The memory unit ane tia limited applicat . : tad. i capacity Most general purp mpl sped with astditional Stora 1 " they were red per unit co accomodate alle prowtat use vp t eno pace in one maranns used . 3 rccumulate and continue te accu Moreover, wiost COMpUter Users 2p SET Ne ae van ated mation is neede’ he pro} Ottware, Not all accumutated inforry nected by the processnt at : processing, heretore, Hts mation that ts 0 nore economical Lo use Low-cost st ot currently used by the CPU «directly with the CPU Is called the main memory common auxiliary memory a ystem pro ded by t {transferred ate Device he memory unit that commmunte provide backup storage are called 4 used in computer systems are magnetic disks and large data files, and other backup information. Only programs and dz side in main memory, All other information is stored in auxiliary memory ar ixiliary memory. The n s. They are used for storing processor r toms rmemory when needed Cox #&5€=6©6=—l” inth» « aputer system design, Memory Hierarchy is an enhancement to org: that it can minimize the access time. The total memory capacity of a computer can be visualiz as being a hierarchy of components. The memory hierarchy system consists of all storage dey employed in a computer system from the slow but high-capacity auxiliary memory to a relative faster main memory, to an even smaller and faster cache memory accessible to the high spec« processing loge, \\ the memory su: nizi‘Memory Systom « * Capacity: itis the global volume info: bottom in the hierarchy, the capacity increases, * Access Time: itis the time int ‘val between th data. As we move from top to bottom nthe * Performance: One of the most sign cant ways to increase system per Dow far down the memory hierarchy one has to go to manipulate data. * Cost per Bit: As we move rom bottom to top in the Hierarchy, the cost per bit increases. That is internal memory is costlier than external memory storage distinguishes each level in the ‘hierarchy and capacity are related, the levels may also be distinguished tore. As we A ‘memory hierarchy’ in compute by response time. Since response time, complexity, by the controlling tech nology. put not auxil direct memor memory is 2 while main 1 1000 time ds, wt Magnetic Tapes /+——>| 1/0 Processor Magnetic 4 > Disks |Figure 9.3 : Classification of Semiconductor Memory EEE 0 Access Memory (RAM) s of integrated Random-access memory (RAM) is a form of computer data storage. It takes the form Br: circuits thar allow stored data to be accessed in any order (i.e., at random). Random’ refers to the | location and idea that any piece of data can be returned in a constant time, regardless of its physical whether or not itis related to the previous piece of dataCHILDREN'S EDUCATION SOCIETY (Rees) THE OXFORD COLLEGE OF SCIENCE 1d to Bangalore University, bby UGC under 2(f) & 1218) Grade in cycle I, 1A0 & LSSSOC by OST under FIST program, Recognized by Gox for BiSEP (formerly BTFS) IESEM NEP UG, FIRST INTERNAL EXAMINATION TIME TABLE 26" - 30'June 2023 Date Day ~ 9:30- 11:00AM I 1:00- 2:30PM 26162023 | Monday | BCA-Computer Architecture / Biochemistry-2 /| Blectromies-Flectronics circuits & Chemistry-Inorganic and Physical chemistry special purpose devices / | | Zoology-Biochemistry & Physiology FAD-Dyeing & printing in textiles | { Statisties-I1 _| Tuesday | BCA-Object oriented programming using Java) BCA-Database management system | 2762023 Microbiology-Microbial biochemistry & Physics-Electricity & management Physiology | | __|__BsSe Computer Science-Data structure 28/6/2023 | Wednesday | Biotechnology-Microbiological Methods | English - Generic English FAD- Fashion design & illustration T Friday | B.Se Mathematics-II / Language - Hindi, Kannada 30/6/2023 Geneties- Bioinstrumentation and Animal cell Culture= + Computer Aubtetre HAM he classitied into atic KAM and Dynamic RAM, (ay Static RAM () Dynamic RAM Dynan na 4; Random Access Memory + SRAM fy a random wiecess memory that retains data hits in tts memory as long as power is, being supplied + SRAM does not have to be periodically refreshed + SRAM provides faster access to data and js more expensive than DRAM and tt requires a lot more -pace + SIA 1s used for a computer's cache memory and as a part of the random access memory: digi: |-Lo-analog converter on a video or graphic card Emmy + ORAM ts the mast common kind of random access memory for personal computers and workstations + DRAM isdlynamic that me anew electroni Figure 9.5 : Typical RAM Chip is, unlike SRAM, it needs to have its storage cells refreshed or given charge every few milliseconds, + DRAM stores each bit ina storage cell consisting of a capacitor and a transistor, Capacitors end to lose their charge rather quickly; thus, the need for recharging, A variety of other RAM interfaces are also there, like EDO RAM, SDRAM, ete Differ nes between Static RAM and Dynamic RAM | SiatleRAM ] __DynamicRAM * AM uses transistor store a singe bit of] 4% DNAN uses a separate capacitor to ware ach ga bit of data | STAN dow nt need pede eesbnntTo) ¥ DRAM ec perdi efmhment oman | ¥ stats structures canpleia ORAM | RAW sire simple tan SE [stat at epensneasconpared oORAM | ¥ DRAM ae less epenste ay compare | a SRAM | SRAM are faster than DRAM 4 DRAN's ate slower than SRAM + SRAM are used in Cache memory — DRAM are used in Main memory LPEER #021 ter aon t grage media used a computers and uth = Neem ROM cannot be moditied (at least not very quickly or es) teat ed to speeiit hardware. ap to distetbute Hirmmisary (sottware thal ts ver tnequent updates} Figure 9.6: Typical ROM Chip Figure 9.7: Read-only Memory ROM s are broadly classified as + Masked programmed ROM: During tie 1€ manulicturing time contents are ss aten + User programmed ROM: In this memory contents can be set as de ‘memory can iter be erased to write new values “4 Programmable ROM (PROM) + Programmable cead-only memory isa read-only memory that can be moved once by xy User can store permanent programs or data Erasable PROM (EPROM) + Erasable programmable read only memory. isatype of memory chip that retains ts data when its power supply is switehed off In other words, itis non-volatile in nature Once pros aan tfKUM can be erased by exposing it to strong ultraviolet light from a mer spor light source. EPROMs are easily recognizable by the transparent fused quarts window in ree ‘ope shich the sons eh iy wave, unl witch persis expr co at during erasing Figure 9.8 rasable PROM Figure 9.9; FEPROM,GED > Computer Architecture Electrically Erasable PROM (EEPROM) \ ( * EEPROM (also written E2PROM and Pronounced “e-e-prom", “double-e-prom” or simply, “e-squared”) is a type of non-volatile memory used in computers and other electronic des S Word is to store small amounts of data that must be saved when power is removed. For example binary : EEPROM is used in calibration tables device configurauon. and CS « When larger amounts of static data are to be stored (such as in USB flash drives) a specific Whe contro eeyore MEMOLS Spe ees eee MOTE external decoders iH" snemory Map Must be established ‘This are required f selection among th will assipn add ATONE the i ‘ , snaddresses t , some uf jyed connections are determined, Then the logic dhapram yy a Ovatious chips, From this th ite se dhagram representine the Wye CPU can be drawn, Presenting the memory conneen $$ GOs spine active portions of the Program and data and Placed in a -gss time can be reduced, thus reducing the total fast small memory, the aver suemory is referred to as a Cache memory, Tage meniory *ecutlon time of the program. Such a fast sil ins placed between CPU and main memory as § shown in the figure. ne Memory <—_____, | 32k 2 J a cru Cache Memory 51a? Figure 9.11: Example of Cache Memory The Cache memory access time is | than the access time of main memory by a tactor of 5 or 10 The cache is the fastest component in the memory hierarchy and approaches the speed af CPU components. The tundamental idea of Cache organization is that by keeping the most frequently accessed mstructions and data in the fast cache memory Although the cache 1s only a smaii action of tie size of main memory, a large fraction al memory requests will be found in the fast cache memory because of the locality of reference properly of programs. ESO cea ents When the CPU needs to access memory, the cache ts examined. If the word is found in the cache, 1t is read from the fast memory. If the word 1s not found in the cache, the main memory is accessed to read the word Ablock of words containing the one just accessed is then transferred from main memory to cache memory. The block size may very from one word (the one just accessed) to about 16 words. In this way one data are transferred. In this way some data are transferred to cache so that future references to memory find the required words in the fast cache memory.te: Locaiy of Moeroncor (a large no. of typical pages has thrown that the references of ry ata tendo be conned within ses aed aren in mmo Ths phenomena the ery locality of ref “meesey Pcassocnareacria | The cache system used by a processor 1s defined by six traits: Analysis noes, + The size of the cache; + The size of a block, which when combined with the size of the cache defines the number of lines; ' + The number of caches (ie, multiple levels or a split cache); + ‘The mapping function (the link between a block's address in memory and its locati in the cache); + The replacement algorithm (the method used to figure out which block to remove from the cache in order to free up a line); and + The write policy (how the processor writes data to the cache so that main memory eventually gets updated) The basic operation of cache can be explained as follows: 1 When CPU wants to access memory, it first examines the cache (i) Ifthe word 1s found in the cache, itis read from this memory. (ii) Ifthe word 15 not found in the cache, {he main memory is accessed. A block of words containing the most recent accessed one is then transferred from main an find the required words in eache memory to cache memory so that {uture references ¢ oT Performance of cac the CPU reters to memory 4 found in cache, i is in main memory and it counts 1 erences to memory ([nits + misses} is called the Hit memory is frequently measured in terms of a quantity called Hit ratio. When ci finds the ward in cache, it is said to produce a hit, If the word is not amiss. The ratio of the number of hits to the total CPU rel Ratio. Typically it is 0.9 and above. This verifies the validity of locality of reference property. The average memory access time of a computer system can be improved considerably by use of a cache. Ifthe hit ratio is high enough so that most of access time is closer to the access time of the fast ample, a computer with cache access time of 100 ns, a main memory access cache memory. For e ime of 1000 ns, and a hit ratio of 0.9 produces an aver mprovement over a similar computer without a cache memory, whose access time is 1000 ns. age access time of 200 ns. This isa considerableFigure 9.19; Memory Tabl for Mapping a Virtual Address Mapping table may be stored in a separate me "me + Separate Memory: I mapping tables stove in separate memory ane additional fone extra memory access time inquired + Maln Memory: If is stoced in main memory, ewo accesses to memory are required. So vl un at hal ped | + Associative Memory: When mapping table is stored In associative memory, Uhe physicat ‘memory 1s broken down inte groups a equal shee called Mocks, which may ranpe trom 64 to 4096 words each, [Adress Mapping Using Pages The table implementatio the address mapping can be simplified the Information i the address space andl ge the memory space are each divided te ae groups of ied size “et 1s into groups of equal size called blocks, Page Page ‘whieh may range tram 6 te 4096 words net Paget each, The term page relers to groups ff address space of the same size, Pa age roters to the organization of address space Tae Paar thie block refers to the organization of mai mcaes memory space weeks For example, if a page or block consists Adee ge of IK words, then, wsing the previous ve example, address space is divided into wae "1024 pages an main memory divided Figure 9.20; Address and Memory space spt Into 32 blocks ‘groups of 1k words+ Computer Architects Ald gh both a page andl block are split into groups uf IK words. a page refers to the organization ofa ass space, while a block refers to the organization of memory space. The programs are alsy cons.dered to be split into pages: Portions of programs are moved from auxiliary memry to maiy memory in page frame records equal tothe size of page. The term “page frame’ is sometimes use todenote a block Consider a computer with an address space of BK snd a memory space of 4K. If we split each into froups of IK words we obtain eight pages and four blocks as shown in Fig, 920. A any gh tw four pages of address space may reside in main memory in any ane of the faur hocks Virtual address can be represented with the two numbers 1. A page number address and 2. Line within a page iven time, up Ina computer with 2* words per page, ‘bits is used to specify a line address and remaining high order bits of the virtual address specify the page number. | PageNo ine Humber L289 10 bog 0 0 4 I irtualadivess Preserve —— an ip a | - orfororerourt ou ° us 1 Mato Memory 100 0 cua Address Register Figure 9.21 : Memory Table ina Paged System In the example of Figure 9.21, virtual address is of 13 bits, Each page contains 2" = 1024 words So the high order 3 bits will specify one of the 8 pages and the low order 10 bits give the line address Within the page. The organization of the memory mapping table in 4 paged system Is shown in Figure 9.21. The memory page table consists of 8 words, one for eaci page. The address in the page denotes the page number and the content of the word gives the block number where that page 1s stored in main memory. The pages 1, 2, 5 and 6 arein main memory in blocks 3, 0, 1 and 2 respectively.Memory Syste 20a, & presence bitin each location indicates whether spemory into main memory + presente hea tints thats page tava ta stringy, 4 Operaung system is generate co fetch the required page trom auxtiony meme, Mt into main memory before cesurning computation. The CPU refere pi a virtua adress of 15 tts. The 3 high order bis ofthe virtual eress spec ST and also an adress for the memory page table-The content af the word, an table atthe page number address is read out inca the meznory table tie Page + the presence bits 1, the block mumber thus read is transte ofthe main a ster. The line number fiom the virtual addres into the 10love order bite ofthe memory address rapist: A read signal a men atte theconcens of the word to the main memory bulfer register ready be sedty ne cea In general a system with 'n' pages and 'm’biocks would require a memory page t able of y of which up to "mm blocks will be marked with block numbers and all other are empty NEES 3 Word in, a page ny the menor Ug) ste: ed ta the tw Woeations + Letaddress space be 1024K words, + Let memory space be 228 words, + leach page or block contains IK words, the number of pages ys 1024 and the + The capacity of the memory page table must he 1024 words + Only 32 locations may have presence bit of 1 + Atany given time 10243 ‘umber of bucks 39 92 locations st least will be empty and nut in use, Amore efficient way of organizing page table is to construct it with a number of sw number of blocks in main my be fully utilized, ors equal ta the mory: By this, size of memory wauld be reduced ach location wi Page No. Biot No Figure 9,22 : An associative memory page table9. a4 ——-» Computer Architecture This can be done with associative memory havi number together with its correspor ya 8 each word in mei i mMory cc nding block number. ¥ containing a pay The page field in each word is compared with the page number in th Ifa match occurs, the word is read from memory i extracted, This is shown in Figure 9.22, tual address. and its Corresponding block number ig An associative memory of 4 words is used. Each entry in the associative memory array consists of two fields. The first three bits specify a field for storing the page number. The last two bits constitute a field for storing the block number. The virtual address is placed in the argument register. The page number bits in the argument register are compared with all page numbers in the page field of the associative memory. If the page number is found the 5 bit word is read out from memory, The corresponding blo: number, being in the same word transferred to the main memory address register Ifno match occurs, a call to the operating system is generated to bring the required page from auxiliary memory. PE viru Memory System r s. It consists of shination of hardware and software techniquesS More attractiy because least rece! y used page is a better candidate for removal. FF Disadvantages of LRU algorithm — + Itis difficult to implement 9.6 Secondary Storage Primary memory is very expensive and has limited storage capacity because of its volatile nature. In order to permanently store large amounts of data or programs , we use a cheaper and permanent memory called ‘Secondary memory’. This memory provides permanent storage of data in bulk quantity. A'secondary storage device’ refers to any non-volatile storage device that is internal or external to the computer. It can be any storage device beyond the primary storage that enab!:s permanent data storage. A secondary storage device is also known as an aux’ iary storage device, *ckup storage device, tier 2 storage, or external storage. These devices store virtually all programs a’ ~ applications on a computer, including the operating system, device drivers, applications and gene 1 user data.Computers use main momory such as candem access memory (RAM) and cache to hold data that computer being proe-ssed. However, this type of memory is volatile. and tt loses tts data when the + anid tablets, need to store switch | off General. purpose computers, such as personal computer programs; nd data for ater use. ‘That's wh, secondary storage is needed to keep programs and data long term, Secondary storage | nnon-colatile and is able to keep data for longterm. They are used for various purposes such as backup data used for future restores or disaster recovery long-tetm archiving of data that is not frequently accessed, and storage of non-critical data in lower-perfurmning, less expensive drives Without secondaty storage, al programs and data would be jost when the computer is switched off [GB] Advantages of Secondary Storage Devices In secondary storage devices. the stored data might not be urider the direct contra! of the operating | system, For example, many organizations store their archival data or critical documents of secondary Storage drives, which their main network cannot access to ensure their preservation whenever x data each occurs «Since these drives donot interact irecty with the main infrastructure andl cam be siated is areme |.” Siiccure ste isonet thot ahaer may aces these desuness hey phyey stolen. Characteristics of Secondary Storage Devices + itis non-volatile, which means it retains data when power is switched off + Itallows for the storage of data ranging from a few megabytes to petabytes «+ {tis cheaper as compared to primary memory. «+ Secondary storage devices like CDs and flash drives can trausler the data {rom one device to another. ‘Types of Secondary Storage Device ‘The two types af secondary storage devices, are + Fined storage and + Remawahle storage Fixed storage is an internal media device used by » computer system to store data, Usually, these are referred to as the fixed disk drives or Hard Drives, Fixed storage devices are not fixed. These can be removed from the system for repairing work maintena. .» purposes, and also for an upgrade, etc. But in general, this can not be done without + proper to:ikit to open up the computer system to provide physical access, which needs to be done by aneng, weer Technically, almost all data, ie. being processed on a computer system, is stored on some built-in fixed storage device. Difforent types of fixed storage devices are: + SSD (solid-state disk) units, + Internal flash memory, + Hard disk drives (HDD)san external media device that is used Removable Disks drives or the Removable storag e referred tas torage device that can be removed from a computer system while A computer system to store xternal Drives as thes ia ne system is pun ning fy es it easter for a user to transfer data from one computer system + st storage a another he main benefit of removable disks i storage factors that they can provide fast data ty ated with storage area netvurks (SANs). Different types of Removable Storage arg ter rat + Optical dists (CDs, DVDs, Blu-ray discs) + Memory cards + Floppy disks + Magnetic tapes + Disk packs + Paper storage (punched tapes, punched cards) Classitication of Secondary Storage Devices Figure 9.23 shows the commonly used secondary storage devices. Secondary Storage Devices 1 - Y + Sequential Access Direct Access Device Devices Y — ft - — netic Tape yy ¥ . i PC Magnetic Optical Disks Memory Storage Disks | Deviees a — + - —t I t ’ , v Y Y ’ Y Floppy Hard CD-ROM WORM CD-RW PVD ng Moma Disks. Disks: {CD-R} Derive Card ’ y 1 Zip Disk Disk Pack Winchester Disk Figure 9.23: Secondary Storage Devices Ey Itisa class of data storage devices that read stored data in 2 sequence, This is in contrast to randot ‘access memory (RAM), where data can access in any order Magnetic tape is the common sequent! access storage deviceecitisa medium for magnetic recording, made of agnetizable coating on along, ananetie thE sti film, Devices that record and play aucio and video using magnetic rape are tape pee Mjeatape recorders. device that stores computer data an maeic tape is known as oe age key technology In early computer development, allowing unparalleled amounts mnechanically created, stored for long periods, and rapidly accessed ape dive jgntato BE quien gs storage device (DASD) is another name for secondary storage devices that store data prec ete a ich as hard disk drives, optical drives and most magnetic Heerate locations with aumiqueaddress, storage devices. 1, Magnetic disks: A magnetic disk is a storage device that uses a magne write, rewrite and access data, It is covered with a magnetic coating and stores data in the form of tracks, spots and sectors. Hard disks, zip disks and Hoppy disks are common examples of magnetic disks. (i) Floppy Disk: A floppy disk is a flexible disk with a magnetic coating on it, and it is packaged inside a protective plastic envelope. These are among the oldest portable storage devices that could store up to 1.44 MB of data, but now they are not used due to very little memory storage (ii) Hard Disk Drive (HDD): Hard disk drive comprises a series of circular disks called platters arranged one over the other almost % inches apart around a spindle, Disks are made of non-magnetic material ike aluminum alloy and coated with 10-20 nm magnetic material, The standard diameter of these disks is 14 inches, and they rotate with speeds varying trom 4200 rpm (rotations per minute) for personal computers to 15000 rpm for tion process to servers, Data is stored by magnetizing or demay wetvaing the P etic coating, A magnetic reader arm is used to read data from and write data to the disks. A typical modern HDD has a capacity in tera hytes (TB) 2, Optical Disk: An optical disk 1s any compu teclann er disk that uses optical storage techniques and yy ered and write data, ISA computer starage disk that stores data digitally and uses laser beains to read and write data (i) CD Drive: CD stands for Compact Disk, CDs are ew disks that use optical rays, usually lasers, to read and write data They are very cheap as you can get 700 MB of storage space for less than a dollar: CDs are inserted in CD drives built into the CPU cabinet. They are portable as you can eject the drive, remove the CD and carry it with you. There are three types at CDs: + CD-ROM (Compact Disk - Read Only Memory): The manufacturer recorded the lata on these CDs. Proprietary sottware, audio or video are released on CD-ROMs. + CD-R (Compact Disk - Recordable): The user can write data once on the CD-R. It cannot be deleted or modified later + CD-RW (Compact Disk - Rewritable): Data can repeatedly be written and deleted on these optical disks.weno S108 © sevice that ea S wltimedia Fes (iDVD Dawe: OVD sa a for digtal Sperthey are usualy used #0 STOPES paca le ‘Die ales came in taree varieties” 2ST" alsa definition 1 that stores hat ° Blu Ray Disk: Siu Ray Diss (8D) 18 29 OP" pan re OVD Bpscan er multimedia files. BD uses a shot da 3. Memory Storage Devices: \ memory device contains ilions of nected memory calls se cals hold millions of transistors representing allowing a computer to read mauion It includes Fee aera cand. hick youl recognize a dhe STAR. i ras (i) Flash Drive: 4 ts dove ssa small ulraportabe storage device USB “e" drives alto easy ming flesfrm one device to another. Flash driv: °¢ net ne a USB caters and other devices via a builtin USB Type-Aor USB-C plug, makin combination aves, or ump drives. Tne terms referred to as pen drives, thu tate drive (SSD) are also sometimes used, but most of the ume, rrobiie ISB nased storage devices ike external hard drives. old up t9 2 TR of storage. They're more expensive per tot they have prevailed as 2 simple, convenient sn computer organization, sach as. drive is 3 device plugged anto a SR port of the system that and photos to a PC and vice vers + passihte \dsmaller size ofa ng data wransportatio + Backup Storage: ° tion, Important infor medical records, n related to fam| tos can be stored om them asa backup «+ Transport Data: Professionals or students can now easily transport lange data ideo, audio lectures on a pen drive and acsess them from anywhere. ot PC techn cians can store work-related utility tools various programs, on 2 high-speed 04 GB pen arive and move from one site to another card or memory cartridge i an electronic data storage device flash smemory These are commonly used in portable eles 8 such as digital cameras mobi tn poate es ital cameras mobile phones, lapta Computers tablets PDAS. portable media platers, video game consoles synthesieere Hectronic keyboards and digital pianos and allow adding memory to such devence such devices ied within the device (11) Memory card: 4 me: used f digital i+ Computer Auhiteclore Difference between Primary and Secondary Memory Below are some main differences between primary and secondary themory in computer organization | Primary Memory | ‘condary Memory | © Primary memory is directly accessed Secondary memory is not accessed direct! by the Central Processing Unit by the Central Processing Unit (CPU). Instead, (cpu), data accessed from a secondary memary is first loaded into Random Access Memor | ___| (RAM) and then sent to the Processing Unit | + | RAM provides a much faster-accessing speed | Secondary memoryis slower in latasccessing | todata than secondary memory Computers Typically primary memon can quickly process data by loading software than secondary memory. | programs and required files into primary s six times faster + Primary memory is volatile and gets Secondary memory provides a feature of compl: ely erased when a computer is shut being non-volatile, which means it can hold on | down, toits data with or without an electrical power I URLS Eee RAID or redundant array of independent disks is a data storage virt combines multiple physical disk drive components into one or more logical units for data redundancy, performance improvement, or both. alization technology that Data redundancy, although taking up extra space, adds to disk reliability This means, in case of disk failure, if the same data is also backed up onto another disk, we can retrieve the data and go on with the opi" tion. On the other hand, if the data is spread across just multiple disks without the RAID technic «the lass of a single disk can affect the entire data The tever’ was coined by David Patterson, Garth A. Gibson, and Randy Katz at the University of California, Berkeley in 1987. It is a way of storing the same data in different places on multiple hard disks or solid-state drives to protect data in the case of a drive failure. A RAID system consists of two or more drives working in parallel. These can be hard discs, or SSD (Solid State Drives) Key evaluation points for a RAID System + Reliability: How many disk faults can the system tolerate” + Availability: What fraction of the total session ume 1s a system in uptime mode. Le. how available is the system for actual use? + Performance: How good is the response time? How high ts the throughput (rate ot processing work}? Note that performance contains a lot of parameters and not just the two.—— _ + Capacity Given a soto N disks Cash aval locks How mach Uefa a nspatent tu the underlying syston This meHts, tthe Host ystay ng self as a linear array of blocks. This allows oly RAID is very tt 1 single big disk presen er We hin replaced by RAID without making too many changes 4 the existing code + RAID combines several ineependent and relatively small disks into sie storap, s. The disks can combin The disks included in the array ave called array ments diferent ways. which are known as RAID levels. Each of RAID levels has its ows chars + Fault-tolerance is the ability to survive one of several disk failures ‘ + Performance shows the change in he read and writes speed of the eat ary oy bmpary + Thearray's capacity isetermined by the amount of user data written tothe ary: iye capacity depends onthe RAID level and does ot avays match the sum ofthe Rap gan isks' sizes. To calculate the particular RAID type's capacity and set of member disks y use a free online RAID calculator. ‘an RAID systems can use with several interfaces, including SATA, SCSL IDE, or "FC (liber channel) Son systems use SATA disks internally but that havea Fire Wire or SCSI interface forthe host system Sometimes disks in a storage system are defined as BOD, which stands for lust a Bunch ofDisks th, means that those disks do not use a specific RAID level and acts as statl-alone disks, Ths is oeg done for drives that contain swap files or spooling data. == RAID works by placing data on multiple disks and allowing input/output operations to overlap ig a balanced way, improving performance. Because various disks increase the mean time hotween foiluroe (MTBEY RAID arrays appear to the operating systent as a single logical drive. RAID employs the techniques of disk mirroring or disk striping + Disk Mirroring will copy identical data onto more than one drive. + Disk Striping partitions help spread data over inultiple disk drives. Bach drive storage space is divided into units ranging from 512 bytes up to several megabytes. The stripes of al the disks are interleaved and addressed in order + Disk mirroring and disk striping can also be combined in a RAID atcay. in a single-user system where significant records are stored, the stripes are typically set up to be vmall (512 bytes) so that a single record spans all the disks and can be accessed quickly by reading ll the disks at the same time na multi-user system, better performance requires a stripe wide enough to hold the typical o naximum size record, allowing overlapped disk 1/0 across drives.| digit by its resulting i divisio pe aes Hexadecimal to Decimal Conversion To convert a hexadecimal number to decimal, multiply each digit of the gi neglecting the its weight and add all the product term eiip___—_. Convert 6E5,, to decimal Since the octal system representing each octal > __ Convert (742) , to binary Number System Cia} exadecimal number by —_ Convert (F4C),, into decimal. (Fac Fac x 16° +4x16'+Cx 16° ) =15*256+4«16+12*1 3840 + 64 +12 = 3916 = 3916,, ber can be converted to binary byEa cimalto rt a decimal 6 till qu nder is from 10 to 15, th onvert a decimal fr part until the fractional ry in the i hexadecimal fraction. iia Convert 6796.3, to hexadecimal Integer Part: 6796.3, = LABLAC, ai ——_ Convert (77), into hexadecimal Szero or less than 16, Write down the reu replace the ers from bottom to top gives the equ lecimal Conversion ide the give Meger eae each d nal equivalent d nleger Fractional Part : \ 03 *16= 48 > 4 94 \ Re IA=17R > 12 = Convert (1938),, into hexadecimal 16, 1938 A 16, 121 - BEER oni octal system i Convert (742) , to binar -_ Hence binary equivale =(111100010), ‘Yo convert binary to represent each group Convert (10011) , t 010 Thus octal equivaledix of this system is 8. It egor and fractional parts- 7 system and its binary Me } 45 e | aad ‘Table 1.3 : Numbers With Base-16- ee 1,2 Base Conversions BEET inary Conve dabble method integer rani fractional parts are converted : se] EEE ecivnat Integer to Binary Integer (divide by 2 method) ‘A decimal integer is converted into an equivalent binary integer using repeated division by parately. two process. In this process the given decimal integer is divided by 2. The result has a quotient and a remainder. rt The quotient is again dived by 2. The process continues until the quotient becomes ‘0 ng the is obtained by w The remainder of each division is noted. The equivalent binary remainders in the reverse order [Bottom to Top] That is the first remainder obtained is the LSB and the valent is the MSB of t binary integer number.1A LSI y1,=101001, MSB r= 101004 Ao-0 3-0 bop | psa si,,= 110011 = ———" Convert 1231,, to binary gist ALB 1-9 [MSB 1231, = 101 Y tnvthas 9) the given deciiyal integer is divided (2) The result bas a quotient and a remainder (3} The quotient is again divided by 2 (4) The process is continued il the quotient become Oor'l (5) The remainder ot waets di (6) The equivalent binary integer is obtained by writing the temainders in the reverse order [Bottom to Toph. fe, the first remainder obtained 1s the LSH and the last remainder is tthe MSB of the equivalent binary integer number =2— | Convert 16,, to binary 2\ 16 ALSB 16,,= 10000. | Convert 67,, to binary | 2 168-0 | SB 673,,= 1010100001 oor 5-0 22-1 1g MSBConvert 175,, to binary LSB 2| 175 2| 87 -1 Convert 1998,, to binary = 10101111. 1988,, = 1 1111001110,etal Convers —— wo Jintegers © octal divide the gi jes zero or less (an eight. Write down the re lent octal integer eMainder yp Mem ach arr deci e quorient bec emainders UP ‘action To con con py Bune ch Reading ther ro convert a de resulting {ractlon® pcimal ft Convert 392.8, 1 OCtal 2.8, = 610.6314, a= Convert (177),, into Octal 8) 177 g[ 22 -14 (zs 0 -2! 177,, =261 ywards gives th to octal, multiply iJ the fraet jonal part uipart with by 8 unt 2560 124. () 436 ven integer by 8 and then eact ’ICh reg Sultin, « e equiva he given de the given decimal (raction with with « CINE ang 4, becomes: comes ZerO OF an ear| an eartio, hry T8Ctigg Pe, NNN 64-6 pars 4293 U2es=l607 06 =48 4 U6, - 0.0314, en Convert (7562),, into Octal 8 7562 eA 8, 945 -2 | g 118 -1{ BI 4-6 | 1-6) = 16612,To convert binary to octal, we group the bits starting from right most bit into groups of 3 and represent each group as an octal Convert (10011) , to Octal 010 O11 {| 2 3 Thus octal equivalent of 10011 , = 23, a Convert (10010101011), to octal 010 010 101 o1n 2 2 5 3 ‘Thus octal equivalent of 10010101011 , = 2253,corner artiteive a Convert (10110101), into octal, no 110 101 1 1 ‘ 2 6 5 40110101, = 265, PREEEI eecin to Binary Conversion also simplistic. Given This conversion equivalent. Then, combine each 4 bit binary numbe oe aa ___ Convert (1000401) ,’ ’ ’ soliton =2 HEBER - ¢ bobo 1iitoo1t 1010011 1o1o ONL BEERS nary to Hexadecimal Conversion The hexadecimal number system uses the digits 0 to 9 and A, B,C, D, system is a power of 2 (2*), we can take a roups of hexadecimal digit in its place 111000010, the hexadecimal F And 4 and use the appropriate ary number in g The steps to doing so are simple. Begin at the rightmost 4 bits. If there are not 4 bits, pad o’sto the left until you ‘y. 4. Repeat the steps until all groups have been converted ihe and th digit cons step Cony Hex valuc Con Ste} Condecimal equevatent Looted! = Jem two step) The conversion is diy a» __ Convert (742) , to hexadecimal step 1 plot Convert vctal to binary 7 4 2 ‘ 1 4 - nt ho Hexadecimal to octal conversion procee rouping the binary bits iio 3-bit octal tips 7 values, then r am Convert (FAS) ,, to octal Step 1: Convert hexadecimal to binary 0 the left 3 ; odd oor | 1111 | 100 unary to hexadecimal grouping, Aigit 10 0101 Number Systems + > exadecinial Hence hexadecimal equivalent ¢ HOOT = EB ine binary as an intermediate base. Ortalis converted to bina ch toa hexadeciy by fours, which cortespan step 2 Group 4 bits together and represent equivale hexadecimal dight Binary equivalent. of the given octal number (111100010) 1001 m0 uno | ; 4 | \ | Hexadecimal equivalent of 742 , = 1E2 Jecimal to Octal Conversion sels by first converting the hexadecimal digits t6 4-bi bins Step 2: Regrouping the bits into 3 bits Given binary (0 O11 111 110 100 101 Cone 14Number Systems + This is simple addition of bits according to the rules of Binary Addition dition of Unsigned Numbers Example: Perform binary addition of numbers 10110, and 10101, Cary > 0 1 0 0 Augend > 1 0 1 1 0 Addend > 1 90 4 0 1 sum > 1 0 1 0 1 1 In L* column , 0+1=1 withacarry of 0. 0+0+1=1 withacarry of 0 04+1+1=0 withacarry ofl In 2" column In 3" column , In 4% column 1+0+0=1 withacarry of 0 The sum is 101011Humber Syaten om Jhis operation ts similar fo the baste atthe lary Subtraction, when We subtract 1 [rem Lave need te horsuw trom the next higher order digit, te bv Land the remamder lott here is alse £ The four rales of binary Subtraction are «0-020 elon) +03 1 [Borrow 1} rowan 901 011010 001100 Solution; Solution: tetany o 0 4 0 1g »oOrid oo oo orite er) to. @ * Binary subtraction 1s pettormed column by column ta a similar manner ‘o that in dec subtraction In order to subtract | from 0 bartawing is necessary frat tive ne: higher pe isthe The borrow 1s equivalent to adding 2 (a value equal to the base of the number system) ta order to subtract J trom (we must borrow 1 from the nest hi ighu'e position. The borra paverts the 0 to 10. which is equal to 2 0 1= 1 witha borrow ot 1 + Bo wing 1 from a higher bit position 1s equal to subtrac of | from that bit and redy 11 able 16 chessie heh the 2 Horie > 0 o o ws: Minuendl x4 1 Subtrahend 0 1 1 Difference > 1 ( Dve” op Sneha {ay Ordinary Binary Subtraction fo) Station ws s Comprement ruber {e) Subtraction using 2's Complement \ [ay rain rhysis te simple method of subtraction of bts according to he rales a inary subireton 011.901 Mo1oine——swr191 2010 \ L_ our 101____orooucnos__-vo1488 4010 (©) 2sComplen aro ——_swua91001 01: 100008 + n2sc = —— asl 1's Complement Method of Binary Subtraction o) I tio Step t «+n 1's complement method the subkractian ts porfarmed using nly addition. To subtract step 4g smaller binary number from larger binary nurber te following steps are used step? Thean ‘Step 1: Obtain 1's complement of yhe smaller ume ‘Step 2: Add !'s complement te the larger number Step 3: The addition always result in fina arty called end round cas Stop 4: Remove the end around carry and tothe result The nal esl wil be in true binary form tion usin 1's complement metod fst both the nunbers must be «+ To perform subtrar er of ts he integer pasts and | expressed. st fraction parts hy al the same rember of bits 1th Teading ant tang sto the RSE 0 tors om rt nero —_\ ‘ subtraction is: uteatarand cry ———— _— Sisal | ciferent cases wo 1. Both mi = 2. Both mi —_ 7 3. The mir 4, Themis 5, Both m 6 Both mMumber tyatams © Gy MN ecto: eos ston, Here the minuend has G-bits, Therelore the subtrahend Is 0 express.’ ay f-bit | number by. adding 2-leading zeros. | Joi oorlaL es + HOO ton. ; Honor +1 ONO, (9) 2's Complement Method of Binary Subtraction: + In2's complement mettod the a smaller number fram ubtraction is performed using only additic: larger number the following steps are used, ‘ Step 1: Determine the 2's compte ibtract ' Step 2: Add the 2's complet Step 3: Th To subtract ment of the smaller number. to the Larger number. ind around carry. Discard the carry, The answers in true binary fo sing 2's complement method Here the minuend hs eis always an e bits. Therefore the subtrahend is alsa expressed as f:byt Ibe Number by adding 2-leading zerns 2's complement of 011011 is 100100 bust be on] Hs anid hoo101 to the it | tortor O1n011 10) Discard the carry 101101, - 011011, = 10010, Subtraction fs similar to addition, Adding 2's compte | disregarding the carry, if any, achieve different cases: ment of the subtrahend to the misuend and Subtraction. The process is illustrated by cons. i, ing six 1. Hoth minuend and subtrahend are positive. The subtrahend is the smaller of the two, Both minuend and subsrahend are positi - The subtrahend is the larger of the two. The minuend is positive. The subtrahend is negative and sinaller in magnitude The minuend is positive. The subtrahend is neyative and greater in magnitude Both minuend and subtrahend are negauive. The minuend is the smaller of the two, © ott minuend and subtrahend are negative. The minuend is the larger of the two,CE tower seen Case: + The binary representation of +14 = 00001110. + Now, the 2's complement ofthe sultrahend + Therefore +24 ~ (644) is given by 01 1909, + 11110010 "00001010 with the final earry di ‘+ The decienal equival case2 Lotus subtract +24 from +14. «+The binary representation of +14 = 00001110. + The 2's complement representation of +24 = 00011000, “The 7's complement ofthe subtrahend (ie. +24) = 11102000. + The decimal equivalent hich sin 2's complement form 10. whlch Thi. afore, +14 - (+24) i given by ‘69001110 correetanswer + 11101000 ane LOO + ets subtract -24 fom 14, which is of course in 2's complement form, is 10 + The 2's compioment representation of -14= + The 2's complement representation of + The2's complement ofthe subtrahend = 000 + The decimal equivalent of hich isthe correct answer + Therefore + Letias subtract -14 from +24 «The binary representation of #24 0001 1000 = minuers. 1020 = subtrahend. = The 2's complement representation af “14 ‘The 2's complement ofthe subtrahend (Le.~14) = 00001110. snerefore, +24 ~ (+14) is performed 35 fl ‘0011000 + 00001120 001001 + The decimal equivalent of (0010 +30, ie is the correct answer. " 2 complement of et binary counterparts AD inthe MSB positon indicates a positive sign, whilea" nthe Spe Indicates a negative sign 7 cases Lotus subtract =24 fom #14 «The binary representation of +14 = 00002110 = minuendComputer Archie, BEEN ypc Binary multiplication works just like decimal mukiplication ‘The Rules of Binary Multiplication are + 0r0-0 soeteo sLso-0 sdeted 10111 Lon Lis poi rod triad 1010.01 ust jiyun x wuUUOL 10 = 11210110 = 0010111 «00000013 ~ 01000101 10tixtor0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 Ox noo0 Doo000000 oolo1o0l- o1o1oors oritioito oogrord xoooooorl ritit ovororns oor doronoiot boosie The main Binary di division f Lal ii Divide 1 For theNumber Systems EEE or Division ‘The main rules of the binary division are: tele 120 = Meaningless os1=0 050 = Meaningless Binary division is the repeated process of subtraction, just as in decimal division. Yo perform, division follow the following steps: 1. Align the divisor (¥) with the most significant end of the dividend. Let the porticg, dividend from its MSB to its bit aligned wath the 158 of the divisor be denoted X 2 Compare Xand ¥ (a) IX >= ¥,the quotient bit is 1 and perform the subtraction XY {b) FX < ¥, the quotient bit 1s 0 and do not perlorm any subtractions. 3. Shift ¥ one bit to the right and go to step 2 <= it Traptor + ae Dividend 1107 Subtraey [ 1100780] ef stn ni aT [7s Subtract Divide 19 by 6 Ce 6-1) roor: « ‘-ouo 100 lio ori bio pore For the above example, the division process gives remainder as 1 and quotient as 3Number atom = CEB) Em: nputers can Tscand only the numeric values. But, itis not always certain that allie inputs are Skee in Rumerte form So, there was a eed for an encoding system which could conve * the text files “mens values For this ASCH (pronounced as ask ee) was developed. AMERICAN STANDARD O8 INFORMATION INTERCHANGE (ASCII) is an encoding approach, which fs a code for 8 characters in English into seven bit integers. 95 out of 128 characters are printable Sts from Oto 9, lowercase and uppercase letters from a to 2 and the punctuation vols ASCILIs used n electronic Communication. ASCII originated fram the telegraph code and tt Mpeg as 27 bit code for teleprompter In comparison to the telegraph code, ASCII codes are ent and can feature 2 large number af devices EER crevice Dic(pronounced “ebb see dick”) 15 short for extended binary coded decimal interchange code is ht BH, oF one byte, wide This is a coding system used to represent characters-eters, numerals, Nation marks, and other symbols in computerize text A character is represented in EBCDIC by 31 BH EBCDIC mainly used on 18M mainframe and IBM mid-range computer operating systems ts consists of two nibbles, each tour bits wide. The first four bits define the class of character, « the second nibble defines the specific character inside that class. SCDIC s diterent from, and incompatible with, the ASCII character set used by all ether computers, EBCDIC code allows for 256 different characters. For personal computers, however, ASCII is the standard if you want to move text between your computer and a mainframe, you can ge! a file conversion utility that will convert between EBCDIC and ASCIL . IC was adapted trom the character codes used in IBM's per-electronic PUNCHE!: CARD machines, which made it less than ideal for modern computers. Amongits manly inconvenient, were ‘the use of non-contiguous codes for the alphabetic characters, and the absence of several purictuation haracters such as the square brackets (] used by much modern software. he ‘ios sibbic ww ailunes,iii i, defines the character as a number, and the fines which number is encaded. EBCDIC can code up to 256 different characters, Difference between ASCII and EBCDIC cond n I ___-BBepic fer encoding standard for electronic | An vighthit character encoding used mainly an LBM ramen BN midancecmpie ere | - ———-___ —+ | inds for American Standard Codefor Information Stands for Extended Binuy Cod Decimal | Imerchange Code | one rows Interchange ee bits to represent a character + Represen codets Sys, ta chiral intoan [ Uses @ its to repre 128 characters Represents 256 character + [ar ges the characters in consecutive ord Groups 9 characters at atimeat if ai e output must also be 1. Therefore, if t. NAND Construction onstruction This is made by NOT gate, this automatically sees to the "OR" and leaving only the NOT part. Desired Gate rt of the NOR gate, eliminating it from consi NOR Constru EREW2 NOR as AND Gate An AND gate gives a 1 output when both inputs are 1; a NOR gate gate gives 1 output only whe inputs are 0. Therefore, an AND gate is made by inverting the inputs to a NOR gate Desired Gate NOR Construct@ + Computer Architecture NOR as OR Gate The OR gate is simply a NOR gate followed by a NOT gate Desired Gate NOR Construction A Q oT yoo FREER 08 2s nan Gate A NAND gate is made using an AND gate in series with a NOT gate: Desired Gate NOR Construction 8 PREPET 01 a:x.08 cat An XOR gate is made by connecting the output of 3 NOR gates (connected as an AND gate) and the output of a NOR gate to the respective inputs of a NOR gate. This expresses the logical formula (A AND B) NOR (A NOR B). This construction entails propagation delay three times that of a single NOR gate. NOR Construction Desired Gat A Ds Q e [> 0 or as X-Nor Gate in XNOR gate can be constructed from four NOR gates implementing the expression "(A NOR N) NOR N= A.NOW B" This construction hae a propagatian delay three times that of a single IOR gate, and uses more gates. Desived Gate —a Eee oolean algebra was invented by George Boole (1815 - 1864). In digital electronics it does th ‘ne job as a truth table, but with symbols. A Boolean expression tells us what condition will give a vet Of L Boolean Algebra is used to analyze and simplify the digital (logic) circuits. Ituses only th NYY numbers ie. 0 and 1. Itis also called as Binary Algebra or logical Algebra.