task: Decide whether you agree or disagree with the suggestion to adopt
a twelve-month plan. Write a composition of about 200 words
persuading the school board to adopt your point of view. Give two-
reasons to support your opinion. Explain each reason.

In your composition be sure to:

• Keep in mind that you are trying to persuade the school board,
not other students.

• State your opinion clearly.

• Give the school board two reasons for your opinion.

• Explain each of your two reasons fully.

• Organize what you write.

Part III. Review of Writing Skills 231

 MODEL COMPOSITION

I wish to add my voice to those voices that support

the twelve-month school year. I think this is one of the most
creative ideas I’ve ever heard. It ismn idea that in the long
run benefits nearly everybody. I’d like to suggest two
reasons why I think this plan should be adopted.

First, it benefits students. Under the plan, the total

amount of vacation time would not be affected. V acations
would, however, come at different times of the year.
Students would have an opportunity to experience periods
of rest during spring, fall, aqd winter. For example,
students could enjoy winter sports. All three seasons
provide advantages that are lost during the long hot
summer. Air-conditioned rooms make school in summer
a pleasant experience. The change from the old routines
would be refreshing.

Secondly, it benefits the school system. It uses the

school buildings at capacity. Now the schools stand idle
for two months. During the summer period, the buildings
must be maintained, even though they are empty. The
twelve-month program might even eliminate the need for
building a new school. With all the economies gained by
the change, the schools could afford many needed
programs and materials.

A new idea tends to be resisted. Change is often looked

upon as bad just because it calls for new methods. I think
the twelve-month school year is an idea whose time has
come. I hope you will support the idea and put our schools
out in front.

Exercise 2

Select three of the following topics. Take a point of view and for each topic
tell the two reasons you would give to support your point of view. Direct your
composition:

to a parent telling why you need the family car

to a friend telling why you think he or she should visit you at Christmas
to the school principal recommending a new subject for the curriculum
to the editor of the school newspaper telling why a certain feature should
be added
to a local public official requesting a new traffic light
to a local TV station asking that a program be retained
to a manufacturer suggesting improvements in his or her product

232 Building Power in Reading and Writing

Exercise 3

Directions: Write a composition in which you try to persuade the school cafeteria
staff to act in accordance with your suggestion below. Read all the information
before you start to write.

Situation: There are long lines in the cafeteria. Frequently, you have wanted
to go back on line for a snack after finishing your lunch. Yet the
long lines and the short time for lunch have prevented you.

Your task: Persuade the school cafeteria staff to install coin machines for
dispensing foods to supplement the lunchroom food. These
machines would sell raisins, dried apricots, nuts, seeds, and other
wholesome snacks. Give two reasons to support your opinion.
Explain each reason.

In your composition be sure to:

• Keep in mind that you are persuading the members of the

cafeteria staff, not other students.

• State your opinion clearly.

• Give the members of the staff two reasons for your opinion.

• Explain each of your two reasons fully.

• Organize what you write.

Part III. Review of Writing Skills 233

4. Writing the Composition to Explain

Everyone is called upon from time to time to explain something. “How do

you make a carrot cake?” “How do you train a dog to give you its paw?” “Have
you ever made a birdhouse? What materials do you use?” “How does a speed¬
ometer work?” Questions like these arise frequently. The ability to answer clearly
and concisely can be sharpened by practice in writing explanations.

How to Write a Good Explanation

1. Decide on who your readers will be. Your explanation to a child will differ
from your explanation to an adult.
2. Put yourself in your reader’s place. Try to anticipate things that may confuse
or puzzle your reader.
3. Connect your explanation with what your reader already knows. Use compar¬
isons and examples.
4. If you must use a technical term, explain it.
5. Don’t assume because you know something that your reader will also know
it.
6. Use diagrams and charts if they will make your explanation clearer.
7. Be complete and thorough. Don’t leave anything out. Leaving out baking
powder in a cake mix may ruin the cake.
8. Use connecting words to make your writing smoother.
9. Stick to the topic.
10. Review Section 3, especially “Characteristics of Good Compositions” onpage
225.

Practice

Why do a clock’s hands move in the direction we call clockwise instead of in

the opposite direction? Read the following pair of explanations and answer the
questions at the end.

In baseball, skating, and most footraces, the

athletes run counterclockwise. Yet traditionally, the
hands of a clock move in the opposite direction, or clock¬
wise. Why? The answer probably lies in the history of
timekeeping. Before there were clocks, there were
sundials. If you have ever watched the shadow of the sun
move around the sundial, you recall that the shadow
moved in what we now call the clockwise direction. When
mechanical clocks were devised, what could be more
natural than to imitate the shadow of the sun as it moved
around the dial? The direction took its name from the

234 Building Power in Reading and Writing

 . clock itself and is called clockwise, or the way the hands of
the clock move. Of course, if clocks had been invented in
the southern hemisphere, “clockwise” would probably
be in the opposite direction. Below the equator, the sun’s
shadow moves counterclockwise.

2
Why do the hands of a clock move opposite to the
way most races are run? Naturally, the hands move
clockwise. For an explanation of this situation, one
should study the history of timekeeping. Before there
were clocks, there were water clocks, or clepsydras.
There were candle clocks and hourglasses. All of these
had serious defects. The sundial, however, is a useful
and accurate timepiece if the sun is shining. The clock¬
wise direction is related to the sundial. South of the
equator, the shadow of the sun moves opposite to the
way the shadow moves in the northern hemisphere.
Perhaps the hands of our clocks would now move differ¬
ently if clocks had been invented in the southern
hemisphere. Nowadays, electric clocks, quartz clocks,
and atomic clocks are far more accurate timekeepers
than any of their predecessors.

1. Which explanation seems clearer?

2. What specific defects does the inferior explanation display?

Answers
1. Paragraph 1 is preferable. It is clear, interesting, and complete. It answers the question.
2. Paragraph 2 is inferior for these reasons:
(a) It is poorly organized. It jumps around. It talks about ancient clocks, sundials, and
then modern timekeepers. .
(b) it doesn’t focus on the question. It mentions that the clockwise direction is related
to the sundial, but it doesn t make the connection clear.
(c) It introduces inappropriate elements, like electric clocks, that have nothing to do
with clockwise motion.

Part III. Review of Writing Skills 235

Exercise 1

Why are traffic signals arranged as they are? Read the following pair of expla¬
nations and answer the questions at the end. (Suggested answers appear at the end
of this section on page 241. You may wish to compare your answers to them. Don’t
peek until you have written your answers!)

Color-blind individuals may have trouble with

traffic lights. It is difficult for some people to distinguish
between red and green. Some red traffic signals have
some orange in them, and some green signals have some
blue in them. These blends make it easier for the color¬
blind to tell the difference. Also the placement of the
lights has been designed to help the color-blind, who
might otherwise be at a great disadvantage.

2
Signals used on railroads probably were the inspi¬
ration for the traffic signals we are familiar with today.
Red and green signaled Stop or Go, and we still abide by
those colors. Until the 1950s, many traffic signals were
displayed horizontally rather than vertically, but this
arrangement has generally been abandoned. Nowadays
the red signal is placed at the top to help color-blind
individuals who might be confused by different layouts.
On some traffic signals, the red signal is somewhat larger
as an additional help to the color-blind.

1. Which explanation seems clearer?

2. What specific defects does the inferior explanation display? Review the practice
exercise before you answer.

236 Building Power in Reading and Writing

Exercise. 2

Study the following assignment to write an explanation as well as the sample

explanation itself.

Directions: Write an explanation, using the suggestions below.

Situation: For a classroom project, you have been asked to write a how-to expla¬
nation. All explanations will be gathered into a class booklet entitled
Our How-to Book.

Your task: Seledt one of the following explanation topics and write a clear, concise
explanation for the class booklet:

How to Park a Car

How to Make a Sundial
How to Play Trivial Pursuit (or another board game)
How to Start Azalea Cuttings
How to Begin a Stamp Collection
How to Attract Birds
How to Be a Baby-sitter
How to Read a Weather Map
How to Build a Simple Bookcase
How to Make a Cherry Pie (or some other dessert)
How to Keep Score in Bowling
How to String a Tennis Racket
How to Draw a Cartoon
How to Plan Television Viewing
How to Make a Good Breakfast Cereal
How to ... (Choose your own topic.)

Sample Explanation

How can you make a good breakfast cereal? If you

find breakfast the least attractive meal of the day and
most prepared breakfast cereals boring, you’ll enjoy
making your own cereal. With a little ingenuity and
some sound ingredients, you can make a nourishing,
tasty cereal that will have the rest of your family
clamoring for more. There’s another plus. The current
interest in low-cholesterol diets, even for young people,
suggests avoidance of foods high in cholesterol. This
cereal is one good answer.

Although oatmeal is the basis of this supercereal,

you should gather together as many of the following
ingredients as possible: oat bran, regular (not instant)
oatmeal, wheat germ, seven-grain cereal, farina,
powdered milk, honey, and lowfat milk.

Part ill. Review of Writing Skills 237

 Take an eight-ounce measuring cup. Into it, put
one tablespoon of oat bran, which is highly recom¬
mended in all low-cholesterol diets. Add a tablespoon
each of wheat germ, seven-grain cereal, and farina.
Then fill the eight-ounce cup to the halfway mark with
regular oatmeal. Put this mixture into a saucepan. Add
two tablespoons of powdered milk and stir the mixture
until the ingredients are well mixed. Fill the eight-ounce
cup with hot water and pour it into the saucepan. You
may add a dash of salt and some raisins. Other dried
fruit, like an apricot, a peach, a fig, or a prune, may also
be cut into small pieces and a,dded.

Substitutions may, of course, be made. Wheat bran

may be substituted for the seven-grain cereal, the farina,
or the wheat germ. Such substitutions do not affect the
result. The delicious taste and creamy consistency of the
mixture please nearly all, even breakfast haters.

The cooked mixture is put into a dish. For

sweetening, honey is especially good, but sugar is also
acceptable. Milk, preferably low-fat, is added. This
cereal may also be served with cream. Unfortunately,
the cereal with cream is not a low-cholesterol dish.
Adding it defeats part of the purpose of the cereal. The
powdered milk, added during the cooking, does give the
cereal a creamy taste.

If you put these ingredients together and cook as

directed, you may never want any other breakfast again!

Look back for a moment. What special qualities does this sample explanation
have?

1. It addresses itself directly to you, the reader. It is pitched to someone of high

school age.
2. It provides, at the beginning, a list of ingredients.
3. It takes you step-by-step through the procedure, from measuring to cooking.
4. It is light in tone, in keeping with the classroom project’s purpose.
5. It ties in the explanation with a current health topic: the importance of keeping
cholesterol levels low.
6. It is smoothly written, with connecting words like then, however, and unfortunately.
7. It provides an explanation that readers can actually put into practice.

Exercise 3
Using the directions for Exercise 2, try your hand at an explanation. Under
Your task, various topics have been suggested, but if you are stumped, you may
choose a topic of your own. Select a topic that you are familiar with and that will
interest your fellow students.

238 Building Power in Reading and Writing

Giving Directions

“Take the first turn to your right, or is it the second? No,

it’s the first. After you make a right turn, go two or three traffic
lights and make a sharp left. I think there’s a gas service station
on the corner. Or maybe it’s a grocery.”

Giving good directions is not easy. Many a poor traveler goes miles out of
his or her way because someone left out an important direction. A turn at the second
traffic light may get the traveler to the destination. A turn at the third traffic light
may send the traveler to the next county.

How to Write Good Directions

1. Whenever possible, provide the address and telephone number of the desti¬
nation.
2. Be accurate, exact, and specific in your directions.
3. Put yourself in your reader’s place. What is simple, easy, and obvious to you
may be puzzling to your reader.
4. Don’t leave anything out. Indicate all left and right turns, and mention
landmarks along the way.
5. Keep your directions up to date. Signs change. Buildings are torn down. New
traffic lights are installed. Last month’s directions may be out of date today.
6. Write smoothly, using connectives where possible.
7. If a diagram or a map will help, provide it. If possible, indicate distances and
compass directions.

Practice
“How can I get to Melbourne High School from Melbourne Mall?”

Read the following pair of directions and answer the questions at the end.

To get to Melbourne High School from Melbourne

Mall, go out onto New Haven Boulevard. This is a pretty
wide street, I believe, but there should be traffic lights
to help you. After you have driven a while, you will want
to look for Babcock Street. Babcock Street cuts through
the heart of busy Melbourne and is an important
connection with Palm Bay, the next city. Oh, yes,
Melbourne Mall is a mile from T95.

Turn onto Babcock Street. I’m not sure how wide

Babcock is at this point, but it always has a lot of traffic.
You will then drive past several shopping malls. I believe
these malls have a Publix store, a Montgomery Ward,
a Sears, and some food stores whose names I forget.
Anyway, you will soon make a right turn to reach the
high school.

Part III. Review of Writing Skills 239

 2
To get to Melbourne High School from Melbourne
Mall, turn left onto New Haven Boulevard, also called
Route 192. Proceed east on New Haven. After you pass
the municipal golf course, look for a major intersection
with traffic lights. This is Babcock Street. You will
recognize it because there are service stations on three
corners and a church on the fourth.

Turn left onto Babcock. Proceed past Fee Avenue

and Hibiscus Boulevard. As you pass Hibiscus Boule¬
vard, you will find a shopping plaza on your right. Be
alert. The next street is Bulldog Lane. An overhead sign
identifies that street. Turn right onto it. You have
arrived. Melbourne High School is at the corner of
Babcock Street and Bulldog Lane. (If you need further
help, the school telephone number is 723-4151.)

1. Which set of directions seems clearer?

2. What errors does the inferior set of directions make? Be specific.

Answers

1. Paragraph 2 is clearer.
2. Paragraph 1 is inferior for these reasons;
(a) It jumps around. It doesn’t proceed straight to its destination. After leaving
Melbourne Mall, it goes back to it.
(b) It has much unnecessary information. For example, Babcock Street’s connection
with Palm Bay does not help the explanation.
(c) It is too indefinite, with its “I’m not sure,” “I believe,” and “I forget.” “Go out
onto New Haven Boulevard” doesn’t indicate right or left.
(<i) It is not smoothly written.

240 Building Power in Reading and Writing

Exercise. 4

Directions: Now try writing directions of your own. Use the suggestions on how
to write good directions as a guide.

Situation: A friend has asked for directions to your house from the center of town.

Your task: Write the directions for your friend. Add a map if possible. In your
composition, be sure to follow the rules for good explanations. Don’t
take anything for granted.

Model Answers to Exercise 1, page 236

1. Paragraph 2 is preferable. It gives a brief history of traffic signals, an interesting intro¬

duction.
2. Paragraph 1 is inferior for these reasons:
(a) It is poorly organized. It doesn’t follow a clear pattern.
(b) It mentions the placement of lights but doesn’t explain what it is.

Part III. Review of Writing Skills 241

 5. Writing the Business Letter

On a competency test, you may be expected to write a good business letter.

It should show correct form and be well written. It should also bear correct punctua¬
tion (pages 191-200) and capitalization (pages 201-206).

Correct Form

In addition to the body, the business letter has five parts. Let s examine each
in turn. (All names and addresses are fictitious).

Heading

15 Barnes Place
Valley Stream, NY 11580
October 10, 19—

1. The first line of the heading gives the street address or the post office box number.
Do not abbreviate.

2. The second line gives the town or city, state, and ZIP code. The official abbre¬
viation for New York is NY. If you know the abbreviations of other state names,
you may use them. (See page 195.) Otherwise, spell them out.

3. The third line gives the date. Don’t abbreviate.

Inside Address

Barrett’s Art Service

45 Park Avenue South
New York, NY 10012

1. The first line of the inside address gives the name of the person or company
you are writing to.

2. The second line gives the street address or the post office box number.

3. The third line gives the town or city, state, and ZIP code.

Except for the official state abbreviation, do not abbreviate.

242 Building Power in Reading and Writing

Salutation

Gentlemen:

The salutation of a business letter ends with a colon (:). Common business
letter salutations include Dear Ms. Porter, Dear Mr. Jones, Gentlemen.

Closing

Sincerely yours,

The closing of a letter ends with a comma (,). Common business letter closings
include Yours truly, Sincerely, Very truly yours, Cordially yours.

Signature

Roberto Quesada

Try to make your signature as legible as possible. To help your correspondent,

type or print your name below your signature.

Part III. Review of Writing Skills 243

 Now let’s put all the parts of a business letter together.

15 Barnes Place
Heading Valley Stream, NY 11580
October 10, 19—

Barrett’s Art Service

45 Park Avenue South Inside address
New York, NY 10012

Gentlemen: Salutation

Body

Closing-[[ Sincerely yours,

Signature jSaetuzadz'

Roberto Quesada

Study the following assignment to write a business letter as well as the letter
itself.

Directions: Write a business letter about the situation described below. Read
all the information before you start to write.

Situation: You sent an order for photographs to Color Photo. The order arrived
but it was incomplete. The advertisement promised 24 wallet-sized
photographs, three 5X7 enlargements, and one 8 X 10 enlargement.
You sent $10.75 plus 650 for handling and 500 for first-class mail return.
You received the wallet-sized photographs but not the enlargements.

Your task: Write a business letter about this situation to: Color Photo, P.O. Box
230A. Complete this address by using your own city or town, state,
and ZIP code.

In your letter be sure to:

• Explain the situation.

• Explain what you want Color Photo to do for you.

• Give complete and correct information.

• Use an acceptable business letter form.

244 Building Power in Reading and Writing

 20 Partridge Road
El Paso, TX 79910
March 26, 19—

Color Photo
P.O. Box 230A
El Paso, TX 79910

Gentlemen:

On February 18,1 sent an order for photos as advertised

in Seventeen. The advertisement promised 24 wallet-sized photos,
three 5X7 enlargements, and one 8 X 10 enlargement. In
accordance with the directions, I enclosed a photo to be copied
and a money order for $11.90 to cover all postage and handling
costs.

I received the order yesterday. It contained the wallet-sized

photos but not the four enlargements. I am returning the
original photo. Will you please make up the enlargements and
send them to me as conveniently as possible. Thank you for
attending to this matter.

Sincerely yours,

Ellen Franklyn

Let’s refer to the suggestions in the directions.

1. Note that the letter briefly and clearly explains the situation. It points out that
four enlargements had been omitted from the order.

2. Then it explains simply what Color Photo is to do: provide the missing enlarge¬
ments.
3. Information is complete and accurate. The writer did not forget to send the
original photo back.

4. The business letter form is correct.

Exercise 1

Now study a business letter by yourself. Be ready to point out how the letter
meets the requirements of the situation.

Part III. Review of Writing Skills 245

 Directions: Write a business letter about the situation described below. Read
all the information before you start to write.

Situation: You sent an order to Johnson Printers for 250 Crystal Clear return-
address labels. You sent a money order for $4.48, which covered the
cost of the labels and return postage. Six weeks have elapsed, but you
have not yet received the order.

Your task: Write a business letter about this situation to: Johnson Printers, 4280
Johnson Building. Complete this address by using your own city or
town, state, and ZIP code.

In your letter be sure to:

• Explain the situation.

• Explain what you want Johnson Printers to do for you.

• Give complete and correct information.

• Use an acceptable business letter form.

19 Northfield Lane
Philadelphia, PA 19104
January 12, 19—

Johnson Printers
4280 Johnson Building
Philadelphia, PA 19104

Dear Sir or Madam:

Six weeks ago, I noticed your advertisement in Parade

magazine. I sent an order for 250 Crystal Clear return-address
labels. I included my full name and address as well as a money
order for $4.48, which covered the cost of the labels and the
return postage.

Since so much time has passed, I am worried about the

order. I’m afraid it may have been lost. Would you check and
see that the order is shipped as soon as possible. The heading
at the top of this letter gives my correct address for the labels.
May I hear from you.

Very truly yours,

Rhoda Berman

246 Building Power in Reading and Writing

Exercise 2

Directions: Write a business letter about the situation described below. Read
all the information before you start to write.

Situation: You ordered a book from Publishers United. The book, Children’s Toys
and Furniture, arrived with 48 pages missing.

Your task: Write a business letter about this situation to Publishers United, Box
132, Dept. R2. Ask for directions about returning the damaged book
and getting either a new book or a refund. Complete this address by
using your own city or town, state, and ZIP code.

In your letter be sure to:

• Explain the situation.

• Explain what you want Publishers United to do for you.

• Give complete and cdrrect information.

• Use an acceptable business letter form.

Exercise 3

U sing correct letter form, write a business letter on one of the following topics.
If one of these letters reflects a situation in your life, prepare to mail the letter.

1. You have ordered an item but have not received it.

2. You have not been able to find a particular item in a local department store.
3. You have been asked to pay a bill you have already paid.
4. You have received an item you sent away for repair, but the repair is unsat¬
isfactory.
5. On many occasions, you have been unable to get items on sale at a local store.
Suggest the use of “rain checks.”
6. You have subscribed to a magazine but have not yet received a copy.
7. You have ordered camping information from Florida’s Department of Tourism
in Tallahassee, but have not received it.
8. You were promised a free product for sending a coupon, but you have not yet
received the product.
9. You have bought a model-boat kit, but several important parts are missing.
10. You have ordered stationery with letterhead imprinted. The order has arrived,
but your name is misspelled.

Part III. Review of Writing Skills 247

The Envelope

Note the correct form of the envelope:

Roberto Quesada
15 Barnes Place
Valley Stream, NY 11580

Barrett’s Art Service

45 Park Avenue South
New York, NY 10012

248 Building Power in Reading and Writing

 6. Writing the Friendly Letter

Besides the greater informality of a friendly letter, there are a few differences
between it and the business letter.

Correct Form

In addition to the body, the friendly letter has four parts. Let’s examine each
in turn. (All names and addresses are fictitious.)

Heading

21 Hilltop Avenue
Lexington, MA 02173
February 27, 19—

1. The first line of the heading gives the street address or the post office box number.
Do not abbreviate.

2. The second line gives the town or city and state. The official abbreviation for
Massachusetts is MA. If you know the abbreviations of other state names, you
may use them. Otherwise, spell them out.

3. If you are writing to someone who is sure to know the address without checking,
you may omit lines 1 and 2.

4. The third line gives the date. Don’t abbreviate.

Inside Address

This is customarily omitted in a friendly letter.

Salutation

Dear Aunt Laura,

The salutation of a friendly letter ends with a comma (,). Common friendly
letter salutations include Dear Tammy, Dear Grandmother, Dear Miss Juarez, Dear Mr.
and Mrs. Girard.

Part III. Review of Writing Skills 249

 Closing

Your niece,

The closing of a friendly letter ends with a comma (,). The first word is capital¬
ized. Common friendly letter closings include Your nephew, Your pen pal, Affectionately
yours, Love, As ever, Sincerely, Till Friday.

Signature

Try to make your signature as legible as possible. The last name is, of course,
unnecessary in corresponding with relatives or close friends. Now let s put all the
elements together.

21 Hilltop Avenue
Heading Lexington, MA 02173
February 27, 19—

J
Dear Aunt Laura, -Salutation

Body

Closing j^Your niece,

Signature

The envelope for the friendly letter is essentially the same as that for the
business letter (see page 248).

Types of Friendly Letters

There are many types of friendly letters, each with its own special flavor and
purpose.

Newsy Letter. This is the most general of all friendly letters. Its purpose is
to keep lines of communication open, to keep in touch with friends. Though the
newsy letter has been partly taken over by the telephone, it is still an important
link between friends, especially those in areas distant from each other. Everyone
likes to receive letters. To receive letters, you must also send them.

250 Building Power in Reading and Writing

How to Write a Good Newsy Letter

1. Have your correspondent ’ s previous letter in front of you so that you can respond
to questions, comments, and news items.
2. Begin with a bright opening sentence. Avoid such negative comments as ‘ ‘ I had
nothing to do, so I thought I’d drop you a line.”
3. Be as positive as you can. Don’t dwell on bad news.
4. Give details as if you were writing a news paragraph: who, what, where, when,
why, and how.
5. Write the way you talk. Introduce humor where possible. Looked at in a special
way, everyday details are often funny.
6. There are many subjects to talk about: your experiences, unusual adventures,
travel and travel plans, hobbies, family, school, afterschool work, books read
and movies seen. Television is a good common subject.
7. Share an interesting anecdote or joke, if you have one. Enclose a humorous
clipping from a magazine or newspaper.

Exercise 1

Study the following assignment to write a friendly letter. A sample letter is

included.

Directions: Write a friendly letter about the situation described below. Read all
the information before you start to write.

Situation: You have just received a letter from a friend whom you haven’t seen
in several months. He or she has mentioned a trip taken during the
summer, has retold some amusing episodes in the school lunchroom,
and mentioned several books and television programs enjoyed. Your
correspondent has closed with “Hope to hear from you soon.”

Your task: Reply to this letter. Imagine it has been received from one of your actual
friends.

In your letter be sure to:

• Follow the how-to guide on this page.

• Comment on things mentioned in your correspondent’s letter.

• Provide some interesting news of your own.

• Mention a television program or book you have especially

enjoyed.

• Use correct friendly letter form.

Part III. Review of Writing Skills 251

Sample Newsy Letter

2190 South Beverly Street

Los Angeles, GA 90025
September 19, 19—

Dear Jason,

Your welcome letter really brought me up to date on the

goings-on around your house. You have certainly been busy
the past few months. Your camping trip to Bryce Canyon and
Zion National Park sounds like the kind of trip I’d like to take
some day. I hope your weather was fine, but then I ve heard
that weather in those areas is beautiful in August.

The opening of school is not always an easy way to leave

the summer behind, but this year all is well. The subjects I’m
taking are pretty interesting, and my teachers keep things
moving. There have been some amusing spots, too. Our school
uses abbreviations like ST for stenography and SP for Spanish. One
of my friends sat in a stenography class for two weeks before
realizing it was not a Spanish class. “It all seemed a foreign
language to me anyway,” was the misplaced student’s expla¬
nation.

You mentioned that you especially enjoy Nova and Nature

on Public Television stations. I agree. I marvel at the kind of
photography that can catch the hatching of a thrush’s eggs or
the battle between a grasshopper and ants. My favorite nature
program was the story of termite mounds in Africa. The camera
got inside the mounds and showed how workers tend the queen,
how the queen spends all her time laying eggs, and how every
termite seems to know its job. The most dramatic scene of all
was the fight to the death between a termite soldier and a much
larger marauding insect. It was almost a heroic struggle between
a valiant knight and a superior opponent. I didn’t think I could
feel sorry for a dying insect, but I was moved by the heroic, but
unequal, battle.
Your trip out West has had me dreaming of our family’s
planned trip to Acadia National Park in Maine next summer.
We hear the water is too cold for swimming, but the mountains
are perfect for hiking. I think I prefer camping to any other kind
of vacation.

252 Building Power in Reading and Writing

 . What records and tapes have you added recently to your
fabulous collection? My parents gave me two music videos for
my birthday. Hey, you should have seen my little brother Teddy
trying to dance to the music!

We all miss you and hope to see you again at Christ¬

mastime.

Your old pal,

S<$/ea>
4

Exercise 2

Using the directions, situation, and task from the preceding sample letter,
write a newsy letter of your own. Use your home address for the heading. Use the
name of a friend or relative for your correspondent. (After the letter has been read,
you may wish to send it, or a copy, to the correspondent.)

Letter of Invitation, Acceptance, or Rejection. Like the newsy letter, this

letter is often replaced by the telephone call. But there are still occasions when it
is courteous and necessary to send a letter of invitation.

How to Write a Letter of Invitation

1. Be complete, clear, and friendly.

2. Give the exact information about date, time, and place.
3. Give plenty of time for the reply.
4. If the letter of invitation is combined with the newsy letter, be sure that the
invitation is clear and is not overlooked because it is buried in the body of the
letter.

How to Write a Letter of Acceptance or Rejection

1. If you can attend, be prompt in accepting the invitation. Show that you are
happy at being invited.
2. For safety’s sake, repeat the information about date, time, and place. If neces¬
sary, ask for directions.
3. If you cannot attend, give a specific, sincere reason for not attending.
4. Express thanks for being asked.

If you receive a printed card with the words Regrets only, you need reply only
if you are not attending.

Thank-You Letter. If you have received a gift, do not overlook the thank-
you letter. The gift-giver appreciates some acknowledgment of the time and
thoughtfulness that went into the selection. A related letter is the bread-and-butter
letter. It is also a thank-you, usually for having been entertained at someone’s
house for a weekend or more.
Part III. Review of Writing Skills 253
How to Write a Thank-You Letter

1. Mention the gift specifically and suggest how you plan to use it. Even if you
dislike the gift, you can commend the thought.
2. If you have stayed with a family for a period, tell what you especially enjoyed
during the visit. A separate letter to your friend’s parents is a thoughtful touch.
3. Be prompt. If you delay a thank-you letter for a mailed gift, your donor will
wonder whether you received the gift.

Congratulations. There are special moments in every life: a graduation, an

award, an election, a championship, a unique achievement. Hearing from friends
makes the achievement sweeter.

How to Write a Letter of Congratulation

1. Write soon after the achievement.

2. Mention the achievement specifically and indicate your appreciation of its signif¬
icance.
3. Congratulate the recipient briefly and sincerely. Too flowery praise loses effec¬
tiveness.

Exercise 3

Try your hand at one of the letters just discussed. Follow the guides suggested
for the letter you choose. Use correct letter form.

Postcard. A postcard is a miniature friendly letter. It is usually sent from a

traveler to someone at home. The picture postcard often contains a photograph
of some place the writer has visited. Because there is room for only a few sentences,
the writer must be brief, yet also informative. A postcard can help cement friend¬
ships.

A postal card, which is sold by the post office with the stamp already imprinted,
provides somewhat more space than a postcard. But it is also a letter in miniature.
The postal card is often reserved for announcements of meetings, short news items,
or hurried greetings. At times it may serve as a substitute for a longer newsy letter.

How to Write a Travel Postcard

1. Write the date so that your friend will know when you wrote the card.
2. Avoid trite comments like “Having a wonderful time. Wish you were here.”
3. Pick one or two interesting experiences on your trip and retell them briefly. Or
describe one or two outstanding sights. Or tell about the photograph on a picture
postcard.
4. Write your friend’s name and address clearly.

254 Building Power in Reading and Writing

Exercise 4

Study the following assignment to write a postcard. A sample postcard is

included.

Directions: Write a postcard as instructed.

Situation: Choose either a trip you have actually taken or an imaginary trip based
on something you saw on television or read.

Your task: Write a postcard with a message of three or four sentences to give your
friend the flavor of the trip. Follow the preceding guides.

Sample Postcard

/?-

'7?U.
,237 J&uid;
OT //

Exercise 5

Using the directions for Exercise 4, write a travel postcard about an actual
trip or about an imaginary one based on something you read or saw. Use the
preceding sample as a guide.

Telephone Memos. A common responsibility today is the need to take a

telephone message for someone else. The answering machine has assumed some
of this responsibility, but in all probability you are sometimes called upon to take
a message for a member of your family.

Part III. Review of Writing Skills 255

How to Take a Telephone Memo Accurately

1. Have near the telephone a pencil or pen and a pad on which to write the message.
Avoid writing messages on shreds and scraps of paper.
2. Jot down the names of the person for whom the message is intended and the
person who is making the call.
3. Note the time of the call and the date.
4. Write down the message briefly, accurately, and completely. Write legibly.
5. List the phone number of the person making the call.
6. Jot down your name.
7. Leave the memo in a conspicuous place, where it can be found.

Exercise 6

Now let’s study a model telephone memo.

Directions: Write a telephone memo as instructed-

Situation: A friend has called a member of your family. Since the member is not
home, you take down the message. The friend is calling to say that the
time for the Camera Club meeting has been changed from Tuesday
at 8:00 P. M. to Wednesday at 7:45 P.M. The caller asks that the family
member bring to the meeting slides of the Quebec trip. The caller’s
telephone number is 555-7532.

Your task: Write the memo incorporating this information. In your memo, be sure
to include all essential details as outlined in the guide.

Sample Telephone Memo

'2, A7~ , 7-oo PM.

-Jo-Y-’oo P.M.

a± 7-’4CS T.M.

c&a*- CrzYY aY. £55- |Z532

256 Building Power in Reading and Writing

Exercise 7

Directions: Write a telephone memo as instructed.

Situation: A friend has called a member of your family to ask whether he or she
can attend Saturday ’ s football game. The caller has obtained the tickets.

Your task: Write the memo incorporating this information. In your memo, be sure
to include all essential details as outlined in the guide. Use the sample
as a model.
/

Part III. Review of Writing Skills 257

 7. Writing the Report

On a competency test, you may be expected to write a report. This assignment

requires you to organize a number of bits of information into a forceful compo¬
sition. You will be given full directions, but the organization will be left to you.

The report has all the characteristics of a good composition (page 225). Like
the persuasive composition, it is generally expository in nature. It does not,
however, require brainstorming.

If you prepare a report from scratch, these are the steps you must follow.
___—---\--

1. Decide what your audience is.

2. Choose a topic—neither too broad nor too narrow.
3. Examine various sources: encyclopedias, books, magazines,
newspapers, television commentators, people you know.
4. Take notes, preferably on small library (3 X 5) cards. Also
keep track of your sources.
5. Decide on important divisions of your report.
6. Shuffle the note cards around so that topics fall within their
proper divisions.
7. Write a rough draft based on the shuffled note cards.
8. Revise and produce a finished product, suitable for the
audience you have written for.

On a typical competency test, part of the work has already been done for you.
The first four steps have been completed. You must take the task from there and
work with steps 5-8.

How a Report Is Written

Let’s study a report to see what must be done with the directions and notes
supplied.

Directions: Write a report using the situation and the set of notes from below.
Read all the information before you start to write.

Situation: Students in your social studies class have to prepare reports on scenic
areas in the United States. You decided to write your report on Mt.
Washington, in New Hampshire. You read several books and then
interviewed your cousin, who has often hiked in the White Mountains.
The notes you took during the interview and your reading are in the
box below. Numbers have been added to help you refer to each note
individually.

258 Building Power in Reading and Writing

 1. Skiing in Tuckerman Ravine as late as June
2. Only Mt. Washington over 6,000 feet
3. Trails on eastern slope: Tuckerman Ravine, Lion’s Head,
Great Gulf
4. Trails on western slope: Crawford Path, Jewel
5. For visitors, a most popular peak in a popular range
6. Four of the highest peaks: Washington, Adams, Jefferson,
Madison
7. Changeable, dangerous weather conditions
8. Great Gulf Trail unusually long and picturesque
9. Jewel Trail under Gog Railway to Summit House
10. White Mountains of New Hampshire ideal for hiking and
climbing
11. Excellent for hikers in good condition
12. Old Crawford Path from Crawford Notch
13. Alpine Gardens on trails near summit
14. Presidential Range best of all
15. Across many peaks on Crawford Path
16. Alpine Gardens left from Ice Age

Your task: Organize these notes into a written report.

To help you organize and write your report, be sure to:

• Keep in mind that you are writing the report for your social
studies class.

• Rearrange the notes before you start to write your first draft.

• Include all the information from the notes in your report.

There is the task. How should you begin? First, examine the notes carefully
and begin to group those items together that seem to belong together.

Writing the First Paragraph

Number 10 seems like an excellent way to start off. It really gives you your
first sentence:

The White Mountains of New Hampshire are ideal for hiking

and climbing.

This sentence states the point of the report and suggests its direction. What
else seems to belong in the opening paragraph?

Part III. Review of Writing Skills 259

 Number 14 follows logically. The first sentence above is a general statement.
The second, below, is more specific.

Of these mountains, the Presidential Range is best of all.

Number 6, which identifies the peaks in the Presidential Range, follows.

Four of the highest peaks were named for the first four presi¬
dents: Washington, Adams, Jefferson, and Madison.

Number 2 adds a specific detail about one of the peaks, Mt. Washington. The
next sentence in the paragraph takes this information and adds a little extra, which
may be derived from all the notes.

Though only Mt. Washington is higher than 6,000 feet, all four
peaks are impressive.

By grouping numbers 2, 6, 10, and 14, you have created your first paragraph,
the introduction.

THE INTRODUCTION_

The White Mountains of New Hampshire are ideal

for hiking and climbing. Of these mountains, the Presi¬
dential Range is best of all. Four of the highest peaks were
named for the first four presidents: Washington, Adams,
Jefferson, and Madison. Though only Mt. Washington is
higher than 6,000 feet, all four peaks are impressive.

Note that you have created a good paragraph. It has a good opening topic
sentence and a good closing, or clinching, sentence. It sticks to the topic. It uses
connecting words and phrases like of these mountains, four of the highest peaks, and though.

You have taken care of paragraph 1. Where do you go from here? Though
notes seem to fall naturally into certain groupings, different writers will see different
combinations and ways of organizing the report. That’s fine, as long as there is
some logic to the arrangement. The organization that follows is one way of
proceeding.

260 Building Power in Reading and Writing

Writing Paragraph 2

Paragraph 1 has talked about hiking the Presidentials. Paragraph 2 seems to

call for more information about hiking and the trails that are used. Number 11
seems to be a good opening sentence for paragraph 2.

Hikers should be in good condition to attack Mt. Washington

and the other peaks.

Why shoydd hikers be in good condition? Number 7 tells us and suggests the
second sentence of the paragraph.

The weather is dangerous and can change at a moment ’ s notice.

For your third sentence, you can combine numbers 1 and 3. The fact that there
is skiing in June says something about the weather conditions, so this information-
can follow the sentence about the weather. But notice that number 3 also mentions
Tuckerman Ravine. Here’s an opportunity to combine two bits of information to
make one solid sentence.

The Tuckerman Ravine Trail brings skiers as late as June.

The fourth sentence uses the rest of the information from number 3.

Other popular trails on the eastern slope include the Lion’s

Head Trail and the Great Gulf Trail.

Number 8 talks about the Great Gulf Trail. Use it to round out the paragraph.

The Great Gulf Trail is unusually long and picturesque.

Now let’s see what paragraph 2 looks like.

PARAGRAPH 2

Hikers should be in good condition to attack Mt.

Washington and the other peaks. The weather is dangerous
and can change at a moment’s notice. The Tuckerman
Ravine Trail brings skiers as late as June. Other popular
trails on the eastern slope include the Lion’s Head Trail
and the Great Gulf Trail. The Great Gulf Trail is unusually
long and picturesque.

Part III. Review of Writing Skills 261

Writing Paragraph 3

You have grouped numbers 1,3, 7, 8, and 11 to create a paragraph that follows
paragraph 1 logically. Paragraph 2 is a complete unit in itself and is also part of
a larger whole. Unity within a larger unity! Similarly, let’s make paragraph 3
another complete unit of thought.

Since paragraph 2 talks about trails on the eastern slope, you might consider
next those trails that cross the western slope. Since you’ll be talking about western
slope trails, you need a sentence to announce that fact. Create one.

Other trails approach from the western side.

Number 4 identifies two trails on the western slope, the Crawford Path and
the Jewel Trail. Numbers 12 and 15 deal with the Crawford Path. Number 9 deals
with the Jewel Trail. You have a choice here. Your next sentence can deal with
either the Crawford Path or the Jewel Trail. Choose one.

The Jewel Trail winds its way to the Summit House underneath
tracks of the Cog Railway.

Now that you’ve taken care of the Jewel Trail, you can go on to the Crawford
Path. You can combine numbers 12 and 15 for the next sentence.

The old Crawford Path starts in Crawford Notch and crosses

many peaks on its way to Mt. Washington.

You have not used two notes that deal with trails, numbers 13 and 16. This
seems to be a good place for these notes. The next sentence develops the idea in
number 13.

Many of these trails pass through lovely flowers near the

summit.

The final sentence in the paragraph uses the idea in number 16.

These Alpine Gardens were left behind during the last Ice Age.

The third paragraph has now been completed.

262 Building Power in Reading and Writing

 PARAGRAPH 3

Other trails approach from the western side. The

Jewel Trail winds it way to the Summit House underneath
tracks of the Cog Railway. The old "Crawford Path starts
in Crawford Notch and crosses many peaks on its way to
Mt. Washington. Many of these trails pass through lovely
flowers near the summit. These Alpine Gardens were left
behind during the last Ice Age.

Writing Paragraph 4

You now need a concluding paragraph. There is still one note left, number
5. How can you use this bit of information to create your final two sentences, your
fourth paragraph?

THE CONCLUSION

Mt. Washington is one of the most popular peaks in

the United States. Any visitor to New Hampshire should
try to include a visit to this rugged mountain and the entire
Presidential Range.

Step by step, using the information provided in the notes, you have created
a report that covers all the ground. It has used four paragraphs. The first paragraph
introduces the subject. The fourth paragraph summarizes and closes it. Paragraphs
2 and 3 provide details to develop the topic.

Now let’s see what the entire report looks like.

THE COMPLETE REPORT

The White Mountains of New Hampshire are ideal

for hiking and climbing. Of these mountains, the Presi¬
dential Range is best of all. Four of the highest peaks were
named for the first four presidents: Washington, Adams,
Jefferson, and Madison. Though only Mt. Washington is
higher than 6,000 feet, all four peaks are impressive.

Hikers should be in good condition to attack Mt.

Washington and the other peaks. The weather is dangerous
and can change at a moment’s notice. The Tuckerman
Ravine Trail brings skiers as late as June. Other popular
trails on the eastern slope include the Lion’s Head Trail
and the Great Gulf Trail. The Great Gulf Trail is unusually
long and picturesque.

Part III. Review of Writing Skills 263

 Other trails approach from the western side. The
Jewel Trail winds its way to the Summit House under¬
neath tracks of the Cog Railway. The old Crawford Path
starts in Crawford Notch and crosses many peaks on its
way to Mt. Washington. Many of these trails pass through
lovely flowers near the summit. These Alpine Gardens
were left behind during the last Ice Age.

Mt. Washington is one of the most popular peaks in

the United States. Any visitor to New Hampshire should
try to include a visit to this rugged mountain and the entire
Presidential Range.

What important characteristics does the report have?

1. It keeps a social studies emphasis, since it is being written for a social studies
class.

2. It has rearranged the notes in a logical fashion and has presented a report that
hangs together.

3. It has used all the information provided by the question.

4. It uses connecting words like though, other, many, and these.

5. It has a logical organization: introduction, eastern-slope trails, western-slope

trails, conclusion.

Exercise 1

Follow the directions below and prepare to write a report of the kind called
for on a competency test. This first report will give you some extra help.

Directions: Write a report using the situation and the set of notes given below.
Read all the information before you start to write.

Situation: Students in your English class have been asked to write a report on some
community event. You decided to report on the Apple Festival, an
annual week-long event. You have attended many of the events and
have read about many of the others. The notes you took are in the box
below.

To help you in organizing this report, your first try, numbers have been
added. Each number suggests the paragraph for which the note might
be used.

264 Building Power in Reading and Writing

 4 Planning, a lot of work
3 Craft exhibitions: quilting, weaving, embroidery
2 Many entrants for competitions
3 Bluegrass band at folk dance
1 Apple Festival, an annual event
1 Community becomes one big family each September
2 Children’s competitions: three-legged races, sack races
2 Adults’ competitions: tennis, volleyball, softball
3 Displays of fruits, vegetables, canned goods
3 Folk-dance exhibition on Main Street
4 Planning takes months
4 Everyone grateful to committee after Festival
1 Something for everyone
1 All ages take part
1 Two major types: sports, exhibitions

Your task: Organize these notes into a written report. To help you organize and
write your report, be sure to:

• Keep in mind that you are writing the report for your English class.

• Rearrange the notes before you start to write your first draft.

• Include all the information from the notes in your report.

Exercise 2

Follow the directions below and prepare to write a report of the kind called
for on a competency test. This time you will be completely on your own.

Directions: Write a report using the situation and the set of notes given below.
Read all the information before you start to write.

Situation: Students in your health-education class have been asked to prepare

reports on various contributions to good health. You decide to write
a report on nutrition. You have consulted various reference books and
have prepared the following notes.

Part III. Review of Writing Skills 265

 Variety leading to better nutrition
Contents of average cereal box
Importance of fresh foods
Avoidance of too many processed foods
Sugar = “empty calories”
Processed foods high in sugar
Eat balanced meals
Young people often careless about food
Follow rules for health and energy
Sugar keeps people from more important foods
Importance of vegetables
Young people often avoid cabbage, broccoli, carrots
Complex carbohydrates good: potatoes, whole grains
Good health depends on good nutrition
Careless young people may suffer when older
Shake the salt habit

Your task: Organize these notes into a written report. To help you organize and
write your report, be sure to:

• Keep in mind that you are writing the report'for your health-educa¬
tion class.

• Rearrange the notes before you start to write your first draft.

• Include all the information from the notes in your report.

266 Building Power in Reading and Writing

 8. Writing the Summary, or Precis
In recent years, frozen juice concentrates have played an ever more important
part in meal planning. The concentrates make packaging and storing more conve¬
nient. Although a can of orange-juice concentrate is only about one-quarter of the
original juice, it still contains the essential ingredients, with only water removed.

A summary, or precis as it is sometimes called, is like juice concentrate. It

contains the essential ingredients of a reading passage, with only nonessential
elements removed. Writing a summary combines reading skills and writing skills.
Knowing how to write good summaries improves study, reading, note taking, and
writing.

Condensing a message means eliminating everything but the essentials. Note

how the second sentence below contains the essential elements of the first sentence
but without the elaborating details.

Original Sentence: With much anticipation, our family visited Florida and
camped in some of Florida’s wonderful state parks, like Highlands Hammock,
Gold Head Branch, and Hillsborough River.

Condensed: Our family camped in some of Florida’s state parks.

The condensation is neither inferior nor superior to the original sentence. It

has a different purpose: to present the gist of the message simply and directly. There
are, of course, times when full details are called for. There are also times when
it is necessary to cut to the bone to present a message or retain the heart of a message
for future reference.

Practice

The brief reading passage below is followed by four possible summarizing

sentences. Select the sentence that best summarizes the message of the selection.

The popular game of checkers, often played as an

easier substitute for chess, is deceptive. It is played on
a simple-appearing checkerboard, but take heed.
Because the rules seem simple and uncomplicated, some
players get the mistaken idea that checkers is an easy
game to learn, to play, and to master. Actually, nothing
could be farther from the truth, for checkers is really
trickier than it looks.

(a) Checkers and chess are both board games that are fun to play but not so easy
to master.
(b) Because the rules of checkers are simple, players have the mistaken idea that
checkers is an easy game to master.

Part III. Review of Writing Skills 267

(c) The checkerboard is a battleground on which a surprisingly complicated battle
is waged between two players intent on winning.
(d) Checkers is not only a challenging game to play; it is also a challenge that attracts
all who love puzzles.

Your answer:

Answers
All four answers deal in some way with the selection, but only one summarizes clearly,
keeping the essential elements while omitting the nonessential.
(a) This summary completely fails to single out checkers as a deceptively hard game to
master
(b) This is the correct answer. This summary gives checkers its due as the central point
of the passage.
(c) This summary doesn’t even mention checkers, the central element in the passage.
(d) This summary adds something not in the original passage: that checkers attracts those
who love puzzles.

Exercise 1

Using the practice exercise as a guide, write a one-sentence summary of the

following reading passage. (A suggested summary appears at the end of this section,
on page 273. You may wish to compare your version to it. Don’t peek!)

Once upon a time, coffeepots and teapots were very

similar in appearance. There was no difference in their
sizes and shapes. But over the years, their similarities
disappeared, and they now tend to have quite different
shapes, the teapot being wider and squatter.

Your summary:

How to Write a Good Summary

1. Read the passage through to get the main idea (see pages 8-14). Write it down.
2. List the supporting points in order. Do not list minor details, quotations, repeti¬
tions, supporting examples, or figurative language.
3. Look up in the dictionary any unfamiliar words.
4. Write a rough draft. Use your own words as needed, but do not give your own
ideas or opinions. Keep your eye on the passage. Use connecting words to make
your ideas clear.
5. Make your summary about one-third or one-fourth the length of the original.
6. Write the final copy. Use correct English (pages 146-215).

268 Building Power in Reading and Writing

Exercise 2

The following exercise shows how to write a summary from start to finish.
First, read carefully the passage to be summarized.

The water hyacinth is a plant of the pickerelweed

family native to tropical America. It has green leaves
and spikes of violet flowers. The entire plant is actually
quite pretty, but it is an undeniable nuisance. It was
originally introduced into Florida as a decorative plant.
The thoughtless action was soon regretted. The plant
rapidly became a pest. The major difficulty was its habit
of growth. It grew rapidly and seemed unstoppable. It
choked rivers and other waterways. True, the rivers
became beautiful carpets of green and violet, but the
invader made navigation difficult.

A Florida engineer, E. Allen Stewart, was

concerned about the destruction of Florida’s environ¬
ment. What could he do to help? He learned that the
water hyacinth, though otherwise a pest, is actually a
natural water purifier. Waste water treated by hyacinths
is excellent. It is equal in quality to waste water treated
by traditional purifiers, often superior. Stewart had a
brilliant idea: to commercialize the purification process.
His firm, ca\\&d Amasek, sought and received purification
contracts in Florida and elsewhere. The firm went a step
further and even harvested the plants for animal food.
Cows especially like to munch on chopped and dried
water hyacinth plants. Stewart’s experience shows that
a dark cloud often does have> a silver lining. His firm
turned a disaster into a blessing and earned the thanks
of all those interested in the environment.

How do you go about writing a summary? Begin by following these steps:

1. First, get the main idea.

Though originally a pest, the water hyacinth now plays an important role in
water-purification processes.

You won’t actually incorporate this main idea into your summary, but you will
refer to it from time to time to check whether you are on the right track.

Part III. Review of Writing Skills 269

2. List the supporting points in order. What are they?

A. The water hyacinth was introduced into Florida. It soon became a pest.

Notice that this summarizes the first six sentences. Details like its family
and place of origin have been omitted. That the plant is pretty is also a minor
detail that has no place in a summary. When you learn that the hyacinth
soon became a pest, you may reasonably assume that the action was
regretted. You may thus eliminate sentence 5.

B. The plant grew quickly. It choked rivers and other waterways.

v
This summarizes the next three sentences.

C. A Florida engineer learned that the hyacinth is a natural water purifier.

This summarizes the next six sentences. The name of the engineer is an
optional item to include, but it isn’t essential. Other details have been
excluded.

D. His firm took on purification projects throughout Florida.

This summarizes those sentences dealing with the commercial application

of the hyacinth’s special abilities.

E. The firm even harvested the plants for animal food.

This summarizes two sentences, combining the essential elements into one
sentence. The mention of cows is a detail.

F. The firm turned a disaster into a blessing.

This condenses the last two sentences into one. It eliminates the figurative
language about the dark cloud and the silver lining.

Now it’s time to write the summary itself. Just copying the preceding notes
one after the other would result in a choppy paragraph. A certain amount of grace¬
fulness is needed. This is how it’s done.

270 Building Power in Reading and Writing

A. After the water hyacinth was introduced into Florida, it soon became a pest.

This combines the first two sentences in the notes and adds a connective,
after.

B. Because the plant grew quickly, it choked rivers and other waterways.

This also combines the two sentences and adds a connective, because.

C. Fortunately, a Florida engineer learned that the hyacinth is a natural water

purifier.

This retains the note but adds a connective word, fortunately.

D. As a result, his firm took on purification contracts throughout Florida.

This retains the note but adds a connective, as a result.

E. The firm even harvested the plants for animal food.

F. It turned a disaster into a blessing.

E. and F. The firm even harvested the plants for animal food and turned a
disaster into a blessing.

Since sentences in both E and F have the same subject {thefirm), the new
sentence combines both into a single sentence.

Now see how the summary looks when written in its complete/form.

After the water hyacinth was introduced into

Florida, it soon became a pest. Because the plant grew
quickly, it choked rivers and other waterways. Fortu¬
nately, a Florida engineer noticed that the hyacinth is
a natural water purifier. As a result, his firm took on
purification projects throughout Florida. The firm even
harvested the plants for animal food and turned a
disaster into a blessing.

Part III. Review of Writing Skills 271

 How does this summary meet the characteristics of a good summary (p-age
268)?

1. The summary is entirely on the topic. It features the main idea throughout.
2. It eliminates minor details, supporting examples, and figurative language.
3. There were no unfamiliar words.
4. The summary does not include the writer’s own ideas or opinions. It uses a
number of connecting words to make the passage smoother and the ideas clearer.
5. It is between one-third and one-quarter the length of the original.
6. It uses correct English.

Exercise 3

Directions: Now try writing a summary of your own, using the preceding sugges¬
tions as a guide.

Situation: You have been presented with a reading passage, reproduced below.

Your task: In your summary, be sure to:

• Read the passage carefully.

• Decide upon the main idea.
• Follow the how-to guide on page 268, eliminating all nonessentials.
• First, jot down the notes containing the basic information.
• Combine your notes in a rough draft to be used as the basis for the
finished product.
• Write a smoothly flowing summary containing only essential infor¬
mation.

You have seen a great many attractive models on

television and in magazines. Some of them you haven’t
really “seen.” You’ve seen only their beautiful hands.
Modeling is a highly competitive activity, but the
specialized areas of hand modeling may be even more
difficult to break into. Hand models are well paid—
usually at least $250 an hour. One model, Trisha
Webster, once earned $ 17,000 in a single week—just for
having her hands photographed. Female beauty, so
important in most modeling, is unimportant in hand
modeling. There is a demand for both male and female
models, though naturally the hands should be clearly
recognizable as masculine or feminine.

272 Building Power in Reading and Writing

 Keeping hands perfect for camera work is a full¬
time job. Because cameras are pitiless, zooming in for
closeups, hands must be free of faults—like poorly
proportioned fingers—or blemishes—like warts or
blotches. Surprisingly, the hands of a glamorous body
model might be unsuitable for certain products. Indeed,
there are “product hands” and “glamor hands,” and
they are usually quite different. Because so much is at
stake, hands must be protected at all times. Hand models
avoid the sun, wear gloves, and shun hard physical work
of any kind. One model gave up playing the guitar. She
had her cat declawed, opens taxi doors with knuckle and
thumb, and opens pop-up cans with a spoon. A slight
cut could put a hand model out of work for a week or
more. As you might expect, there are other specialty
models, as well as hand models. They are ready when
a call goes out for ears, noses, lips, and other fragments
of the human body.

Exercise 4

Write a summary of the reading passage on pages 277-278. Follow the guide
on page 268.

Model Answer to Exercise 1, page 268

Once, coffeepots and teapots looked alike, but now they have characteristic
shapes of their own.

Part III. Review of Writing Skills 273

 PART IV
Practice Tests

READING PRACTICE TEST 1

Reading Practice Test 1 consists of seven passages (A to G), together with the
questions based upon them.

A. Read the following passage and answer the questions at the end.

A man on a subway car at rush hour discovered a

daddy-longlegs tiptoeing up his sleeve. He didn’t want
it to be harmed, so he covered it with his hat. The insect
darted into the interior of the hat, and the man put the
hat on this head. He knew that while the daddy-longlegs
may not be handsome, it is a fascinating and completely
harmless insect.

A daddy-longlegs moves in an unusual way. If you

watch one, you will find its movements quite curious.
Its legs are like tall, bent stilts, as thin as threads. They
look as if they should get tangled, but they all move in
perfect harmony.

Although its legs are long, the daddy-longlegs’ body

is small. It bobs up and down as its legs move. The insect
is so light it can dash across water without sinking. Its
touch on your skin is so gentle you can scarcely feel it.
The daddy-longlegs is well named. If you had such legs
in proportion to your body, you would be 40 feet tall!

The insect uses its longest pair of legs to check its

surroundings. The daddy-longlegs is constantly
checking for food. It prefers plant lice, but it will eat
other tiny insects, as well as decaying vegetable matter.

If you pick up a daddy-longlegs by one of its legs,

it will struggle wildly. But then it will scurry off, free.
You will have a twitching leg in your hand. But don’t
worry. Although these delicate legs break off easily, new
ones always grow back.

274
1. Write the letter of the statement that best expresses the main
idea of the passage.

(a) The daddy-longlegs is small but very agile.

(b) Insects are among the most adaptable of all creatures.
(c) The daddy-longlegs is a fascinating creature to study.
(d) Though it looks dangerous, the daddy-longlegs is harmless. 1.

2. A person built in proportion to a daddy-longlegs would (a) be

40 feet tall (b) grow extra legs (c) never go hungry (d) look quite
handsome. 2.

3. The diet of the daddy-longlegs can best be described as

(a) entirely vegetarian (b) slightly harmful (c) unwholesome
(d) varied. 3.

4. The purpose of the man on the subway was to (a) amuse his
fellow passengers (b) protect the daddy-longlegs (c) take the
daddy-longlegs home to his children (d) write an article for a
newspaper. 4.

5. The author describes the daddy-longlegs (a) affectionately

(b) inaccurately (c) excitedly {d) distastefully. 5.

6. Which of the following sentences contains a figurative expres¬

sion?

(a) He didn’t want it to be harmed, so he covered it with his

hat.
(b) The insect darted into the interior of the hat, and the man
put the hat on his head.
(r) Its legs are like tall, bent stilts, as thin as threads.
But don’t worry. Although these delicate legs break off
easily, new ones always grow back. 6.

7. Which of the following is an opinion?

(a) A man on a subway car at rush hour discovered a daddy¬

longlegs tiptoeing up his sleeve.
(.b) It bobs up and down as its legs move.
(c) The daddy-longlegs is well named.
(d) It can dash across water without sinking. 7.

Part IV. Practice Tests—Reading 1 275

 B. Read the following passage and answer the questions at the end.

Various animals help human beings to survive.

Some of these animals are almost unknown, but others
are familiar. Everyone knows that bees work hard to
make honey. Many people know that bacteria help in
cheese making and in fermenting. The plowhorse,
camel, and sheepdog are well known, but there are other
animal helpers that few people have heard about.

Because animals know by instinct that they have

to provide food for the winter months, they hoard food.
Many primitive people learned to find and use what
these animals hoard. The Eskimos, for example, used
to collect roots and tubers from storage chambers that
had been dug out by the tunnel vole, a small, mouselike
animal. The storage chambers, or caches, were close to
the surface of the ground, not far from a vole s grass-
lined nest.

Before the first snowfall, the Eskimos would jab the

ground with pointed sticks. When the stick went in
easily, they knew they had found a cache. One such
treasure chamber often provided a peck or more of crisp,
fresh roots. The Eskimos ate these roots during the long
winter, along with fish and meat, their other winter
foods.

A small creature called the bean mouse was impor¬

tant to the Indians of the Missouri River Valley. The
bean mice, like the voles, dug storage chambers in which
they put beans and wild vegetables. Lewis and Clark,
the famous explorers, mentioned a dinner of wild
artichokes provided by the Indians. The Indians had
gotten their artichokes from the bean mice.

The Indians looked upon these tiny creatures as

their friends. Some Indians thought that a one-way
“borrowing” from the mice was not right. Women of
the Dakota nation would carry a bag of corn with them
when they went searching for the mice’s underground
stores. When the women removed beans, they replaced
them with the same amount of corn. By making such
an exchange, they felt they were being fair to the mice.

Other animals besides voles and bean mice supplied

food. Muskrat caches yielded certain kinds of bulbs.
Wood-rat caches gave the Navajos pinon seeds. Honey
ants supplied a nectar considered a delicacy by Indians
of the American Southwest.

276 Building Power in Reading and Writing

8. Which of the following titles best summarizes the content of the
passage?

(а) How the Indians Found Artichokes

(б) All About Animal Ingenuity
(c) How Animals Have Helped People
0d) A True Story About Eskimos and Indians 8. _

9. In the part they played, the little creatures might be labeled

(a) hunters (b) gatherers (c) anglers (d) surveyors. 9. _

10. As used in paragraphs 2 and 3, cache means (a) hiding place (b)
hole in the ice (c) root (d) surprise. 10. _

11. Borrowing, in the fifth paragraph, is put in quotation marks

because the borrowing was really (a) a temporary loan (b) an
act of kindness (c) a plan to increase the mouse population
(d) stealing. 11. _

12. All the following are mentioned as taken from small animals
EXCEPT (a) roots (b) artichokes (c) seeds (d) corn. 12. _

13. The author probably considers the information he provides as

(a) boring (b) unimportant (c) surprising (d) shocking. 13. _

C. Read the following passage and answer the questions at the end.

When Geraldine Ferraro ran for Vice President of

the United States in 1984, she was hailed as a pioneer
in the women’s rights movement. Exactly one hundred
years earlier, however, Belva Ann Lockwood had run
for President of the United States. Her party was the
National Equal Rights Party. She faced criticism and
even ridicule, but she ran again in 1888. At that time,
women could not vote, but she won the votes of several
thousand American men.

Belva Ann Lockwood spent her life crusading for

women’s rights. She was born in Royalton, New York,
and began teaching school at the age of 15. She received
$3 a week, less than half the salary paid to male teachers.
When she protested, she was told, “You cannot help
yourself, for it is the way of the world. ’ ’ This so angered
her that she vowed to devote her life to furthering
women’s rights.

Part IV. Practice Tests—Reading 1 277

 Between her first teaching assignment and her
death at the age of 87, Mrs. Lockwood fought for her
cause. After graduating from Geneseo College in upstate
New York, she became a school principal. She was paid
$400 a year, but the annual salary of her male assistants
was much higher.

She went to law school, where the members of her

graduating class objected to being graduated with a
woman. She was denied her diploma, and had to appeal
to President Ulysses S. Grant to get it. In 1874, a court
of claims refused to hear a case because she was a woman.
She struggled for years to overcdme such bias. She finally
succeeded.

Her achievements as an attorney were many. She

gained passage of a law requiring equal pay for women
employees of the federal government. She handled more
than 7,000 pension cases. She won a $5 million settle¬
ment for the Cherokee Indians against the government.
She backed uniform marriage and divorce laws, equal
property rights for women, education for all, and world
peace.

She did not win all her battles, but when she died
in 1917, she had helped bring about many gains. A
number of states had already given women the right to
vote. In 1920, the 19th Amendment made women’s
suffrage the law throughout the nation. To honor the
memory of Mrs. Lockwood, the U.S. Postal Service in
1986 issued a postage stamp bearing her portrait.

14. Write the letter of the statement that best expresses the main
idea of the passage.

(a) Belva Ann Lockwood ran for President of the United States
in 1884.
(b) Up to 1984, only one woman had ever run for President of
the United States.
(cj Belva Ann Lockwood was a pioneer in the struggle for
women’s rights.
(id) The U.S. Postal Service issued a stamp in honor of Belva
Ann Lockwood. 14

15. In paragraph 2, the “way of the world” can best be described

as (a) really not too common (/>) well thought out (r) open-minded
(d) unfair. 15

278 Building Power in Reading and Writing

16. Mrs. Lockwood received $3 a week as a (a) lawyer (b) teacher
(c) school principal (d) student. 16. _

17. If Mrs. Lockwood had not appealed to President Ulysses S.

Grant, she would probably (a) have lost her job as school
principal (b) not have run for President (c) have lost the case for
the Cherokee Indians (d) not have received her diploma. 17. _

18. Women were given the right to vote anywhere in the United
States (a) when the Constitution was adopted (b) shortly after
the birth of Belva Ann Lockwood (r) in 1874 (d) three years after
Belva Ann Lockwood’s death. 18. _

19. As used in paragraph 4, bias means (a) unfairness (b) lack of

interest (r) enthusiasm (d) ingenuity. 19. _

20. The author’s purpose in writing this passage was to (a) retell
a familiar story (b) pay tribute (c) criticize men as a group
(d) explore the meaning of education. 20. _

D. Read the following passage and answer the questions at the end.

The names of American wildflowers sometimes

rival the beauty of the flowers themselves. Who can
forget the name forget-me-not? Who can help but see the
flames dancing in a fireweed? These are only two
wildflowers among the dozens whose names are as vivid
as their colors.

Some of the flower names come from articles of

dress. Dutchman’s-breeches, monkshood, and lady’s slipper are
just three of the items of clothing in this colorful
wardrobe of flowers. A bluebonnet also belongs in the floral
closet.

Then there are names that deal with parts of the

body, such as lady’s-thumb, five-fingers, and black-eyed
Susans. A deep-pink flower with heart-shaped blossoms
is called a bleeding heart, just as you might expect. Perhaps
all of these could be reflected in a Venus’s-looking-glass.
Not to be forgotten either are the flower names that come
from animals and birds. The cattail, catchjly, bee-blossom,
horsemint, lizard’s tail, toadflax, and wake-robin are just a few
of the names with roots in the animal kingdom.

Many names include objects or people—or both in

the same name. Indian paintbrush, jack-in-the-pulpit, and
Queen Anne’s lace are- among the poetic names that
combine a person and an object. Some names, such as
buttercup and sunflower, include only objects.

Part IV. Practice Tests—Reading 1 279

 If you look carefully at the plants bearing these
names, you will usually see why the name was applied.
A foxglove actually looks like a tiny glove that could fit
the paw of a fox. A bluebell\oo\ss exactly like a small bell
colored blue. These names and many others are appro
priate for the flowers that bear them.

Some of the origins of flower names are not so

obvious. To understand the name, you may have to
know the history of the word. A daisy, for instance, is
a ‘‘day’s eye” in Old English. An aster is a star, a
chrysanthemum is a “ gold flower, ’ ’ and a heliotrope is a sun
turner” in Latin and Greek.v

These are just a few of the names that cause a person

talking about wildflowers to sound poetic. The lovely
flowers are matched by the equally delightful names.

21. Which of the following titles best summarizes the content of the
passage?

(a) The Poetry of Flower Names

(b) The Beauty of Wildflowers
(c) The Excitement of Language Study
(d) Names from Birds and Animals 21.

22. All the following wildflowers are named EXCEPT (a) bluebell
(b) buttercup (c) cattail (d) organ-pipe cactus. 22.

23. “Perhaps all of these could be reflected in a Venus ’s-looking-glass’ ’

is intended as (a) a touch of humor (b) a serious analysis (c)
unimportant (d) a statement of literal truth. 23.

24. The “floral closet” in paragraph 2 is (a) decorated with many

kinds of wallpaper (b) not a real closet at all (c) a carpenter’s
nightmare (d) constructed principally of oak and maple. 24.

25. The figurative expression “roots in the animal kingdom” in

paragraph 3 deals with (a) gardening (b) animal study (c) word
origins (d) biology. 25.

26. The author considers the name foxglove (a) exaggerated (b)
appropriate (c) strange (d) repetitious. 26.

27. The tone of this passage is (a) dull (b) argumentative (c) enthu¬
siastic (d) uncertain. 27.

280 Building Power in Reading and Writing

E. Read the following passage and answer the questions at the end.

For nearly half a century, from the 1830’s to 1880,

the United States Patent Office had a strict rule. It
required that a small model of each invention accom¬
pany the patent application. These models began to pile
up at an alarming rate, and space became a problem.
Thousands of models had to be kept somewhere. But
where?

Even after 1880, when the model requirement was

dropped, the models kept pouring in. By 1895, the
Patent Office owned 155,000 of these miniatures. Many
of them were put on display as tourist attractions. A large
number of the models disappeared over time, although
groups of them occasionally turn up at special exhibi¬
tions. A few years ago, 500 of them were shown at the
Cooper-Hewitt Museum in New York City.

The models tell a fascinating story of American

inventiveness. They provide a miniature history of
American life as reflected in the material comforts
enjoyed by Americans. They give some indication of the
difficulties and concerns our ancestors had. One model
demonstrates a bedbug trap with a braided mattress
from which the pests could easily be dislodged each
morning. Another model presents a mattress to be used
as a life preserver on a sinking ship. Still another model
shows how to lessen the shock of recoil from a naval gun.
Even Abraham Lincoln applied for a patent. His device
consisted of air chambers to be attached to steamboats.
When these air chambers were lowered, they lifted boats
off sandbars.

Many inventions related to home life. A Minne¬

sotan invented an early form of the modern egg carton.
Another inventor concocted a device for cleaning and
renovating feathers, which were often used in women’s
clothing. Clothespin models abound, as inventor after
inventor tried to improve the basic design. One kitchen
cabinet had cutaway sides to deprive pests of hiding
places. A mechanical creeping doll, operated by clock¬
work, anticipated the walking dolls of today.

Part IV. Practice Tests—Reading 1 281

 The ingenuity of the inventors is shown in the
construction of the models themselves. Every patent
model had to fit into a 12-inch cube. This size restriction
held whether the invention was a new mousetrap or an
elaborate fire-protection device. Thus, many inventors
had to miniaturize their inventions before the appli¬
cations could be considered.

At first, the patent model requirement seemed like

a good idea, but the sheer volume of patent applications
eventually made the requirement impractical. Today,
only a drawing and a written description have to accom¬
pany a patent application.

28. Write the letter of the statement that best expresses the main
idea of the passage.

(a) Models submitted to the U.S. Patent Office provide a

history of American ingenuity.
(,b) The U.S. Patent Office no longer requires working models
of patents applied for.
(c) The U.S. Patent Office is an overworked branch of the
national government.
(d) The Cooper-Hewitt Museum once ran a display of models
submitted to the U.S. Patent Office. 28.

29. Models submitted along with patents (a) had to be made of wood
(b) were full-size models (c) had to fit into a 12-inch cube
(d) are displayed in the Smithsonian Institution. 29.

30. The passage suggests that (a) Abraham Lincoln’s idea was
impractical (b) insect pests have long been a problem (c) most
of the models didn’t work (d) most patents helped the farmer
more than the factory worker. 30.

31. From paragraph 5, we may infer that the patent application of

an inventor who submitted a two-foot-long model would be (a)
processed quickly (b) processed slowly (c) accepted (d) rejected. 31.

32. As used in paragraph 3, recoil means (a) kickback (6) noise

(c) bright flash (d) failure. 32.

33. As used in paragraph 4, concocted means (a) imitated (b) cooked

(c) rejected (d) put together. 33.

282 Building Power in Reading and Writing

34. Which of the following contains a figurative expression?

(a) Thousands of models had to be kept somewhere.

(i>) Even after 1880, when the model requirement was dropped,
the models kept pouring in.
(c) A large number of the models disappeared over time.
(d) A Minnesotan invented an early form of the modern egg
carton. 34.

35. The author’s purpose is to (a) criticize the methods of the U.S.
Patent Office (b) study the origins of the U.S. Patent Office
(c) provide information (d) encourage young inventors to try
their luck. 35.

F. Read the following passage and answer the questions at the end.

When you wear cap and gown at your high school

graduation, you will be following a custom that is many
centuries old. Although high school graduates have worn
caps and gowns only since 1908, the use of caps and
gowns in colleges and universities goes back to medieval
times. These garments had their origin in the common
style of dress in the late Middle Ages and Renaissance.

Nearly all gowns are made of black cloth. Some

doctoral gowns use other colors, but the vast majority
are black. Different degrees, schools, and areas of study
are indicated by either the shape of the sleeves or the
color on the hoods of the gowns.

The gowns for high school graduates have short,

full sleeves. For the bachelor’s degree in college, the
gowns have pointed sleeves that extend halfway to the
hem of the garment. The gowns for the master’s degree
have oblong sleeves with a long, narrow pouch cut out
of the cloth. The gowns for various doctors’ degrees have
full bell-shaped sleeves with three bars of black velvet.
The sleeves thus provide important clues to the degree
being conferred.

Colors on the hoods tell something more about the

candidate. The colors on a doctor’s hood show the
subject of the candidate’s study and the school from
which he or she is graduating. In the United States, if
the hood’s velvet facing is green, the degree is in
medicine. Doctorates in philosophy call for dark blue.
Orange indicates engineering, yellow means science,
and so on. The color of the hood’s inner lining identifies
the school (such as School of Business or School of
Agriculture).

Part IV. Practice Tests—Reading 1 283

 The cap began to appear in the 16th century. At
Scottish universities, it was called the John Knox cap. The
familiar term mortarboard, can be traced back only to 1854.
Up to the present day, there has been no agreement
in fact, there have been many disagreements about
what to do with the tassel on the cap. Some people have
said that tradition requires the tassel to be worn on the
right side of the cap as candidates begin the ceremonies.
The tassel is then moved to the left side when the degree
is actually conferred. American college officials met in
1895 and again in 1932 partly to settle how the tassel
should be worn. Their conclusion both times was that
the right-to-left procedure had “no warrant in prece¬
dent or in common sense.”

Sometimes restrictions have had to be placed on

caps and gowns. In 1314 at the University of Toulouse,
academic gowns and hoods had to be regulated. Students
were spending great sums of money to make these
garments beautiful. Competition had become so keen
that education was affected. Tailors were getting rich
producing ever more elegant gowns, while some impov¬
erished scholars were leaving school in despair. The
university set a price limit for gowns, thereby estab¬
lishing a necessary early dress code.

36. Which of the following titles best summarizes the content of the
passage?

(a) What Academic Gowns Mean

(b) The Meaning of the Cap and Tassel
(c) The Story of Caps and Gowns
(d) The History of College Graduations 36.

37. The introduction of cap and gown for high school graduations
can be traced back to (a) 1314 (b) 1895 (c) 1908 (d) 1932. 37.

38. When the university officials set a price limit for gowns, they
were acting (a) hastily (b) thoughtlessly (c) wisely (d) strangely. 38.

39. The color orange on a gown indicates (a) science (b) medicine
(c) philosophy (d) engineering. 39.

40. A person wearing a gown that had bell-shaped sleeves with three
bars of black velvet would be getting a (a) high school diploma
(b) bachelor’s degree (c) master’s degree (d) doctor’s degree. 40.

41. For most of those wearing it, the gown is probably a source of
(a) pride for an achievement (b) irritation at a useless expense
(r) amusement at the display (d) bitter disappointment. 41.

284 Building Power in Reading and Writing

42. As used in paragraph 5, precedent means (a) common law
(b) previous custom (c) effective action (d) controlled expense. 42. _

43. As used in paragraph 6, impoverished means (a) uncooperative

(b) poor (c) outstanding (d) consenting. 43. _

G. Read the following passage and answer the questions at the end.

According to some experts, the game of chess was

in existence long before the earliest archaeological finds.
The origins are lost in legend and myth, surrounded by
fairy tales and the power of magic. In all probability,
chess began in the Orient, most likely in India. Early
Persian and Arabic writings contain evidence for this
theory of the origin of the game.

Chess spread to the West by way of Persia, along

with the Arabian Nights. The influence of the Orient can
be seen in the terms of chess. Rook, check, and checkmate,
for example, all have Oriental roots. The word check
comes from the word shah, for “king.” On the chess¬
board, when the king (shah) is put in danger, he is mated,
which can mean either “dead’ ’ or ‘ ‘helpless. ’ ’ The game
is over when the king is checkmated. Checkmate means
that the king is trapped, unable to escape.

A thousand years ago, the Persian poet Firdausi

described the line of battle between two armies. The
armies consisted of chess pieces. In Firdausi’s vivid
description, which follows, the modern name for each
chess piece is put in parentheses.

“Ready for battle, the king stood in the center. On

one side was the counsellor (queen). Close to the king
on both sides were two elephants (bishops), casting a
shadow as dark as indigo about the throne. Two camels
(knights) were placed next to the elephants, and two men
of fast intent were mounted on them. Next to the camels
were two horses with their riders (rooks), ready to fight
on the day of battle. As warriors, these two Rukhs (rooks)
at the ends of the line of battle raised their empty hands
to their lips as if to drink their enemies’ blood. In front
moved the foot soldiers (pawns) who were to come to the
assistance of the others in the battle.”

Firdausi tells about a foot soldier who fought

desperately through the battle line to the very side of the
opposing king. This brave soldier was raised to the rank
of counsellor. Nowadays we say that such a pawn is
“queened. ”

Part IV. Practice Tests—Reading 1

 We also learn that when the king is surrounded on
all sides, with his army destroyed, he dies. That is to say,
he is checkmated.

The description of the “battle” sounds very much

like a modern chess game on a 64-square board. Though
the game has had many modifications and variations,
it is still a war game in which opposing armies attack
and attempt to destroy the “enemy.” But in this kind
of war, the combat is mental, and the results are not
fatal.

44. Which of the following titles best summarizes the content of the
passage?

(a) The Meaning of Checkmate

(b) An Exciting and Challenging Board Game
(e) The Naming of the Chess Pieces
(d) Chess: An Ancient Substitute for Battle

45. Firdausi was a (a) chess master (b) king of Persia (c) poet
(d) warrior.

46. A pawn that reaches that last row on the chessboard is said to
be (a) trapped (6) queened (c) mated (d) captured.

47. The major goal of a chess player is to (a) checkmate the king
(b) capture the queen (c) surround both knights and bishops
(id) capture all the opponents’ pieces.

48. The lengthy quotation (paragraph 4) is included to (a) show the

similarity between chess and battle (b) explain how the knights
got their name (c) add a light touch to the passage (d) suggest
the origin of the word chess. 48.

49. Which of the following contains the best example of figurative

language?

(a) In all probability, chess began in the Orient.

(b) According to some experts, the game of chess was in
existence long before the earliest archaeological finds.
(c) The word check comes from the word shah, for “king.”
(d) It is still a war game in which opposing armies attack and
attempt to destroy the “enemy.” 49.

50. The attitude of the author toward chess is one of (a) polite in¬
difference (b) vigorous opposition (c) informed interest
(d) unrestrained enthusiasm. 50.

END OF READING PRACTICE TEST 1

286 Building Power in Reading and Writing

READING PRACTICE TEST 2

Reading Practice Test 2 consists of seven passages (A to G), together with the
questions based upon them.

A. Read the following passage and answer the questions at the end.

What urge prompts nearly everyone to collect

something? Stamps, coins, matchboxes, spoons,
antiques—all these have their supporters. One of the
most interesting collecting areas is that ofbaseball cards.
These pictures of major-league baseball players are a big
business. Sold by one company with chewing gum and
by others without any other product, they have fasci¬
nated collectors for generations.

Some of the older cards bring high prices. A Mickey

Mantle card from 1951, for example, may bring a
thousand dollars or more, depending on its condition.
The physical condition and appearance of a card make
a difference in price. Worn corners, creases, tears, and
pinholes can drastically reduce a card’s value. For this
reason, many collectors keep their cards in protective
vinyl sheets or in specially designed boxes.

Older cards, like those for Roberto'Clemente and

Willie Mays, are fairly stable in value. The cards of more
recent players fluctuate in value as the baseball fortunes
of the stars go up and down. A player in his first, or
rookie, year may become an overnight sensation. His
card may rise dramatically in value. But if he has a bad
second year, the value of his card may drop equally
dramatically. On the other hand, if a player is inducted
into the Baseball Hall of Fame, the value of his card is
secure.

Who are these baseball-card collectors? They seem

to fall into two major groups—young people and those
in their thirties and forties. Young people enjoy the
excitement of the chase—and they can start collecting
new cards for relatively little money. The second group
is attracted by nostalgia, as they think back to their
youth. Collectors in the second group have more money
than those in the first. They are able to bid up the value
of cards of old-timers like Hank Aaron and Roger Maris.

287
 Card values are unpredictable. In 1977, one store¬
keeper sold cards of three rookies for the same price. Ten
years later, the cards for Mark Fidrych and Gary
Templeton were worth much less than the original
purchase price, but the card for Dale Murphy had
become a collector’s item. Location is another factor in
price. The card for a Cincinnati player will be worth
more in Cincinnati than in Oakland.

Some collectors worry that the baseball-card bubble

may burst. Like other fads, it may drop in popularity.
But there will always be a hard-core group of collectors
who cherish an Ernie Banks caird from 1954.

1. Which of the following titles best summarizes the content of the

passage?

(a) Collecting Baseball Cards

(b) An Excellent Investment
(c) A Hobby for Everyone at Any Age
(d) How Hobbies Bring Relaxation

2. All the following are mentioned as collectible items EXCEPT

(a) antiques (b) spoons (c) coins (d) books.

3. The most valuable card mentioned was that for (a) Hank Aaron
(,b) Roberto Clemente (c) Mickey Mantle (d) Roger Maris.

4. The date associated with Ernie Banks is (a) 1951 (b) 1954(c) 1977
(d) not given.

5. From the report in paragraph 5, we may infer that (a) Gary

Templeton became a superstar (b) Cincinnati card collectors are
wealthy (c) even a star’s popularity seldom lasts longer than a
year (d) Dale Murphy has had a successful career.

6. As used in paragraph 3, fluctuate means (a) increase in value

(b) decrease in value (c) go up and down in value (d) stay the
same.

7. As used in paragraph 4, nostalgia means (a) yearning for past

times (b) greed for easy money (c) changing fashion (d) the
challenge of the chase.

8. The author of this passage (a) thinks collectors are fools (b) shows
a lively interest in card collecting (c) fails to mention the dangers
of collecting baseball cards (d) probably has a complete set of
all baseball cards printed since 1951.

288 Building Power in Reading and Writing

B. Read the following passage and answer the questions at the end.

One of the world’s great success stories is the

popularity surge of the microwave oven. Just a few short
years ago, the microwave was a curiosity. “Who needs
an extra oven?” was the usual reaction to any sales
promoting the microwave. But the microwave is truly
a remarkable appliance. Suddenly, sales took off.

In 1980, only 19% of all U.S. households had

microwave ovens. Seven years later, the percentage of
microwave owners had jumped to nearly 50%. What
was once considered a luxury had suddenly become a
necessity. Why?

Consider these disadvantages. Sometimes food

seems to heat unevenly in a microwave. A dish that has
been frozen may be hot on the inside, cold on the outside.
Or it may have hot and cold sections side by side. Pie
crusts may be soggy. Foods may look unappetizing.
Complicated cooking tasks may be beyond the capacity
of the microwave. True gourmet cooking is very diffi¬
cult. Why bother with a microwave?

There are many important advantages when

owners learn how to use microwaves efficiently. There
is nothing better for heating leftovers than a microwave.
Meat can be quickly defrosted in a microwave and then
cooked by other means, if necessary. Commercially
prepared foods especially designed for the microwave
can be brought to the table in minutes. For many busy
people, this advantage alone makes the microwave a
much-appreciated appliance.

Few foods cook equally well in both conventional

and microwave ovens. The old familiar oven uses dry
heat to cook from the outside. The microwave generates
heat through electromagnetic energy that stirs up water
molecules. Since it acts almost like a steamer, foods that
respond to steaming do especially well in the microwave.
Vegetables, for example, which contain much water,
are ideal for microwave cooking.

The growing popularity of the microwave has

stimulated interest in food prepared especially for the
microwave. “Shelf-stable” meals, which can survive
long periods without refrigeration, are especially well
suited for the microwave. Large food processors are
spending fortunes on research for these convenience
foods.

Part IV. Practice Tests—Reading 2 289

 The microwave is the perfect oven for modern
times. Working people welcome the speed and conve¬
nience of foods prepared for the microwave. And they
don’t spend precious time later cleaning greasy pans and
pots with burnt food. The microwave is here to stay.

9. Write the letter of the statement that best expresses the mam
idea of the passage.

(a) Microwave ovens are important appliances in modern

kitchens.
(b) Microwave ovens are significantly better than conventional
ones.
(c) Microwave ovens use only foods specially designed for
them.
(of) Microwave ovens have advantages and disadvantages. 9.

10. Microwave ovens generate heat by (a) natural gas (b) electro¬
magnetic energy (c) external steam pressure (d) the evaporation
of water. ,

11. The microwave is especially well suited for (a) pie crusts
(b) desserts (c) pancakes (d) vegetables. H*

12. One of the most important advantages of the microwave can

be summarized in the word (a) economy (b) space (c) convenience
(d) durability. 12.

13. Which of the following statements contains the best example of

figurative language?

(ia) There are disadvantages.

(b) Suddenly, sales took off.
(c) Old-fashioned ovens use dry heat to cook from the outside.
(d) Few foods cook equally well in both conventional and
microwave ovens. 13

14. Which of the following is an opinion?

(a) The microwave is a remarkable appliance.

(b) Meat can quickly be defrosted in a microwave.
(c) Large food processors are spending money on research for
convenience foods.
(d) A dish that has been frozen may be hot on the inside, cold
on the outside. 14

290 Building Power in Reading and Writing

C. Read the following passage and answer the questions at the end.

Fifty million and more years ago, dinosaurs ruled

the land. Tyrannosaurus rex and his huge relatives
dominated the landscape. These giant ‘ ‘lizards” capture
the imagination of all who see the huge skeletons assem¬
bled in museums throughout the world. Movies
especially enjoy showing human hunters being attacked
by one of the meat-eating carnivores—even though
dinosaurs disappeared long before there were any
human beings to fear them.

Yet all people, with a little imagination, can see a

living dinosaur. The alligator, a modern “dinosaur” of
the reptile family, suggests how the long-extinct
creatures looked and acted. The alligator of the South¬
eastern United States is truly a fascinating creature from
the past.

The American alligator, though worthy of respect,

is not as viciously aggressive as the crocodile of Africa
and Asia. In the United States, the number of deaths
from alligators is low. Alligators do seek to eat a wide
variety of foods: fish, turtles, water birds, raccoons,
snakes, and possums. They occasionally also take calves,
hogs, young deer, and even careless household pets.
When one Florida gator was killed, its stomach held a
dog tag with this poignant message: “My name is
Blackie. Leave me alone and I’ll go home.”

Once an alligator reaches adulthood, it has little

trouble surviving—if it can elude a human hunter. But
baby alligators are extremely .vulnerable. Though they
grow a foot a year for the first five years, this growing
period is threatened by herons, snakes, turtles, raccoons,
even other gators.

Once on the endangered-species list, alligators have

recovered and now exist in substantial numbers. They
wander about at will, sometimes blocking busy
roadways, resting on golf courses, and even enjoying
private swimming pools. Then officials must arrange to
trap and remove the intruders. These alligator experts
go about their task very warily, for the alligator s jaws
may crunch with a pressure of 1200 pounds per square
inch. Oddly enough, though, the alligator’s ability to
open its jaws is limited. A person of ordinary strength
(and extraordinary nerve) can hold the jaws closed with
one hand.

Part IV. Practice Tests—Reading 2 291

 One of the oddest things about an alligator is the
determination of its sex. During the first two or three
weeks of an alligator’s life, the temperature determines
whether the alligator is to be a male or a female. At an
average reading of 86 degrees Fahrenheit, all the alliga
tors will be female. At 93 and above, all the young will
be males. Temperatures between 86 and 93 produce a
mixture of males and females.

Though a human adult is too large for an alligator

to swallow, young children should be carefully
protected. For the most part, the alligator minds its
business and concentrates on its varied nonhuman diet.
Still, the experts recommend extreme care in the
presence of this living fossil.

15. Which of the following titles best summarizes the content of the
passage?

(a) How Dinosaurs Became Alligators

(b) Masters of Their Environment
(c) The Fascinating American Alligator
(d) How Alligators Differ from Crocodiles 15.

16. All the following are mentioned as part of an alligator’s diet

EXCEPT (a) deer (b) goat (c) opossum (d) water bird. 16.

17. Which of the following describes a scene that would be impos¬

sible now or in the past?

(a) An alligator attacks and eats a calf.

(b) A young male alligator survives in 95-degree temperatures.
(c) A human family is attacked by a dinosaur.
(d) A Tyrannosaurus rex attacks another dinosaur. 17.

18. In paragraph 2, dinosaur is in quotation marks because (a) much

has been written about dinosaurs (b) alligators merely resemble
dinosaurs (e) alligators are indeed dinosaurs (d) the author of
the passage wished to show a knowledge of natural history. 18.

19. We may assume that only a small percentage of baby alligators

(a) survive to adulthood (b) are eaten by other creatures
(c) become females (d) become males. 19.

20. As used in paragraph 3, poignant means (a) informative (b)

complicated (c) confusing (d) sad. 20.

21. As used in paragraph 4, vulnerable means (a) aggressive (b) tame

(c) interesting to observe (d) easily hurt. 21.

292 Building Power in Reading and Writing

D. Read the following passage and answer the questions at the end.

Once upon a time, purchasers paid for merchan¬

dise with cash or a check. Then along came the credit
card, allowing them to defer payment and to take out
a loan for the amount, if they wished. The idea took
hold, and the number of credit cards increased rapidly,
actually doubling in a short six-year period between 1980
and 1986. During that same period, the population of
the United States increased only 6%. Within another
year, there were more than 800 million credit cards in
circulation.

Growth goes merrily on. Though thousands of

American consumers are trying to reduce their credit-
card debts, they are tempted to take out more credit cards
as the enticing offers arrive in the mails. There is a major
disadvantage in having credit-card debt. At one time,
the interest paid on consumer debts could be deducted
in full for income-tax purposes. But a new tax-reform
bill gradually eliminated those deductions, making
borrowing more expensive than ever. Some consumers
tried to reduce their debts accordingly, but others disre¬
garded the expense and went on borrowing.

Of course, if bills are paid in full each month, there

are no interest charges. For those who pay in full, there
are two advantages: the convenience of not having to
carry a great deal of cash and the use of money for a
period without paying interest. An appliance may be
bought on the first of the month, but the bill may not
have to be paid until a month later. This period, called
the “float,” is not only interest free. It also preserves
the purchaser’s own interest during that period, for
money need not be withdrawn from the bank until the
credit-card statement comes through.

Why do issuers of credit cards permit this generous

situation? Even if bills are paid promptly, the issuer has
another source of income: a percentage charged to the
store for every purchase made. Why do stores want
credit cards if they have to pay a percentage on every
purchase? Credit cards increase store sales. People are
more willing to buy something if they don’t have to pay
cash on the spot. Buying a refrigerator, for example, is
“painless.” The money doesn’t have to be supplied at
once. Stores are paid by the credit-card issuer—minus
a percentage, of course. Collecting the money becomes
the problem of the issuer. The second advantage for the

Part IV. Practice Tests—Reading 2 293

 credit-card issuer is collecting interest on any unpaid
balance. Then regular monthly payments are necessary
because a great many consumers do not pay their bills
in full each month.

Credit-card issuers prefer card holders in the 35-to-

54 age group. Though families in that age group repre¬
sent only 35 % of all households, they are responsible for
47 % of all credit-card debt. Many of these families are
raising children—always an expensive burden. The
issuers welcome “revolvers,” people who always make
a payment each month but never pay off their debts as
they buy more and more things.

Credit cards can be a marvelous convenience in a

great many ways, but they can be an attractive danger
to those who cannot curtail their spending. Credit-card
debt can be compared with carrying a 60-pound
backpack up a mountain trail. Credit cards should be
used wisely.

22. Write the letter of the statement that best expresses the main
idea of the selection.

(a) Credit cards have attractive advantages and some possibly

serious disadvantages.
(b) People in the 35-54 age group hold the most debt.
(c) Credit cards are a recent addition to people’s purchasing
power.
(d) Consumers have many credit agencies to choose from. 22.

23. The period during which the United States population gained
6% was for a span of (a) a year (6)’six years (c) twenty years
(d) time not actually specified. 23.

24. The “float” (a) is a monthly statement (b) is the price paid for
a stock (c) saves interest (d) is not used in credit cards. 24.

25. In paragraph 4, painless is in quotation marks because (a) refrig¬

erators are always bought on time (b) payment is put off till later
(c) salespersons are especially keen on selling refrigerators
(d) some credit cards do not require a fee. 25.

26. In paragraph 1, defer means (a) demand (b) overlook (c) put off
(id) make a record of. 26.

27. In paragraph 2, enticing means (a) frequently arriving (b) unreli¬

able (c) ingenious (d) tempting. 27.

294 Building Power in Reading and Writing

28. In the final paragraph, curtail means (a) reduce (b) analyze
(c) enjoy (d) increase. 28. _

29. In the next-to-the-last sentence, the author suggests that credit-

card debt perhaps should be (a) encouraged (b) studied
(c) reduced (d) increased. 29. _

E. Read the following passage and answer the questions at the end.

Our alphabet is a genuine miracle that people take

for granted. Many languages have no written form at
all. Of the languages that do, not all of them have an
alphabet. The alphabet is a great invention, though,
because it allows so much flexibility. There is no question
that languages with alphabets have advantages over
languages that do not.

When the cave dweller drew a picture of an animal

on the cave wall, the picture had meaning. It commu¬
nicated something. This use of pictures to carry a
message is an early form of pictographic writing. Origi¬
nally, a picture of the sun looked like the sun, but, as
time went on, the pictures became more stylized. They
began to look less like realistic pictures and more like
some form of writing. Among modern written
languages, Chinese is basically pictographic. All those
exotic-looking symbols in Chinese came originally from
pictures.

Pictographic systems have an advantage where the

spoken languages vary widely, as in China. The forms
of spoken Chinese differ frorp one part of the country
to another. These speakers can all understand the same
writing, however, since the pictographs mean the same
thing to all readers. The differences in sound do not affect
reading or writing.

To express more than simple thoughts, picto¬

graphic writing can become inadequate. For that reason,
pictographic languages usually develop ideograms. If
pictographs are “written pictures,” then ideograms are
“written ideas.” Ideograms are often formed from
pictographs. The Chinese, for example, combine the
symbols for sun and moon to mean light.

International traffic signals are pictographic or

ideographic. They are universal, even though languages
differ. When an American driving in Europe sees a
certain symbol, he says to himself, “Hospital.” An

Part IV. Practice Tests—Reading 2 295

 Italian seeing the same symbol says, £ Ospedale. The
German sees it and says, “Krankenhaus. ’ A French
person sees it and says, “Hopital.” The words do not
sound alike, but the symbol is recognizably the same.

The great advantages of an alphabet come from its

relative simplicity. The Chinese use more than 50,000
separate symbols in their writing system. We use 26
letters. Those 26 letters will form any of the hundreds
of thousands of words in the language. Of course, you
must learn how these 26 letters are put together to form
words, but all words use the same ingredients.

Typewriters can be simple and compact with

a 26-letter alphabet. With Chinese pictographs and
ideographs, however, a small, simple typewriter is
impossible. Think, too, how hard it would be to find
words in a dictionary without the advantage of alpha¬
betical order. All in all, the invention of the alphabet was
a landmark event in the history of language.

30. Which of the following titles best summarizes the content of the
passage?

(a) Pictographs: The Origin of Writing

(b) The Alphabet: A True Miracle
(c) The Differences Between Ideograms and Alphabets
(d) Chinese and English: A Contrast 30.

31. The word for hospital is presented in each of the following

languages EXCEPT (a) French (b) Italian (c) German
(d) Chinese. 31.

32. In their ability to construct complicated words, the letters of the

alphabet can be compared with (a) pictographs (b) building
blocks (c) sun symbols (d) traffic signals. 32.

33. The earliest form of writing was probably (a) pictographic

(b) ideographic (c) alphabetic (d) phonetic. 33.

34. When the Chinese combined the symbols for sun and moon to
mean light, the result was both ideographic and (a) humorous
(b) literal (c) ineffective (d) figurative. 34.

296 Building Power in Reading and Writing

35. Which of the following is an opinion?

(a) Our alphabet is a genuine miracle that people take for

granted.
(b) Many languages have no written form-at all.
(c) It communicated something.
(d) Of course, you must learn how these 26 letters are put
together to form words. 35. _

36. The author’s attitude toward the alphabet is one of (a) polite
indifference (b) moderate interest (c) great respect (d) slight
disapproval. 36. _

F. Read the following passage and answer the questions at the end.

Collecting Roman coins is an exciting hobby, for

the coins are still available and are of great interest
historically. Although prices have risen in the past few
years, many bronze coins from ancient Rome are still
within the reach of the average collector. The reason is
simple: they exist in substantial numbers.

Some of the most plentiful coins come from the

reigns of lesser-known emperors. Times were often hard
under those emperors, and coinage was debased. Gold
and silver were not available in sufficient quantity, so
cheaper metals were used. A great many coins were
minted to pay the salaries of Roman soldiers. These
cheaper coins, buried centuries ago for safekeeping, still
turn up now and then in the countries that were once
part of the Roman Empire.

Roman coins are a lesson in history. The coins

usually have a bust of the emperor on the front, or
obverse, of the coin. The reverse of the coin may show
conquests, architectural achievements, or purely
symbolic features. Every emperor proudly advertised
his own successes.

In periods when several men shared power, the

coins reflect that fact, carrying the image of each of the
leaders. The coinage indicates clearly when the Empire
was divided into eastern and western halves. In 364,
Valens ruled the eastern half and Valentinian I the
western half. The eastern half continued to exist for a
thousand years after the western half fell. Coinage tells
that story, too.

Part IV. Practice Tests—Reading 2 297

 There is another special feature of Roman coins
that sets them apart from the coinage of most other
nations. The portraits of the emperors are realistic, with
all the warts in place. Many emperors were brutal, hard-
living men who destroyed everything and everyone who
stood in their way. The coins show these tough, often
homely men just as they were, no attempt having been
made to have them look heroic.

There were exceptions, of course. Not all the

emperors were coarse and unattractive. Marcus
Aurelius was a rather handsome man, and the coins show
it. His portraits are realistic, though, not glorified. The
coins portray Marcus Aurelius at various stages in his
life: as a beardless young man, a bearded middle-aged
man, and an older man.

Roman coinage has another distinctive feature.

Women who were not themselves leaders are pictured
on coins. Wives and mothers of the powerful emperors,
for example, appear occasionally. Modern students of
fashion find these coins especially interesting, for they
reflect the changing tastes and styles of that era,
especially changing hairdos. Like other Roman coins,
they are fascinating bits of history and excellent reflec¬
tions of character.

37. Write the letter of the statement that best expresses the main
idea of the passage.

(,a) The lesser-known Roman emperors minted many coins.

(ib) Some Roman coins are relatively inexpensive.
(c) Roman soldiers were often paid in cheaper, less valuable
coins.
(d) Roman coins provide lessons in both history and art. 37.

38. The most readily available Roman coins were minted in (a) iron
(b) bronze (c) silver (d) gold. 38.

39. The year 364 is mentioned because (a) Rome had been overrun
(b) Rome changed from an empire to a republic (c) there were
two emperors (d) Marcus Aurelius was the outstanding
emperor. 39.

40. The likenesses of emperors on coins suggest that the emperors

(a) were not vain (b) were generous rulers (c) were influenced
by their wives (d) insisted upon idealized portraits. 40.

298 Building Power in Reading and Writing

41. As used in paragraph 1, substantial means (a) limited (b) uncon¬
trolled (r) large (d) varying. 41. _

42. As used in paragraph 2, debased means (a) increased (b) reduced

(c) lowered in quality (d) slightly improved' 42. _

43. The author’s attitude toward the emperor Marcus Aurelius is

(a) doubtful (b) hostile (c) unusual (d) favorable. 43. _

G. Read the following passage and answer the questions at the end.

A profound truth about language is contained in

the statement that, “words by themselves have no
meanings. ’ ’ People sometimes overlook that truth. They
tend to mistake the word for the thing itself. They
imagine that there is one “right’ ’ word for a given idea,
action, or object.

But words mean only what people agree they should

mean, and no more. The word snake may cause shudders
even if the creature is absent, but it is only a word. The
word steak may cause mouths to water, but the word is
not the thing. People are responding to certain sounds
or to a few ink spots on a page, not the actual object that
is a snake or a steak.

If a small child calls her highchair a chy, is chy a word?

Three other questions will help to provide an answer.
Does chy play a role in the life of the child? Does chy stand
for a particular object in the child’s environment? Do
the child’s parents understand what is meant by chy?
Since the answer to all three,questions is “Yes,” chy
qualifies as a word. However, it is a word of very limited
use. It will not appear in any dictionary, in any magazine
or newspaper, or in any news report. In a practical sense,
chy does not function as the kind of word we mean when
we say word. It is a genuine word, but one that very few
people use.

Older children sometimes make up special words

to communicate with their friends. Just as the small child
created chy to mean “highchair,” older children invent
words for certain objects or ideas. They then send
messages in a kind of code. These children have coined
new words that perform all the functions that words
should perform. Of course, outsiders are confused when
confronted by these words. They don’t know the code-
just as you probably don’t know the code when faced
with the language of the Finns or the Watusi.

Part IV. Practice Tests—Reading 2 299

 Language is a contract. Words mean only what
people agree they should mean. Travelers abroad soon
find out that the contract they are familiar with the
English language—is not in force in many countries of
the world. English, for example, is not the principal
language of Hungary. Hungarians have a different
contract, one that is understandable to even a small
Hungarian child but a mystery to most American
tourists.

The contractual nature of language is apparent in

matters of usage. “It don’t mean nothing conveys
meaning, but the English contract prefers “It doesn’t
mean anything.” The majority of literate people have
decided that certain ways of using English words are
preferable to other ways. This general agreement about
English usage is another part of the language contract.

44. Write the letter of the statement that best expresses the main
idea of the passage.

(a) Children often develop special languages all their own.

(b) Language is basically a contract accepted by users of a
language.
(c) A Hungarian child understands a language that baffles
American adults.
(d) Language is a mysterious creation, a miracle of commu¬
nication. 44.

45. The passage suggests that chy (a) appears in slang dictionaries
(b) is actually a word (c) is taken from the Watusi language
(d) is as generally useful a word as steak. 45.

46. Children invent codes to (a) speak faster (b) write more easily
(c) keep secrets (d) annoy their closest friends. 46.

47. The article suggests that (a) there is no right word for an object
(b) the word for steak is actually better than the word for snake
(c) young children communicate very poorly (d) Hungarian
children have a great deal of trouble learning their language. 47.

48. In paragraph 4, confronted means (a) tricked (b) puzzled (c) faced
(d) angered. 48.

300 Building Power in Reading and Writing

49. Which of the following is an example of figurative language?

(a) The word is not the thing.

(b) Do the child’s parents understand what is meant by chy?
(c) Hungarians have a different contract.
(d) English, for example, is not the principal language of
Hungary. 49.

50. The author of the passage assumes that the reader (a) has learned
at least one foreign language (b) has some interest in the subject
of language (r) realizes that words do have meanings in
themselves (d) is a teacher of English. 50.

END OF READING PRACTICE TEST 2

Part IV. Practice Tests—Reading 2 301

READING PRACTICE TEST 3
Reading Practice Test 3 consists of seven passages (A to G), together with the
questions based upon them.

A. Read the following passage and answer the questions at the end.

One of the most picturesque scenes on a sheep or

goat ranch is that of a dog herding and protecting the
animals. From ancient times, dogs have been trained
to work with domestic animals to keep them from harm.
In Texas, a new guardian has been pressed into service
the donkey.

When Perry Bushong of Mountain Home, Texas,

paid good money for ten donkeys, his friends laughed
and said he had made a big mistake. Perry sent the
donkeys out to guard his Rambouillet sheep and Angora
goats. The donkeys turned out to be effective guardians,
and the other ranchers were impressed. They started
buying donkeys for their own herds. The price of
donkeys doubled, as each rancher tried to obtain this
new kind of protector.

Why are donkeys so good at their job? For one

thing, they don’t like coyotes at all, and coyotes are the
most dangerous predators to sheep and goats. According
to Eddie Tom, who raises donkeys, “You get them riled,
they’ll throw their ears back, start kicking with their
front feet, and throw a fit. I’ve seen one of those jennies
go after a coyote like she wanted to kill it. ” The donkey ’ s
loud cry, or bray, also frightens the coyotes.

The donkeys, like sheepdogs, must be trained for

their job. Only female donkeys, or jennies, can be used,
because the males can be just too mean. The young
donkeys are raised with the herd of sheep or goats. After
a while, a donkey seems to think it is a sheep or goat.
It will graze, feed, and sleep with the herd. Most impor¬
tant, it will protect them as it would its own young.

The year before trying out the guard donkeys, Perry

Bushong lost about 250 sheep and goats to coyotes.
Losses as serious as that could easily bankrupt a rancher.
Since using the donkeys, he has lost almost no animals.
Other ranchers have had the same results. A herd of
sheep may look more romantic with a faithful sheepdog
in the picture, but those donkeys seem to be doing the
job very well.

302
1. Write the letter of the statement that best expresses the main
idea of the passage.

(a) Donkeys can be effective guardians of sheep and goat herds.

(b) Female donkeys are better at guard duty than male donkeys.
(?) Coyotes are the principal enemy of sheep herders.
(■d) Strange and unlikely ideas usually work. 1. _

2. All the following animals were named EXCEPT (a) sheep

' (b) dogs (c) coyotes (d) wolves. 2. _

3. Mountain Home is the name of a (a) dude ranch (b) large house
(c) Texas river (d) town. 3. _

4. Perry Bushong’s friends laughed at him because he (a) disagreed

with Eddie Tom (b) tried a wholly new idea (c) used male donkeys
for guard duty (d) raises donkeys as well as sheep and goats. 4. _

5. As used in paragraph 3, predators means (a) sheepdogs (b) male

donkeys with a vicious temper (V) animals who prey on others
(<i) a special variety of Angora goat. 5. _

6. The passage suggests that a jenny is (a) unpopular with sheep

and goats (b) more than a match for a coyote (c) less manageable
than a male donkey (d) not a favorite of Perry Bushong. 6. _

7. The attitude of the author toward donkeys is one of (a) faint

disapproval (b) lack of interest (c) affection {d) excessive enthu¬
siasm. 7. _

B. Read the following passage and answer the questions at the end.

Young people know Benjamin Franklin as one of

the nation’s Founding Fathers. He helped draft the
Declaration of Independence. A thoughtful philoso¬
pher, Franklin coined the idea in £ ‘We hold these truths
to be self-evident.” But there was much more to him
than the familiar textbook biography reveals.

Benjamin Franklin was a problem-solver. He liked

to take large, sometimes fuzzy, scientific theories and
turn them to practical use. Everyone knows Franklin’s
famous experiment with a kite and electricity, but few
people know that he used electricity to roast turkeys. He
invented the lightning rod that protects modern houses.
He designed the Franklin stove, which even today is a
model of wood-burning efficiency. These inventions
show just one aspect of Franklin’s wide-ranging inter¬
ests.

Part IV. Practice Tests—Reading 3 303

 His curiosity about nature prompted him to study
weather. He predicted storms. He studied eclipses,
waterspouts, thunderstorms, and the northern lights.
He was fascinated by the wandering Gulf Stream and
was the first person to try to map its winding course. In
his spare time, he studied fossils, marsh gas, smallpox,
and sunspots. He was interested in hot air balloons and
in reforming English spelling. His interests were
extremely varied.
Franklin began his own printing firm in Philadel¬
phia when he was 22. He wrote and published Poor
Richard’s Almanack. In this book, he included many
sayings that are still quoted today: “Remember that
time is money.” “Experience keeps a dear school, but
fools will learn in no other.” “When the well’s dry, we
know the worth of water.” The Almanack sold 10,000
copies a year at a time when Philadelphia’s population
was only 20,000

Franklin was concerned with virtue and morality,

too. In his Autobiography, he described a plan for making
himself perfect. He listed the virtues that he hoped to
achieve and then explained how he went about working
on each one in turn. He never attained perfection, of
course, but in many ways he came closer to it than most
people do.

8. Which of the following titles best summarizes the content of the

passage?

(a) How a Genius Gets His Ideas

(b) A Student of Science, Weather, and Many Other Subjects
(c) Benjamin Franklin: Man of Many Interests and Achieve¬
ments
(d) The Real Story of the Declaration of Independence 8.

9. Poor Richard’s Almanack is the name of a (a) ballad of the Revolu¬

tionary War (b) Franklin’s autobiography (c) successful book
(d) forerunner of the Declaration of Independence. 9.

10. All the following were mentioned as inventions by Franklin

EXCEPT a (a) stove (b) lightning rod (c) turkey roaster
(d) magnifying glass. 10.

11. The author feels that Franklin’s present reputation (a) doesn’t
do him justice (h) is less than it was a hundred years ago (c) should
depend only on his contributions to the Declaration of Indepen¬
dence (d) rests on the Autobiography. 11.

304 Building Power in Reading and Writing

12. “We hold these truths to be self-evident” comes from (a) Poor
Richard's Almanack (b) Franklin’s A utobiography (c) the Declaration
of Independence (d) the Constitution of the United States. 12. -

13. In the last paragraph, attained means (a) imitated (b) reached
(c) sought (d) described. 13. _

14. “When the well’s dry, we know the worth of water” really means
that (a) we can make the most of any drought (b) irrigation canals
can be used to grow crops (r) we seldom really learn from experi¬
ence (d) we appreciate something most when it is lost. 14. _

C. Read the following passage and answer the questions at the end.

Certain plants and animals can survive under what

seem like impossible conditions. Blind fish flourish at
ocean depths that are perennially dark and cold. Bacteria
live at temperatures of 600PF or higher in places where
heat from the earth’s interior leaks through. One of the
most remarkable achievements that we can observe
directly is the ability of plants and animals to survive
in the desert.

In Death Valley, temperatures of 134°F in the

shade have been officially recorded. Yet lizards live
there, along with 600 species of plants, 30 species of
mammals, and even fish. While the days are brutally
hot, the nights are quite cold. Temperatures can plunge
by as much as 50°F.

Plants called xerophytes are perfectly adapted to the

extremely dry conditions. These plants have survived
by developing techniques for coping with their environ¬
ment. Like all living things, they must have water, and
they get it in several ways.

The mesquite and the prickly pear pick up moisture

in opposite ways. The mesquite sends its roots down as
deep as 60 feet to tap the water table. The prickly pear,
on the other hand, spreads its roots wide. These roots
are shallow but they pick up whatever moisture is avail¬
able at ground level. The paloverde saves water by
shedding leaves in times of extreme drought. The
creosote bush discourages competition by killing other
plants that grow too close. The barrel cactus makes sure
of a water supply by storing water in the plant itself. The
saguaro cactus stores so much water it can survive years

Part IV. Practice Tests—Reading 3 305

 of drought. But even the saguaro will die sooner or later
if there is no rain. All these plants, although well adjusted
to their environment, must eventually get water.

Even if the parent plants die, there are always seeds

to keep the species alive. Since the desert is so harsh,
thousands of seeds must be released to produce one
plant. To germinate, seeds must have exactly the right
conditions. They can lie dormant for months, even
years, until a little water stimulates the spark of life.

15. Write the letter of the statement that best expresses the main
idea of the passage.

(a) Death Valley is a living museum, where many kinds of

animals exist side by side.
(b) Days in the desert can be scorching, but nights can be cold.
(c) Bacteria survive in the depths of the ocean and in the blazing
desert heat.
(d.) Plants and animals can survive in the desert, one of the most
inhospitable places on earth. 15.

16. The number of plant species in Death Valley is listed as

0) 30 (b) 50 0) 134 (d) 600. 16.

17. The prickly pear survives by (a) sending its roots down 60 feet
(b) shedding leaves in times of drought (c) spreading its roots
wide (d) killing other plants that grow too close. 17.

18. At great ocean depths, fish are blind because (a) their surround¬
ings are so dark (b) a chemical in the water destroys their eyesight
(c) the water is so cold (d) the pressure is so great. 18.

19. We can guess that the word xerophyte comes from two Greek roots
that mean (a) “water shed” (b) “dry plant” (c) “steam bath”
(d) “hot night.” 19.

20. Of the following expressions, the one that is figurative is (a) dry
conditions (b) blind fish (c) barrel cactus (d) quite cold. 20.

21. For the average reader, the information presented is (a) dull
(b) surprising (c) trivial (d) misleading. 21.

306 Building Power in Reading and Writing

D. Read the following passage and answer the questions at the end.

Mountain folk in the Appalachian region have

always been thrifty. They practiced recycling long before
it became fashionable in the rest of the country.
Mountaineers put everything to use for as long as
possible. Worn-out shoes, for example, became door
hinges. Old buckets became stools or were cut into strips
for chimney flashing.

During the first half of this century, the mountain

folk used newspapers for wallpaper. The paper was not
only decorative but practical. It doubled as insulation
and sealed the small cracks in the walls. There were
general rules for pasting up newspapers on walls; it was
not a haphazard process. Within those rules, people
showed great individuality. Outsiders might consider
the designs jumbled, but actually the application of the
printed pages was quite orderly.

Before starting to paper, the mountaineers made

a thin paste of flour and boiling water. They made the
paste thin enough to spread evenly and thick enough to
stay in place. Since mice love the taste of flour, red
pepper and rat poison were sometimes added to the
paste. The paste was given a pleasant aroma by the
addition of sweet anise and arrowroot. Thus, the
papering gave the room a fresh new smell as well as a
new look.

Sometimes there was not enough of one kind of

paper to go around. Then two or more kinds were used,
but they were chosen according to a system. For
instance, if there was not enough newsprint to cover four
walls, the paperer might select catalog pages for one wall.
But the two types of paper would not be mixed on the
same wall.

Magazine paper was much prized. It was heavier,

more durable, and more resistant to fading than
newsprint. An old Saturday Evening Post, with its many
illustrations, was a treasure. Pictures of flowers,
Christmas scenes, and favorite landscapes were given
prominent places. Pictures of food might be placed in
the kitchen. Recipes were pasted near the stove. This
separation of pictures was especially noticeable when
pages from Sears or Montgomery Ward catalogs were
used. Pictures of toys were pasted in boys’ rooms, while
pictures of dresses and furniture were pasted in girls’
rooms.

Part IV. Practice Tests—Reading 3 307

 This custom seems quaint to many people today,
but it suited the mountain people. Everything was
recycled, and newspapers and magazines were no
exception. The readily available paper provided excel¬
lent wall covering at little expense. Moreover, the
printing on the paper was probably as interesting as the
designs on costly wallpaper would have been.

Some paperers preferred newspapers without illus¬

trations to give a uniform effect. Others sought pictures
of various kinds. The Sunday funny papers were popular
in families with children. Comic strips would be applied
at eye level so that the children could read them easily.
Since newsprint fades rapidly, the walls had to be
repapered quite frequently. Children liked that, because
it gave them new cartoons to look at.

22. Which of the following titles best summarizes the content of the
passage?

(a) Unusual Customs of Mountain Folk in the Appalachian

Region
(,b) The Saturday Evening Post: A Treasure for Decorating
{c) How the Mountaineers Used Newspapers and Magazines
for Wallpaper
(d) Waste Not: Want Not 22.

23. Red pepper was added to flour paste to (a) make the room
fragrant (b) help the paper stick better (c) make the paper peelable
later on (d) discourage mice. 23.

24. The mountain people made door hinges out of (a) old buckets
(b) shoes (c) stools (d) newspapers. 24.

25. The paper was applied to the walls (a) casually (b) hastily
(c) thoughtfully (d) unwillingly. 25.

26. The recycling actions of the mountain folk would be especially

applauded by modern (a) environmentalists (b) museum atten¬
dants (c) newspaper editors (d) newspaper publishers. 26.

27. Two words that can be applied to the use of newspaper as

wallpaper are (a) decorative and practical (b) inexpensive and unattrac¬
tive (c) colorful but impractical (d) ingenious but foolish. 27.

308 Building Power in Reading and Writing

28. Which of the following is an opinion?

(a) They practiced recycling long before it became fashionable

in the rest of the country.
(b) During the first half of this century, the mountain folk used
newspapers for wallpaper.
(c) Sometimes there was not enough of one kind of paper to
go around. I
(d) Moreover, the printing on the paper was probably as inter¬
esting as the designs of costly wallpaper would have been. 28. _

29. The author assumes that readers (a) have some interest in the
customs of regional America (b) have an extensive experience
in arts and crafts (c) look down upon the poor efforts of moun¬
taineers to decorate their homes {d) will seek to learn from this
how to decorate their own homes. 29. _

E. Read the following passage and answer the questions at the end.

Why did glass mugs that were produced several

hundred years ago have bumps on the outside? Couldn’t
the glassmakers of the time do any better? As a matter
of fact, they could, and the bumps were put there for
a purpose. People used to eat meat with their fingers.
Holding a glass mug with greasy fingers is anything but
easy. To prevent greasy fingers from slipping, glass-
makers added the bumps.

That is just one of the things a person learns from

a visit to the Corning Museum of Glass in Corning, New
York. In the museum are more than 2,400 drinking
vessels. In addition, there are glass lamps, tables, and
even a glass musical instrument. Many of the objects
are very valuable. One of the most precious of these
pieces is a glass replica of the head of an Egyptian
pharaoh made about 3,000 years ago. Even though it
is only about an inch and a half high, it is superbly cast,
elegant, and one of the many highlights of a visit to the
museum.

A number of the treasures feature birds. A

Bohemian goblet pictures a phoenix-like creature above
a city of Silesia. Another goblet, this one from England,
shows a golden bird displayed against a blue and red
crest. On a Venetian bottle, several birds with spectac¬
ular plumage sit amid images of strawberries and spring
flowers. All of this glas'sware is beautifully designed and
exquisitely cut.

Part IV. Practice Tests—Reading 3 309

 The museum is the second largest glass museum
in the world. Only the Museum of Applied Arts in
Prague has a larger collection. Yet this storehouse of
treasures was almost destroyed beyond repair. Corning
is situated on the Chemung River, a tributary of the
Susquehanna. In 1972, Hurricane Agnes caused disas
trous floods in the region. The rampaging Chemung
tore through the museum, wrecking display cases and
damaging many of the glass objects. A number of trea¬
sures were shattered and never reassembled. Five
hundred other items had to be pieced together from
fragments embedded in mud.

Specialists from all over the world hastened to the

scene to offer their assistance. Authorities worried that
since a flood had happened once, it could happen again.
A new museum building was constructed 13 feet above
the flood plain instead of five feet, as before. The glass
treasures are now in a safer, less vulnerable home.

30. Which of the following titles best summarizes the content of the
passage?

(a) A History of Glass

(b) The Corning Glass Museum
(c) The Art of Glassblowing
(d) A New Home for the Corning Glass Museum 30.

31. A goblet with a golden bird pictured comes from (a) Silesia
(b) Egypt (c) Prague (d) England. 31.

32. The Chemung River (a) is in Silesia (b) was spared by Hurricane
Agnes (c) runs into the Susquehanna (d) is actually just a brook. 32.

33. All the following are mentioned as included in the Corning

Museum EXCEPT (a) tables (b) lamps (c) drinking vessels
(d) dishes. 33.

34. The bumps on glass mugs were (a) useful (b) decorative
(c) colored (d) imperfections in the glass. 34.

35. In the future, experts think that (a) no other museum will be
as well attended as the Corning (b) glassblowing will never be
as good as in the past (c) experts will refuse to come from around
the world to help (d) the river will not rise 13 feet. 35.

310 Building Power in Reading and Writing

36. Which of the following is an opinion?

(a) People used to eat meat with their fingers.

(b) Even though it is only about an inch and a half high, it is
superbly cast, elegant.
(r) Corning is situated on the Chemung River.
(d) A number of treasures were shattered and never reassem¬
bled. 36. .

F. Read the following passage and answer the questions at the end.

American history is filled with fascinating stories

that never get into standard textbooks. One of the most
unusual is that of the Indian Stream Republic, a tiny
“nation” that existed from 1832 to 1835 but is all but
forgotten now. The area is today part of northern New
Hampshire, but for three years long ago it struggled to
remain independent.

How did this republic come into existence? The

answer lies in the problem of defining a boundary
between Canada and the United States. The Treaty of
Paris, signed at the end of the American Revolution,
attempted to draw an accurate line between the United
States and Canada, but in some places the boundary
remained vague. One of those places was at the ‘ ‘ north-
westernmost head of the Connecticut River. ’ ’ As writer
Edward Park says, “In all that maze of boggy ponds and
rain-rushing brooks, who could say for certain which
was the topmost trickle of the mighty Connecticut?”
Canada claimed one boundary. New Hampshire
claimed another.

At the time of the treaty, no white inhabitants lived

in the area between the two boundaries. But beginning
about 1800, land speculators started to move in. Farmers
began to settle there. By 1824, there were 58 families
living in the region. Were they Canadians or Ameri¬
cans?

The fact is, the families felt that they were being
mistreated by both countries. New Hampshire was
levying taxes. Canada had drafted two boys into their
army. Onjuly 9, 1832, the annoyed citizens established
republic of the united “inhabitants of the Indian
Stream Territory.” They even drew up a constitution.

Part IV. Practice Tests—Reading 3 311

 Neither Canada nor the United States recognized
the tiny nation. A number of incidents and minor
skirmishes occurred, but the little republic never had
much hope of prevailing. New Hampshire sent in a
regiment of militia to establish its claim to the region.
In 1842, the matter was finally settled by treaty, and the
disputed territory was given to New Hampshire. The
Indian Stream Republic was incorporated as the New
Hampshire town of Pittsburg.

37. Write the letter of the statement that best expresses the main
idea of the passage.

(a) The United States and Canada once had a border dispute.
(b) Northern New Hampshire is a land of many ponds and
brooks.
(c) The Indian Stream Republic had a brief but fascinating
history.
(<7) The Indian Stream Republic is now part of the United
States. 37.

38. The border dispute arose because (a) the origin of the Connect¬
icut River is unclear (b) the inhabitants tried to keep out all
newcomers (c) the Treaty of Paris was unfair (d) New Hampshire
was unreasonable. 38.

39. Edward Park is a (a) farmer (b) soldier (c) inhabitant of the Indian
Stream Republic (d) writer. 39.

40. The inhabitants of the Indian Stream Republic favored

(a) annexation to Canada (b) annexation to the United States
(c) independence (d) close ties with England. 40.

41. The date for the establishment of the Indian Stream Republic
is (a) 1800 (b) 1824 (c) 1832 (d) 1842. 41.

42. As used in the last paragraph, skirmishes means (a) disagreements

(b) small fights (c) pitched battles (d) get-togethers. 42.

43. The tone of the passage is (a) disturbed (b) calm (c) amused (d)
excitable. 43.

312 Building Power in Reading and Writing

G. Read the following passage and answer the questions at the end.

One of the world’s greatest painters was ‘ ‘lost’ ’ for

almost 200 years. Jan Vermeer van Delft is today ranked
among the finest artists of the remarkable Dutch Renais¬
sance in the 17th century, but his fame came late. For
a long time, his works were confused with those of his
contemporaries, painters who had outstanding talent
but lacked the towering genius of Vermeer. Pieter de
Hooch, Gabriel Metsu, and Gerard Ter Borch were
tremendously skilled painters, but Vermeer’s work
stands above that of even these gifted artists.

What do we know about the life of this forgotten

genius? Not as much as we would like to know. He was
born on October 31, 1632, in Delft. He married before
he was 21. Originally, he had no idea of supporting his
family by painting. He moved his wife into his parents’
house and helped to run his father’s tavern. During this
period, he began to deal in the art of other painters. He
bought and sold paintings rather than creating them.
Soon his father died, and Vermeer closed down the
tavern, but he kept the art trade going.

Within a few years, Vermeer himself began

painting seriously. For 19 years, from 1653 to 1672, he
painted pictures that are bright and luminous, capturing
a ray of sunlight on a delicate tapestry, revealing the
textures of many kinds of fabrics. Fewer than 30 of these
great paintings survive, but they have established his
reputation as one of the great Old Masters.

How did he acquire his skill? With whom did he

study? We don’t know. As a child, he may have been
sent as an apprentice to the Delft painter Leonaert
Bramer. If he did not learn his craft from Bramer, he
may at least have gained from him an appreciation of
the great masters. Vermeer owned a number of fine
canvases by other painters, some of which appear in his
interior scenes as part of the background. Carel Fabri-
tius may also have influenced Vermeer, but no one
knows for sure. Like most other assertions about this
17th-century genius, it is only a guess.

Part IV. Practice Tests—Reading 3 313

 Vermeer’s life was too short. In 1672, France
declared war and invaded the Netherlands. Nonessen
tial business came to a standstill. This cut off Vermeer s
income, but with 13 people to support, he still had major
expenses. He began to exchange his own paintings for
food at the local stores. These marvelous paintings
survived, but Vermeer did not. He died in 1675 at the
age of 43.

44. Write the letter of the statement that best expresses the main
idea of the passage.

(a) Dutch painters of the 17th century were tremendously gifted

artists.
(£) Jan Vermeer at one time was an important dealer in the
works of other painters.
(c) An artist often has a remarkably varied career, though a
short one.
(d.) Jan Vermeer belongs in the top rank of Dutch Renaissance
artists. 44.

45. When Vermeer began dealing in the works of other artists, he

was (a) already an active artist himself (b) a tavern keeper
(c) a close friend of Gabriel Metsu (d) a soldier in the army of
the Netherlands. 45.

46. The surviving paintings of Vermeer are (a) in dozens of

museums around the world (b) mostly outdoor scenes (c) few in
number (d) not favored by certain critics. 46.

47. All the following Dutch painters are mentioned EXCEPT

(a) Fabritius (b) Rembrandt (r) Metsu (d) Bramer. 47.

48. From paragraphs 2 and 3, we can infer that Vermeer began

painting at the age of (a) 19 (b) 21 (c) 30 (d) 43. 48.

49. Old Masters are (a) outstanding painters of the past (b) artists
especially skilled in painting house interiors (c) the teachers of
great artists (d) past dealers who have recognized the genius of
great artists. 49.

50. Each of the following contains a figurative expression EXCEPT

(a) towering genius (6) born on October 31, 1632 (c) came to
a standstill (d) cut off Vermeer’s income. 50.

END OF READING PRACTICE TEST 3

314 Building Power in Reading and Writing

READING PRACTICE TEST 4
Reading Practice Test 4 consists of seven passages (A to G), together with
questions based upon them.

A. Read the following passage and answer the questions at the end.

Once upon a time, amusement parks were fairly

simple in design and conservative in the rides offered.
There was always a roller coaster to tempt the stout¬
hearted. Then there was a carousel for the children or
less daring adults. There were also a number of other
rides that spun around, dipped and twisted, providing
a variety of motion sensations. There was always a Ferris
wheel, towering above the other attractions. This is still
the description of state and county fairs.

Then, along came Disneyland, with its introduc¬

tion of themes: Adventureland, Tomorrowland, Fanta-
syland, and Frontierland. Thus began the age of popular
theme parks. Sea World, Frontier Village, Six Flags
Over Georgia, Six Flags Over Texas, and Kings
Dominion—these theme parks flourished, and a new
concept took hold.

There were still other changes to come. Amuse¬

ment parks entered the age of technology, the appli¬
cation of science for practical purposes. World’s fairs,
like those in Knoxville, New Orleans, and Seattle,
provided glimpses into the future. Walt Disney’s Epcot,
next to Walt Disney World in Florida, provided an ever-
changing examination of technological advances, along
with visits to many nations in miniature. But perhaps
the most dramatic and thrilling uses of technology were
demonstrated in amusement rides around the country.

Thrill rides became the major attraction of these

parks. Roller coasters were still popular, of course,
though park owners tried to make them even more scary.
Variations on the roller coaster dared visitors to be sent
at breakneck speed into dangerous curves and breath¬
taking loop-the-loops. Kings Island, near Cincinnati,
billed its four-million-dollar Vortex as the first roller
coaster with six upside-down turns. Typhoon Lagoon,
another Disney creation, planned a 50-acre water-
entertainment village. It boasted a 95-foot mountain
with nine water slides, a 2.5-acre wave-making lagoon,
and a saltwater snorkeling pool.
 There was more to come. Visitors demanded even
more sophisticated entertainment. In 1987, Disneyland
in California opened its Star Tours attraction. On the
4V2-minute ride, passengers take a simulated space
voyage, using an ingenious flight simulator like those
used to train jumbo-jet pilots. The machine twists and
turns to avoid meteorites and laser cannon blasts in a
“ Star Wars” experience. Passengers really feel as if they
are flying.

What next? hlany officials predict that the next

wave of attractions will be “interactive rides. On these
rides, guests will press buttons or levers to choose the
experience they are seeking. Because these will, in effect,
be creating many different possibilities, guests will be
eager for repeat rides.

Amusement parks have come a long way from the

mild roller coaster and gentle merry-go-round, but the
central purpose is still the same: to provide visitors
entertainment, thrills, and out-of-the-ordinary experi¬
ences. Who knows what the amusement park will look
like twenty-five years from now!

1. Which of the following titles best summarizes the content of the

passage?

(a) How Disneyland Got Started

(b) The Changing American Amusement Park
(c) The Influence of the County Fair on Amusement Parks
(d) How Disneyland Changed Amusement Parks

2. All the following are mentioned as a part of state and county

fairs EXCEPT (a) carousel (b) roller coaster (c) Ferris wheel
(d) loop-the-loop. 2.

3. The word that includes the three other words is (a) Tomorrowland
(b) Fantasyland (c) Disneyland (d) Frontierland. 3.

4. The Walt Disney organization owns (a) Sea World (b) Typhoon
Lagoon (c) Kings Dominion (d) Six Flags Over Georgia. 4.

5. A ride on the Vortex is probably (a) thrilling (b) wet (c) mild
(1d) too short. 5.

6. “Interactive rides” (a) give people choices (b) were introduced

by Kings Island (c) are becoming out-of-date (d) are common
in state fairs. 6.

316 Building Power in Reading and Writing

7. An example of figurative language is the expression (a) simple
in design (b) practical purposes (c) breakneck speed (d) wave-making
lagoon. 7. _

8. The author’s attitude toward amusement parks is one of

(a) active concern (b) casual indifference (c) keen interest
(d) mild disapproval. 8. _

B. Read the following passage and answer the questions at the end.

Every weekend in suburban America, optimistic

homeowners are holding garage sales. Instead of
throwing out old furniture, utensils, and all kinds of odds
and ends, these weekend salespersons are selling
unwanted objects at a small fraction of their original
cost. Happy browsers examine the merchandise,
socialize with the sellers, and often go home with a
treasure all their own.

According to students of garage sales, these

increasingly popular events originated in the 1960s as
more and more Americans moved to suburbia. Since
that time, the sales have become big business. In 1984,
the number of garage sales outnumbered births and
deaths combined. By 1987, garage sales generated two
billion dollars in annual revenue. Sellers needn’t own
garages. There are lawn sales, yard sales, and other
variations of the original.

There are many identifiable appeals that draw

buyers to the sales. First and foremost is the treasure-
hunt possibility. Who knows what wonderful relics of
the past may find their way to garage sales? Professional
buyers recognize this possibility and often arrive at
garage sales before anyone else—to pick over the items
being offered. Many a fine antique has been discovered
in a garage.

Secondly, there is the possibility of getting a

bargain, finding a needed item and paying a tiny fraction
of its usual retail price. Young couples starting out in
life together can furnish their homes with used-but-
sound pieces that have outlived their usefulness
elsewhere. Dishes, utensils, pots and pans, chairs and
tables—these find a second life in many a newlywed’s
home.

Part IV. Practice Tests—Reading 4 317

 Thirdly, there are the bored, who find garage sales
a welcome diversion on a dull weekend. They may not
be interested in buying anything, but their presence
stimulates others to buy. They enjoy the animated
conversation that often follows a question about a piece
being offered.

Fourthly, there are the scholars, who study garage

sales as keenly as if they were religious rites of a primitive
tribe. These researchers insist that garage sales tell us
a great deal about ourselves, about our buying habits,
about the fads and fancies that come and go in American
life. They enjoy garage sales as a slice of life and an
insight into history.

Whatever the motivation, garage sales grow more

popular each year. They act like a marketplace in an old
European town. They also provide a gathering place for
neighbors who rarely see*each other throughout the rest
of the year. They can even help a community become
more closely knit. The garage sale is a useful merchan¬
dising idea.

9. Write the letter of the statement that best expresses the main
idea of the passage.

(а) Garage sales are being studied by researchers and social

historians.
(б) Professional buyers comb garage sales for values overlooked
by the sellers.
(c) Garage sales have come to take an important place in
American life.
(d) Garage sales really deal with junk, not expensive items. 9.

10. All the following are mentioned as attending a garage sale

EXCEPT (a) professional buyers (b) bargain hunters
(c) scholars (d) manufacturers. 10.

11. For most items in a garage sale, the major sales appeal is
(a) price (b) durability of object (c) rarity (d) novelty. 11.

12. As used in paragraph 5, diversion means (a) purchase

(b) pastime (c) mild argument (d) trip.' 12.

13. The passage implies that (a) by far, the major appeal of the
garage sale is the possibility of finding a valuable antique
(b) most items in a garage sale are not valuable (c) scholars are
the most enthusiastic purchasers at a garage sale (d) buyers at
a garage sale do not get their money’s worth. 13.

318 Building Power in Reading and Writing

14. Which of the following is an example of figurative language?

(a) Homeowners are selling these unwanted objects at a small

fraction of their original cost.
(b) Many a fine antique has been discovered in a garage.
(c) There is the possibility of getting a bargain.
(<d) They enjoy garage sales as a slice of life. 14. _

15. Which of the following is an opinion?

(a) In 1984, the number of garage sales outnumbered births

and deaths combined.
(b) Sellers needn’t own garages.
(c) These find a second life in many a newlywed’s home.
(d) The garage sale is a useful merchandising idea. 15. _

C. Read the following passage and answer the questions at the end.

Driving through the Blue Ridge Mountains of

Virginia and North Carolina, tourists often see a melan¬
choly sight. In a field overrun with weeds and small trees,
there will be a lonely chimney. The house that once
depended upon the chimney for warmth has long since
disappeared. The chimney, perhaps along with a lilac
bush, is the only evidence that a farmhouse or mountain
cabin once stood there.

With the arrival of oil, gas, and electrical heat, the

chimney nearly disappeared from residential buildings,
except for the popular fireplace used as an occasional
supplement to the heating system. The serious oil short¬
ages of the 1970s brought back woodburning stoves to
many houses. With those stoves came chimneys.

The smoking chimney is often criticized as a visible

symbol of air pollution. Yet the chimney is not the cause.
It is actually a device for reducing surface air pollution.
The pollution itself comes from the factories, mills, and
utility plants that help make our civilization possible.
Smokestacks, which are merely tall chimneys, remove
smoke and gases that pollute those living or working at
ground level and disperse the offenders into the upper
atmosphere. Devices for removing many pollutants
before they are loosed into the atmosphere provide some
hope for the future. But the chimneys are not the villains.

PartIV. Practice Tests—Reading 4 319

 In earliest days, chimneys did not exist. A hole in
the roof or slats in the wall were intended to keep indoor
atmosphere bearable. Then someone invented the
chimney to remove smoke from the room while allowing
for radiant heat to warm the inhabitants. The excava¬
tion of the ancient city of Mari on the Euphrates River
uncovered a palace with chimneys nearly 4,000 years
old. The idea of the chimney may have been brought
to Europe from the East by traders more than 1,200 years
ago. The idea took hold, though only the wealthy and
powerful at first had chimneys. In the 11th century, King
Olaf III of Norway installed corner fireplaces with
chimneys in the royal residence.

Many of these old chimneys have long since disap¬

peared. The oldest chimneys still standing are in a 12th-
century abbey where Henry II of England, his wife,
Eleanor of Aquitaine, apd their son Richard the Lion
Hearted are buried. Paintings from 15th-century
Europe show that by then chimneys had become
commonplace. Chimney building had become an art,
with secrets closely guarded from one generation of
chimney builders to the next. A poorly designed chimney
will not draw properly, nor will it heat the room in which
the fireplace is located.

There are sad footnotes to the chimney story.

Inevitably, soot accumulated. From time to time,
chimneys had to be cleaned. The flues were often small,
no wider than the length of two bricks. Many young
children in England were hired as chimney sweeps.
These “climbing boys,” as they were called, were
supposed to be no younger than eight years of age. Often
they were no more than four. They were forced to climb
up the chimney, crying and complaining. Sometimes
they were prodded from below by pins stuck into their
bare feet. They spent their lives in black dirt and gener¬
ally died young from cancer or lung disease. It was not
until 1875 that these cruelties were banned by Parlia¬
ment.

Cleaning up the atmosphere by installing antipol¬

lution devices on chimneys is a long and expensive task.
But something must be done to decrease the acid rain
that forms from industrial pollutants. The chimney is
a part of this polluting process, but it is not the cause.

320 Building Power in Reading and Writing

16. Which of the following titles best summarizes the content of the
passage?

(a) The Abuse of Children

(b) A History and a Defense of Chimneys
(c) Chimneys: An Ancient Device
('d) The Problems of Pollution in Modern Society 16.

17. The earliest chimneys in Europe were built for [a) Henry II of
England (b) Richard the Lion Hearted (c) Olaf III of Norway
(d) Eleanor of Aquitaine. 17.

18. Which of the following is NOT a true statement?

(a) Smokestacks are tall chimneys.

(b) “Climbing boys” are chimney sweeps.
(r) Acid rain forms from industrial pollutants.
(d) Children younger than eight did not serve as climbing boys. 18.

19. The hole in the roof as a smoke outlet (a) disappeared soon after
the founding of the city of Mari (£) was never satisfactory
(r) occurs in many cabins in the Blue Ridge Mountains
(d) was never generally used. 19.

20. As used in paragraph 3, disperse means (a) scatter (b) identify

(c) conceal (d) concentrate. 20.

21. Which of the following is an example of figurative language?

(a) But the chimneys are not the villains.

(b) In earliest days, chimneys did not exist.
(c) Inevitably, soot accumulated.
(d) They were forced to climb up the chimney, crying and
complaining. 21.

22. The author’s purpose is to (a) have readers look at chimneys

in a different way (b) mention ways in which pollution may be
overcome (c) show his own insight and wisdom (d) hold up
chimneys as a work of art. 22.

23. The author’s attitude toward the use of “climbing boys” is one
of (a) intelligent interest (b) keen disapproval (c) unconcealed
curiosity (d) mild puzzlement. 23.

Part IV. Practice Tests—Reading 4 321

 D. Read the following passage and answer the questions at the end.

Two knights circle each other warily. Swords are

brandished. First one rushes in, then the other, hoping
to catch the opponent off guard. At last there is an
opening. As the opponent rushes in with his mace to
finish the combat, the waiting combatant twists his sword
upward to blunt the attacking mace. Then he strikes a
final blow to the opponent’s head, “decapitating him.
But the defeated warrior lifts the visor of his helmet and
puts his arm around the man who has just “ slain him.
It’s all make-believe.

The herald cries out, “Victor by Death Lord

Geoffrey Maynard of York. ’ ’ Then he adds, “The King
announces court will be held in the Great Hall in 20
minutes.” The brightly clothed spectators begin the
walk toward the hall.

What is going on here? Why are all these modern

people dressed like characters from the Middle Ages?
What was that combat all about? This is a field day for
a special group calling themselves the Society for
Creative Anachronism. Anachronism is a misplacing of
events in time. Just as an automobile would be an anach¬
ronism at the court of Charlemagne, so knights are an
anachronism in the present. This society has members
around the world, all of whom try to relive the life that
existed between the fall of Rome and 1600 A.D.

Why do they bother? They like a change. Everyday

life can get to seem humdrum. Events tend to be cut-
and-dried, predictable. A 9-5 job may leave workers
daydreaming of a more colorful time. True, the
glamorous days of the past were often times of ignorance,
discomfort, cruelty, pestilence, and violent death.
Members of the society, however, prefer to emphasize
the brighter side: the color, the pageantry, the code of
honor, and the romance. For a while, they can live in
a splendid fantasy world, where all men are gallant, all
women beautiful, and everyone immortal.

For the society, the world is divided into various

kingdoms, each with its own king and queen. Most of
the state of Florida, for example, is designated the
Kingdom of Trimaris. Trimaris holds its own feast days,
with simulated combat. Titles are earned in various
ways. Coats of arms are issued when the king honors
a member by creating him or her a lord or lady. Coats
of arms may be earned for deeds of service to the society.

322 Building Power in Reading and Writing

 As “Lord Lance” Nystrom, a herald of the society,
explains, “Everything members do is voluntary. People
who work in the kitchen at feasts stand a pretty good
chance of receiving a title.”

Members carry the fantasy into areas other than

costuming. They get into the spirit by eating authentic
medieval-period foods. They collect anything connected
with the medieval period.

The king is chosen by combat, but the fighting is

safe. Instead of steel weapons, rattan is used. A blow to
a limb is considered an amputation, and a blow to the
head, decapitation. The latter event ends the combat,
as does a blow to any other part of the body except the
limbs. The king rules for six months and then is replaced
by another.

Members of the Society for Creative Anachronism

may be playing at make-believe like children, but they
are having fun and are harming no one. Perhaps all
sports and activities should be equally harmless.

24. Write the letter of the statement that best expresses the main
idea of the passage.

(a) Adults sometimes live out their daydreams just as children

do.
(6) Knights sometimes do battle even in the peaceful fields of
Florida.
(c) Even nowadays it is possible to earn a coat of arms.
(d) The Society for Creative Anachronism helps members
relive the past. 24.

25. In paragraph 1, decapitating and slain are in quotation marks

because (a) the words don't mean what they usually mean
(b) members make fun of the knights in combat (c) the words
are taken from a well-known song about medieval warfare
(,d) members are forbidden to use these words during a combat. 25.

26. An example of an anachronism would be (a) swords at the time

of Julius Caesar (b) a theater at the time of William Shakespeare
(c) a television set in an old silent movie (d) a spaceship during
the presidency of Jimmy Carter. 26.

27. As used in paragraph 1, warily means (a) cautiously (b) angrily

(c) rapidly (d) repeatedly. 27.

Part IV. Practice Tests—Reading 4 323

28. As used in paragraph 5, simulated means (a) deadly (b) pretended
(r) absurd (d) repeated.

29. Nystrom suggests that members will earn titles if they (a) are
wealthy (b) do research (c) bring in new members (d) work
unselfishly.

30. The attitude of the author toward the Society for Creative
Anachronism is (a) critical (b) scornful (r) unbelieving
(d) sympathetic.

E. Read the following passage and answer the questions at the end.

Great European cathedrals have been standing for

800 years or more. The Parthenon has been standing
for nearly 2,500 years, even though it was partially
destroyed in wartime. The Pyramids have been standing
for 5,000 years. These structures were built to endure.

But there is one kind of art or architecture that lasts

only a short time. It may take the form of a beautiful
cathedral, a splendid castle, a heroic statue, or a minia¬
ture city—but it is destined to be destroyed soon after
completion. This fleeting creation is built of sand.

At the seashore, children have an irresistible

impulse to play in the sand. Just below high water, the
sand is wet and plastic. It is easy to mold into various
forms. At low tide, the young sculptors begin, working
rapidly to complete their structures before the incoming
tide destroys everything. The impermanence of the sand
sculpture fascinates young people. Watching the rising
waters eat away at the foundations, observing the proud
turrets as they topple into an incoming wave—these
bring oohs and ahs. There is jubilation, but there is some
sadness, too, as the sand castle collapses, its transient
shape dissolving.

This children’s pastime has attracted adult artists

for decades, but the first mammoth sand sculpture is
fairly recent. Constructed in 1969, it was a monumental
90-ton sand castle that dominated Moonlight Beach in
Southern California. It proved so popular that sand
sculpture became increasingly sought after, almost a big
business for a few artists. Companies with names like
Sand Sculptors International and Sandtastic provide
resort hotels, conventions, advertisers, and others with

324 Building Power in Reading and Writing

 professional sand magic. Some of the sand structures
they build are so colossal that the available beach sand
is insufficient. In these cases, loads of sand are trucked
in.

Painters use oil, ink, acrylic, gouache, and their

creations survive. Sand artists use an entirely different
material, and their creations are quickly destroyed. Why
create something that is fated to wash away in the tide?
Sand sculptors consider the short life of a sand castle to
be an important part of its appeal. Says one, “There is
something to be said for watching the tide roll in and
clean your canvas.” This is truly ephemeral art.

31. Which of the following titles best summarizes the content of the
passage?

(a) Tide: The Destructive Agent

(b) A New Kind of Art
(c) Sculptures in the Sand
(d) A Beach Hobby 31.

32. Sand sculptures on a large scale began (a) 5,000 years ago
(b) 2,500 years ago (c) in 1969 (d) within the past ten years. 32.

33. The Parthenon and the Pyramids were mentioned because they
are (a) tall (b) hard to reach (c) made of marble (d) very old. 33.

34. As used in paragraph 3, jubilation means (a) rejoicing

(6) disagreement (c) sadness id) upset. 34.

35. As used in paragraph 3, transient means (a) bulky (b) fleeting

(c) sturdy (d) irregular. 35.

36. As used in paragraph 5, ephemeral means (a) long-lasting

(b) memorable (r) original (d) temporary. 36.

37. The beautiful cathedral in paragraph 2 (a) is made of sand

(b) stands near Moonlight Beach in Southern California (r) is
part of a 90-ton structure (d) took years to complete. 37.

Part IV. Practice Tests—Reading 4 325

 F. Read the following passage and answer the questions at the end

Of the world’s most honored plays, perhaps the

best known is Shakespeare’s Hamlet. There are many
reasons for its preeminence. First of all, it is exciting
theater. The plot is a rousing one, with plenty of action
at key moments. Hamlet may seem at times a creature
destroyed by hesitation, but in the course of the play he
courageously faces a ghost, traps a king through a trick,
accidentally slays a courtier, duels with an old friend,
and ultimately kills the king, his stepfather. He himself
becomes the victim of treachery, dying by a poisoned
sword. There is enough excitement on the stage to satisfy
even an unsophisticated spectator.

Secondly, the settings are varied and intriguing.

The lonely, ghost-haunted battlements of Elsinore
Castle are contrasted with the brightly lit rooms within
the castle. The tense opening scene sets the stage for the
tragedy to come, but there are many bright spots and
much humor amid the sadness.

Finally, the characters are complex and elusive.

The king is a murderer; yet he is genuinely in love with
his queen, for whom he commits the murder. The queen
dotes on her son Hamlet, though at times she seems more
interested in her own pleasures. Polonius, loyal adviser
to the king, is a garrulous old man much given to long-
winded speeches. His son Laertes is a hothead, a man
whose sword is too ready to speak for him. His daughter
Ophelia is pretty and obedient, but not very intelligent.
The warrior Fortinbras, a foil to the thoughtful Hamlet,
is in love with battle and glory. Hamlet’s good friend
Horatio may be the soundest person in the play, noted
for his bravery and his loyalty to Hamlet, but he is an
observer, not a participant.

The most interesting and complicated character is

of course Hamlet. Many questions arise about him. Is
he a man of action, or a man fatally reluctant to act?
When the pressures become great, is he actually mad,
or does he only feign madness? Does he really love
Ophelia? If so, why does he treat her so shabbily? Why
does he go off docilely to England when the king sends
him? Why doesn’t he show more remorse after killing
Polonius? There are as many explanations as there are
critics.

326 Building Power in Reading and Writing

 Hamlet contains contradictions, because that is the
nature of human beings. Hamlet is indecisive, but he
is also a man of action. His motives are generally lofty,
but sometimes they seem wholly selfish. He is compas¬
sionate and cruel in turn. Though basically gentle, he
is also ruthless. These contradictions make Hamlet
human. There are no final answers, because life has no
final answers.

38. Write the letter of the statement that best expresses the main
idea of the passage.

(a) As a play, Hamlet reflects the sadness, the complexity, and

the inconsistencies of life.
(b) In Hamlet, Shakespeare shows us the problems that arise
when people are false.
(c) The character of Hamlet is one of the most generous and
noble in all of literature.
(id) The gloomy castle of Elsinore is a fit setting for the tragic
events in the tale of Hamlet. 38.

39. The person identified as a hothead is (a) Horatio (b) Polonius

(c) the king (d) Laertes. 39.

40. The passage devotes a paragraph to each of the following

EXCEPT (a) character (b) language (c) setting (d) plot. 40.

41. The passage mentions many questions associated with Hamlet

and then (a) explains why Hamlet acted as he did (b) leaves them
unanswered (c) suggests that Horatio, of all the characters,
knows the answers (d) tells why the queen acted as she did. 41.

42. As used in paragraph 1, preeminence means (a) inferiority

(b) contradiction (c) superiority (d) interesting plot. 42.

43. As used in paragraph 3, dotes on means (a) constantly checks up

on (b) pays excessive attention to (c) makes excuses for (d) fails
to understand. 43.

44. As used in paragraph 3, garrulous means (a) loyal (b) observant

(c) shrewd (d) talkative. 44.

Part IV. Practice Tests—Reading 4 327

 G. Read the following passage and answer the questions at the end.

Mathematicians have always been fascinated by

the concept of infinity. Most people think of infinity as
“a very large number.” That is incorrect. The largest
number anyone can think of is no closer to infinity than
the number one. To a mathematician, the ideas of very
large” and “infinite” are quite different. No number,
however great, will ever reach infinity, because infinity,
by definition, is boundless and endless. A person cannot
“count to infinity.”

There are numbers so large that it is hard to

comprehend them. But they are still numbers. For
instance, how many atoms of oxygen are there in an
average thimble? A mathematician might represent the
number by writing 1 followed by 27 zeros. That is a very
large number, to be sure, but it is tiny when compared
with the total number of atoms in the universe. How
many drops of water flow over Niagara Falls in a
century? The number of drops is about the same as the
number of electrons that pass through the filament of
an ordinary 50-watt bulb in one minute. The number
is huge, but, being a number, it is not infinite.

When dealing with very large numbers, mathe¬

maticians use exponents, which indicate numbers
multiplied by themselves the number of times shown.
This device eliminates writing a lot of extremely long
numbers. According to one scientist, raising 10 to the
79th power would include all the electrons in the entire
universe. That is a very large number, but it is not as
large as a googol. What, you may ask, is a googol?

The mathematician Edward Kasner wanted to coin

a word to express 10 to the 100th power. He asked his
9-year-old nephew to suggest one. The boy thought for
a moment and said, “Googol.” The word has since been
adopted by serious mathematicians and scientists every¬
where. It is in all standard dictionaries.

Some time later, the same boy suggested a word for

a still larger number. When a googol is multiplied by
itself googol times, the result is a googolplex. How large
is a googolplex? If you wanted to write the number, you
would not have enough space to write it even if you
traveled on a direct line to the farthest star in the farthest
nebula, writing zeros all the way.

Now, that’s a large number, but it still isn’t infinity.

328 Building Power in Reading and Writing

45. Which of the following titles best summarizes the content of the
passage?

(a) The Fascination of Very Large Numbers

(b) How the Word for a Very Large Number Was Coined
(r) The Long Road to Infinity
(d) How Infinity Differs from Large Numbers 45.

46. The word for the number 10 to the 100th power is (a) infinity (b)
googol (c) googolplex (d) none of these. 46.

47. One followed by 27 zeros expresses the number of (a) drops of

water flowing over Niagara Falls in a century ([b) atoms in the
entire universe (c) electrons that pass through a 50-watt bulb
filament in a minute (d) atoms of oxygen in an average thimble. 47.

48. Which of the following statements is NOT true?

(a) A child invented a scientific name.

(b) Infinity is not a number.
(r) A googol is larger than a googolplex.
(d) Most people think of infinity as “a very large number.” 48.

49. The comparison of water over Niagara Falls and electrons in

a light bulb can be described as (a) commonplace (b) inaccurate
(c) dramatic (d) little understood. 49.

50. The tone of the passage is (a) light and straightforward

(b) breathless and sensational (c) somewhat sarcastic (d) one¬
sided and argumentative. 50.

END OF READING PRACTICE TEST 4

Part IV. Practice Tests—Reading 4 329

WRITING PRACTICE TEST 1

DIRECTIONS

The following writing test consists of six parts divided into three sections. Each
section will be covered in one writing period. Writing periods may be held on
different days. The breakdown of sections into parts is as follows:

Section A: Writing Period 1

Part I—Composition to Persuade

Part II—Composition to Explain

Section B: Writing Period 2

Part III—Business Letter

Part IV—Report

Section C: Writing Period 3

Part V—Friendly Letter

Part VI—Summary, or Precis "*

As you prepare, keep in mind the following suggestions:

1. Be sure to read the directions carefully.

2. Think about what you are going to write before you begin.

3. Write a rough draft.

4. Revise the rough draft, paying careful attention to the organization of the paper,
the paragraphing, and the correctness of the writing.

Section A: Writing Period 1

Part I—Composition to Persuade

Directions: Write a composition in which you try to persuade the school librarian
to accept the suggestion outlined below.

Situation: Although your local public library has a copier, your school library does
not. You feel the introduction of such a machine would provide a much-
needed convenience for students and teachers.

Your task: Write a composition of about 200 words persuading the librarian to
install a copying machine in the library. Give two reasons for providing
such a machine and explain each reason.

330
 Suggestions:

1. Remember you are writing to the librarian.

2. Mention the frequent use of the copies in the public library.

3. Give the librarian two reasons why the copier should be installed.

4. Explain your reasons.

Section A: Writing Period 1

Part II—Composition to Explain

Directions: Write an explanation, using the suggestions below.

Situation: A friend has written to you, asking for help in completing a project.

Your task: Select one of the topics below and write a clear, concise explanation
that will help him or her complete the project.

How to Cement a Sidewalk

How to Bake Bran Muffins

How to Lap-quilt

How to Play Touch Football

How to Keep Score in Tennis

How to Tell a Good Story

How to Choose a PC Computer

How to Avoid Colds in Winter

How to Choose a Good Mystery

How to Plan a Week’s Television Viewing

How to Operate a Sewing Machine

How a Drawbridge Operates

How a Helicopter Flies

How to .. . (Choose your own topic.)

Part IV. Practice Tests—Writing 1 331

Section B: Writing Period 2
Part III—Business Letter

Directions: Write a business letter about the situation described below. Read all
the information before you start to write.

Situation: You have ordered a record album, Songs of the Sixties, through an adver- .
tisement on television. You carefully copied the address and noted the
$8.95 charge for two records. You also noted the $2.50 shipping charge.
You sent a money order for $11.45 ten weeks ago. Though the records
were promised in 4 to 6 weeks, you have not yet received them.

Your task: Write a business letter concerning this situation to: Subscriber s Record
Club, 1203 Thousand Oaks Drive. Complete this address by using
your own city or town, state, and ZIP code.

Suggestions:

1. Explain the problem clearly.

2. Be courteous in requesting immediate delivery of the delayed item.--

3. Include all essential information.

4. Use correct business letter form.

Section B: Writing Period 2

Part IY—Report

Directions: Using the notes below, write a report about the pleasures of stamp
collecting. Be sure to read carefully and organize thoughtfully before
you begin to write.

Situation: Your class is preparing a booklet on various hobbies. You have volun¬
teered to write a report on stamp collecting. In preparation for this
report, you have spoken to several enthusiastic stamp collectors and
have examined several stamp magazines. These are the notes you took.

332 Building Power in Reading and Writing

 Collecting stamps not just for the wealthy
U.S. Postal Service actively promoting stamp collecting
A fortune on rare stamps, or pennies on cheap cancelled stamps
Commemorative stamps honoring people and events
Increased knowledge of history, politics, world currencies,
printing methods
Many advantages of stamp collecting
Promotional and instructional material in post offices
Interest stimulated by weekly magazines
Satisfactions of collecting not dependent on price
Stamp collecting a popular hobby around the world
Studying any stamp an education
Collectors brought together by clubs and exhibitions
Increased knowledge of geography, as of Kenya
In post office colorful posters and book describing every U.S.
stamp

Your task: Organize the notes and prepare a written report.

Suggestions:

1. Keep in mind the purpose: to become part of a hobby book.

2. Number the notes in order as a guide to the organization.

3. Write a rough draft and then the final copy.

4. Use all the information provided.

Section C: Writing Period 3

Part V—Friendly Letter

Directions: Write a friendly letter about the situation described below. Read all
the information before you start to write.

Situation: You have just received a letter from a friend whom you haven’t seen
in several months. Your correspondent is excited about the strong
possibility of getting a summer job at a county recreation center. He
or she will assist the tennis teacher, help schedule tennis matches, and
act as ballperson at tournaments. A lot of free time for tennis is part
of the arrangement. The correspondent also includes some other news.

Your task: Reply to the letter. Imagine it has been received from one of your actual
friends.

Part IV. Practice Tests—Writing 1 333

 Suggestions:

1. Follow the how-to guide on page 251.

2. Comment on your friend’s summer plans.

3. Tell what your plans are for the summer.

4. Briefly fill your friend in on news of your family and friends.

5. Use correct letter form.

Section C: Writing Period 3

v

Part VI—Summary, or Precis

Directions: Write a summary of a reading passage, using the model on pages 269
272 as a guide.

Situation: You have been presented with a reading passage, reproduced below.

Your task: In your composition, be sure to:

1. Read the passage carefully. '•»

2. Decide upon the main idea.

3. Follow the how-to guide on page 268, eliminating all ncnessentials.

4. First, jot down the notes containing the basic information.

5. Combine your notes in a rough draft to be used as the basis of the

finished product.

6. Write a smoothly flowing summary containing only essential infor¬

mation.

The ambush bug is a tiny insect sometimes called the

“Guerrilla of the Goldenrod. ’ ’ It has earned its name by preying
upon much larger and seemingly more dangerous insects. With
their stingers in place, wasps, honeybees, and yellow jackets seem
safe from insect killers. They are not. They have a deadly enemy.
As they flit from flower to flower, a tiny insect, the ambush bug,
lies in wait. An unsuspecting honeybee may probe the goldenrod
for its pollen. Its long, quick tongue flicks in and out as the bee
flies from flower to flower. Then there is a lightning quick
movement. A forelimb reaches from the petals and clasps the
honeybee’s tongue. The bee tries frantically to escape, opening
its wings and scrambling over the flower. No luck. The captor’s
hold is too strong. A long beak injects poison into the bee’s neck,
and the struggle ends.

334 Building Power in Reading and Writing

 The ambush bug looks insignificant. It is only a third of an
inch long, but it has a heavy armor able to withstand the sting of
otherwise deadly insects. Except for the moment of the hunt, the
ambush bug lives a quiet life, lying motionless most of the time.
Like many insects, its life is confined within the limits of one
season. It lives only a summer. It must provide for continuation
of the species, and so it lays its eggs among the leaf litter. There
the eggs lie dormant through the winter until a new summer
awakens them to life and another cycle of hunting.
_

END OF WRITING PRACTICE TEST 1

Part IV. Practice Tests—Writing 1 335

WRITING PRACTICE TEST 2

DIRECTIONS

The following writing test consists of six parts divided into three sections. Each
section will be covered in one writing period. Writing periods may be held on
different days. The breakdown of sections into parts is as follows.

Section A: Writing Period 1

Part I—Composition to Persuade

Part II—Composition to Explain

Section B: Writing Period 2

Part III—Business Letter

Part IV—Report

Section C: Writing Period 3

Part V—Friendly Letter

Part VI—Summary, or Precis

As you prepare, keep in mind the following suggestions:

1. Be sure to read the directions carefully.

2. Think about what you are going to write before you begin.

3. Write a rough draft.

4. Revise the rough draft, payingcareful attention to the organization of the paper,
the paragraphing, and the correctness of the writing.

Section A: Writing Period 1

Part I—Composition to Persuade

Directions: Write a composition in which you try to persuade the principal of your
school to adopt or reject the plan outlined below.

Situation: Recently in your city an outstanding student has been named “Mayor
for the Day’ ’ and has learned from the inside a little bit about how city
government is run. Your friends and you have been discussing the
possibility of having a “Student Leaders’ Day” in your school. On
this day, the school administration would be largely taken over by
students, with a student principal, a student assistant, and even student
teachers in your classes.

336
Your task: Decide whether or not such a plan is practical. Write a composition
of about 200 words in which you persuade the principal to adopt or
reject such a plan. Give at least two reasons in support of your
viewpoint, and explain each reason.

Suggestions:

1. Remember you are trying to persuade the principal.

2. If you support the idea, emphasize the strong points. If you reject
the idea, emphasize the dangers and weaknesses.

3. Provide at least two reasons.

4. Explain your reasons.

Section A: Writing Period 1

Part II—Composition to Explain

Directions: Write an explanation, using the suggestions below.

Situation: You have been asked to write a brief explanatory piece for your school
newspaper.

Your task: Select one of the following topics and write a clear, concise explanation.
In your composition, be sure to follow the guide on page 234.

Why a Summer Job Is a Good Idea

Why Camping Is a Good Vacation

Why a Foreign Language Should Be Taught in School

Why Football Is More Watchable than Baseball (or vice versa)

Why Sitcoms So Often Fail

Why the Networks Should Not Be Ruled by Ratings

Why a Dog (or some other pet) Is Better than a Cat (or some other pet)

Why Americans Should Change Their Eating Habits

Why Credit Cards Are Sometimes Dangerous

Why Television Commercials So Often Irritate

Why I Find Webster’s New World Dictionary (or another dictionary) Most
Helpful

Why Westerns (or some other kind of book) Are More Readable than

Why ... (Choose your own topic.)

Part IV. Practice Tests—Writing 2 337

Section B: Writing Period 2

Part III—Business Letter

Directions: Write a business letter about the situation described below. Read all
the information before you start to write.

Situation: You have purchased an insulated ice chest from your local sporting
goods store. The advertising for the cooler featured a $2 rebate, obtain¬
able from the manufacturer, Polar Industries. You sent the rebate
coupon, along with proof of purchase. Two months have elapsed, but
you have not yet received the cash rebate.

Your task: Write a business letter concerning this situation to: Polar Industries,
1520 Holton Avenue. Complete this address by using your own city
or town, state, and ZIP code.

Suggestions:

1. Explain the problem clearly.

2. Be courteous in requesting the cash rebate due you.

3. Include all necessary information.

4. Use correct business letter form.

Section B: Writing Period 2

Part IV—Report

Directions: Using the notes below, write a report about the joys of gardening. Be
sure to read carefully and organize thoughtfully before you begin to
write.

Situation: Every student in the class is to prepare a report on a satisfying activity

that might be enjoyed by all. The purpose is to open the eyes of other
people to an activity that might otherwise be overlooked. In prepa¬
ration for this report, you have spoken to other members of your family,
all of them enthusiastic gardeners. You have asked your classmates
about their own gardening experiences, if any. You have also examined
several garden books and a gardening magazine. These are the notes
you took.

338 Building Power in Reading and Writing

 Fresh tomatoes and green beans a special treat
Gardening one of pleasantest activities
Leaf lettuce from garden better than wilted commercial heads
Half hour in garden uncoils tense nerves
Three ingredients in successful gardening: faithful gardener, good
seeds and plants, fertile soil
Failure if one ingredient is missing
Watching seeds sprout and grow almost magical
Gardening satisfies deep need in all of us
Cool of the morning is relaxation time
Many practical gains from gardening
Water and weeding essential
Cut flowers beautify homes
Corn fresh from plant sweeter than day-old corn
Many health benefits for gardener

Your task: Organize the notes and prepare a written report.

Suggestions:

1. Keep in mind the purpose: to prepare a report persuading others

to try gardening.

2. Number the notes in order as a guide to the organization.

3. Write a rough draft and then the final copy.

4. Use all the information provided.

Section C: Writing Period 3

Part V—Friendly Letter

Directions: Write a friendly letter about the situation described below. Read all
the information before you start to write.

Situation: You have just received permission to invite a friend to stay with your
family during the spring break.

Your task: Combine a letter of invitation with a newsy letter. T ell your friend some
of your plans for the get-together. Mention any mutual friends he or
she may meet during the visit.

Part IV. Practice Tests—Writing 2 339

 Suggestions:

1. Follow the how-to guide on page 251.

2. Make your friend feel welcome.

3. Add any news that might be of special interest to him or her.

4. Use correct letter form.

Section C: Writing Period 3

Part VI—Summary, or Precis

\

Directions: Write a summary of a reading passage, using the model on pages 269-
272 as a guide.

Situation: You have been presented with a reading passage, reproduced below.

Your task: In your composition, be sure to:

1. Read the passage carefully.

2. Decide upon the main idea. -s

3. Follow the how-to guide on page 268, eliminating all nonessentials.

4. First, jot down the notes containing the basic information.

5. Combine your notes in a rough draft to be used as the basis of the

finished product.

6. Write a smoothly flowing summary containing only essential infor¬

mation.

The rhinoceros, which we associate with Asia and Africa, was

once abundant in North America. Primitive horses and camels
also lived here. Then, like the rhino, they disappeared. The horse
was reintroduced into North America by the Spaniards, but
neither of the other two has survived in the wild here. There was
even an effort to reintroduce the camel in the American desert,
but the experiment didn’t succeed. The fascinating history of the
North American rhinoceros is written in the fossil record. In the
last two decades alone, the number of North American rhinoceros
fossils found has multiplied many times. The quality of the samples
has vastly improved. These finds have enriched our under¬
standing of the life of these incredible animals.

340 Building Power in Reading and Writing

 Ancient rhinos did not necessarily resemble the rhino we are
familiar with today. There were sheep-sized runners and slower-
moving grazers. Then, too, most extinct rhinos were hornless.
There was plenty of food in a bountiful land, and the rhinos multi¬
plied. What is now temperate North America was then a warm
paradise, like tropical Mexico today—ideal for these picturesque
animals. This was indeed a warm period. There were no polar
icecaps. At the same time, there were even alligators and tropical
plants in what is now Alaska. Then came a drastic change in
climate. The earth entered a cooler period. The vegetation
changed, and familiar foods disappeared. Life became harsher.
The rhinos began to disappear from the North American scene.
After 45 million years of successful adaptation, the rhino became
extinct here, though it continued to survive elsewhere in the world.
A long-running success story finally came to an end.

END OF WRITING PRACTICE TEST 2

Part IV. Practice Tests—Writing 2 341

\
 INDEX

Agreement, 173-175, 185— Context clues, 1-7

190 grouped words and ideas, 3
of pronoun with antecedent, opposed words and ideas, 4
185-190 related words and ideas, 3
of subject and verb, 173— same meanings, 3
175 whole sentence, 4
Antonyms, 4, 49-56
Author’s role, 113-126 Dictionaries, 133-135
assumptions, 116-117
attitude, 114-115 Facts, 95
purpose, 115 Figurative language, 85-94
tone, 113-114
Index, 127-129

Business letters, 242-248 Job applications, 141-142

content of, 244-248
form of, 242-244 Letters
business, 242-248
capitalization in, 201
Capitalization, 201-206 friendly, 249-257
in conversation, 201 punctuation of, 194-195
in letters, 201 words used in, 208-209
of proper adjectives, 202-
206 Maps, 135-136
of proper nouns, 202-206 Modifiers, 179-182
in quotations, 201 confusion of adjective and
in verse, 202 adverb, 179-180
Card catalog, 129-130 double negatives, 180-181
Charts, 138 errors, other common, 181 —
Clauses, 148-151, 155-156 182
independent, 148
subordinate, 149-152, 155— Nouns, 162-167
156 capitalization of, 202-206
Cloze exercises, 33 plurals, 162-164
Comma, 192-196 possessives, 165-167
interrupters, 192-194
letters, dates, addresses, Opinions, 95
194-196
series, 192 Paragraph, 222-224, 227—
Comparisons, 220-221 230, 259-263
Composition to explain, of composition, 227-230
234-241 good expository, 222-224
directions, 239-241 of report, 259-263
Composition to persuade, Pronouns, 150, 183-190
225-233 agreement with antecedent,
brainstorming, 226 185-188
characteristics of, 225 indefinite, 186-188
paragraphs of, 226-230 personal, 183-185
 possessive, 189-190 Spelling, 207-215
who, which, that, 150 hard/easy words, 207-208

Propaganda, 105-112 rules, 210-215

Proverbs, 219 words often confused, 209-
Punctuation, 191-200 210
comma, 192-196 Statistics, 139-140
Subordinating conjunctions,
end, 191-192
quotation marks, 196-197 149-150
Summary, or precis, 267-273
Synonyms, 3, 40-44
Quotation marks, 196-200
capitalization and, 201 Table of Contents, 127
quotation, direct, 196-197, Tests, practice, 274-341
201 v reading, 274-329
titles, 198-200 writing, 330-341
Titles, 15-19
Readers’ Guide to Periodical punctuating, 198-200
Literature, 131-133 quotation marks, 198
Reading, 1-145 underlining, 198
antonyms and opposed
ideas, 49-64 Usage, 146-215
author’s role, 113-126 capitalization, 201-206
cause and effect, 71-77 modifiers, 179-182
details, 8, 20-30 nouns, 162-167
fact from opinion, pronouns, 183-190
distinguishing, 95-104 punctuation, 191-200
figurative language, 85-94 sentence structure, 146-161
inferences, 31-39 spelling, 207-215
for information, 127-145 verbs, 168-178
main idea, 8-14
propaganda, recognizing, Verbs, 168-178
105-112 agreement with subject,
sequence, 78-84 173-175
summarize, words that, 65- principal parts, 170-173
70 tense, 168-169
synonyms and associated troublesome verb pairs,
ideas, 40-48 176-177
Recipes, 136-137
Reference books, 142-145 Want ads, 140
Report, 258-266 Writing, 216-273
organization of, 258-264 business letter, 242-248
paragraphs of, 259-263 composition to explain,
preparing, 258 234-241
composition to persuade,
Sentences, 146-161 225-233
complex, 149-152, 158 friendly letter, 249-257
compound, 148-149, 158 paragraph, 222-224
fragment, 153-156 report, 258-266
good, 217-218 single sentence, 216-221
run-on, 157-161 summary, or pr6cis, 267-
simple, 146-147 273

344 Building Power in Reading and Writing

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