CONTROL

SYSTEMS

M.Tirupathamma
Asst Prof, ECE

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 LESSON
• PLAN
Introduction to Control systems
• Modeling of Physical systems
• Transfer function - Block diagram reduction Techniques
• Transfer function through Signal flow graph
• Time response of second order systems
• Steady state and Transient analysis
• Time-domain specifications and Static error coefficients.
• Routh-Hurwitz stability, Finding the range of K for
stability
• Concepts of state, state variables and state model.
• Derivation of state model from transfer function
• State transition matrix, Properties, determination of STM 2
• Conversion from SS to TF
 CONTROL
SYSTEM
When a number of elements are combined together to form a system to produce
desired output then the system is referred to as control system

The main feature of a control system is that there should be a clear mathematical
relationship between input and output of the system.

When the relation between input and output of the system can be represented by a
linear proportionality, the system is called a linear control system
The system used for controlling the position, velocity, acceleration,
temperature, pressure, voltage and current etc. are examples of control systems

Types of control system.

Open loop control system Closed loop control system

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 Definition
s
• Syste – An interconnection of elements and devices for
m a desired
purpose.
•Control System – An interconnection of components forming a system

configuration that will provide a desired response.

•Process – The device, plant, or system under control. The
input and output relationship represents the cause-and-effect
relationship of the

process. Input Process

Output

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 Definitions
(Contd..)
Controlled Variable– It is the quantity or condition that is measured
and Controlled. Normally controlled variable is the output of the
control system.
Manipulated Variable– It is the quantity of the condition that is
varied by the controller so as to affect the value of controlled
variable.
Control – Control means measuring the value of controlled variable
of the system and applying the manipulated variable to the system
to correct or limit the deviation of the measured value from a
desired value.
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 Definition
s Manipulated
Variable
Input or
Set point Output Or
or Controller Proces Controlled
s Variable
reference

Disturbances– A disturbance is a signal that tends to adversely

affect the value of the system. It is an unwanted input of the system.
If a disturbance is generated within the system, it is called internal
disturbance. While an external disturbance is generated outside the
system.
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Open-Loop Control Systems utilize a controller or control
actuator to obtain the desiredresponse.
Output has no effect on the control action. No
feedback – no correction of disturbance

Controlle Proces
r s

Examples:- Washing Machine, Toaster, Electric Fan

In other words output is neither measured nor fedback.

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 OPEN LOOP
SYSTEM
Practical Examples

Electric Hand Drier – Hot air (output) comes out as long as you keep your hand under
the machine, irrespective of how much your hand is dried.

Automatic Washing Machine – This machine runs according to the pre-set time
irrespective of washing is completed or not.

Bread Toaster – This machine runs as per adjusted time irrespective of toasting is
completed or not.

Timer Based Clothes Drier – This machine dries wet clothes for pre-adjusted time, it
does not matter how much the clothes are dried.

Volume on Stereo System – Volume is adjusted manually irrespective of output volume

level.

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 Open loop Control System
(Contd..)
• Since in open loop control systems reference input is not
compared with measured output, for each reference input there
is fixed operating condition.

• Therefore, the accuracy of the system depends on calibration.

• The performance of open loop system is severely affected by the
presence of disturbances, or variation in operating/ environmental
conditions.

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• Closed-Loop Control Systems utilizes feedback to
comparethe actual output to the desired outputresponse.

Input Output
Comparator Controlle Proces
r s

Measurement

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 Examples of Control
Systems
Room temperature
control

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 Float and valve
•
example
Float height determines desired waterlevel

• Flush empties tank, float is lowered and valve opens

• Open valve allows water to enter tank

• Float returns to desired level and valve closes

flush

desired water actual

float valve
level tank level

float

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Difference between Open-Loop & Closed-Loop Control System
Basis of Difference Open Loop Control System Closed Loop Control System

A control system in which there is no feedback path is The control system in which there is a feedback path
Definition
provided is called an open loop control system. present is called a closed loop control system.

Open loop control system is also called non-feedback Closed loop control system is also called a feedback
Also called
control system. control system.

In open loop control system, the control action is In closed loop control system, the control action is
Control action
independent of the output of the overall system. dependent on the output of the system.

The design and construction of an open loop control Closed loop control system has comparatively complex
Design complexity
system is quite simple. design and construction.

The main components of a closed loop control system

The major components of an open loop control system
Main Components are − Controller, plant or process, feedback element and
are − controller and plant.
error detector (comparator).

Reliability The reliability of open loop control system is less. The closed loop control system is more reliable.

The accuracy of open loop control system depends Closed loop control system is comparatively accurate
Accuracy
upon the system calibration and therefore, may be less. because the feedback maintains its accuracy.

Stability (in terms of The stability of open loop control system is more, i.e.,
Closed loop control system is comparatively less stable
output) the output of the open loop system remains constant.

The implementation of a closed loop control system is

Implementation Open loop control system is easy to implement.
relatively difficult.

The cost of the closed loop control system is relatively

Cost Open loop control system is less expensive.
high.

Common practical examples of open loop control Examples of closed loop control systems include: ACs,
Examples systems are − automatic traffic light system, automatic fridge, toaster, rocket launching system, radar tracking
washing machine, immersion heater, etc. system, etc. 13
 Modeling of physical systems
The control systems can be represented with a set of mathematical equations known
as mathematical model.
These models are useful for analysis and design of control systems. Analysis of
control system means finding the output when we know the input and mathematical
model.
Design of control system means finding the mathematical model when we know the
input and the output.
The following mathematical models are mostly used.
• Differential equation model
Various types of physical systems are
• Transfer function model Mechanical systems, Electrical
• State space model systems Thermal systems
Hydraulic systems Chemical
system etc.,

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 Mathematical Model
A mathematicalmodel is a set of equations (usually
differential
equations) that represents the dynamics of systems.
In practice, the complexity of the system requires
some assumptions in the determination model.

How do we obtain the equations?

Physical law of the process

Examples:

– Mechanical system (Newton’s laws)

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– Electrical system (Kirchhoff’s laws)
 Basic Types of
Mechanical
Systems
• Translational
System

• Rotational System

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 Mechanical Translational Systems
These systems mainly consist of three basic elements: Mass(M),
spring(K) and dashpot or damper(B).

Translational
Mass

Translational Damper/Dashpot

Translational 17
Spring
 Analogous
Systems
Electrical Analogous of mechanical Translational System:

As the electrical systemshas two types of inputs either voltage

or
current source. There are two types of analogies .
• Force- Voltageanalogy
• Force- Currentanalogy

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Mathematical Model of Electrical
System
•The mathematical model of electrical systems can be obtained by

using resistor, capacitor and inductor

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 Mathematical Model of Electrical
Systems:
The following mathematical models are mostly used.
• Differential equation model
• Transfer function model
• State space model
Example: RLC Circuit
Mesh equation for this circuit is
Where

The above equation is a second order differential

equation. 66
 Modeling of physical systems

Differential Equation Model

Differential equation model is a time domain mathematical model of control systems.

Apply basic laws to the given control system to find the differential equation model in
terms of input and output
Consider the following electrical system

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 Transfer Function
Model
•The Transfer function of a Linear Time Invariant (LTI) system is

defined as the ratio of Laplace transform of output and Laplace

transform of input by assuming all the initial conditions arezero.

• If x(t) and y(t) are the input and output of an LTI system, then the
corresponding Laplace transforms are X(s) and Y(s).

•The transfer function model of an LTI system is shown in the

following figure.

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 Transfer Function of Linear
System

1 1
I ( s)
V 1( s ) R
Cs V (s)
2 I
(s ) Cs

1
V2(s) 1
Transfer Cs
V 1 (s 1 1 sRC
function ) R Cs

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 Transfer function model

Transfer function model is an s-domain mathematical model of control systems.

The Transfer function of a Linear Time Invariant (LTI) system is defined as the ratio of
Laplace transform of output variable to the Laplace transform of input variable by
assuming all the initial conditions are zero.
If x(t) and y(t) are the input and output of an LTI system, then the corresponding
Laplace transforms are X(s) and Y(s).

Transfer Function=Y(s)/X(s)

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Modeling of physical systems

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Modeling of physical systems

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 Block Diagram
Algebra

• We often represent control systems using block diagrams. A block

diagram consists of blocks that represent transfer functions of the
different variables of interest.
• If a block diagram has many blocks, not all of which are in cascade,
then it is useful to have rules for rearranging the diagram such that
you end up with only one block.

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 Reduction techniques

1. Combining blocks
incascade

G1 G 2

2. Combining blocks
inparallel

G1 G
2

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Rules in block diagram
reduction

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 Block diagram reduction technique

What is the overall transfer function of the block diagram

Rearrange the above block

cascade combination

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Block diagram reduction technique

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Block diagram reduction technique

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 UNIT-II
TIME RESPONSE
ANALYSIS

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TIME RESPONSE OF SECOND ORDER
SYSTEM

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Damping ratio is defined as the ratio of the actual damping to
critical damping.

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A=1

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Method-2:

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STABILITY
ANALYSIS

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 Routh-Hurwitz Stability Criterion

• This method yields stability information without the need to

solve for the closed-loop system poles.
• Using this method, we can tell how many closed-loop system
poles are in the left half-plane, in the right half-plane, and on
the jw-axis. (Notice that we say how many, not where.)

• The method requires two steps:

1. Generate a data table called a Routh table.
2. interpret the Routh table to tell how many closed-loop
system poles are in the LHP, the RHP, and on the jw-axis.
 Routh-Hurwitz Stability Criterion

The characteristic equation of the nth order continuous system can be written as:

The stability criterion is applied using a Routh table which is defined as;

Where a re coefficients of the characteristic equation.

 Generating a Basic Routh Table
• First label the rows with powers of s from highest power of s down to lowest power of
s in a vertical column.
• Next form the first row of the Routh table, using the coefficients of the denominator
of the closed-loop transfer function (characteristic equation).
• Start with the coefficient of the highest power and skip every other power of s.
• Now form the second row with the coefficients of the denominator skipped in the
previous step.
• The table is continued horizontally and vertically until zeros are obtained.
• For convenience, any row can be multiplied or divide by a positive constant before
the next row is computed without changing the values of the rows below and
disturbing the properties of the Routh table.
 Routh’s Stability Condition
• If the closed-loop transfer function has all poles in the left half of the s-plane,
the system is stable. Thus, a system is stable if there are no sign changes in the
first column of the Routh table.

• The Routh-Hurwitz criterion declares that the number of roots of the

polynomial that are lies in the right half-plane is equal to the number of sign
changes in the first column. Hence the system is unstable if the poles lies on
the right hand side of the s-plane.
 Example: Generating a basic Routh Table.

• Only the first 2 rows of the array are obtained from the characteristic eq. the
remaining are calculated as follows;
 Four Special Cases or Configurations in
the First Column Array of the Routh’s
Table:
1. Case-I: No element in the first column is zero.

2. Case-II: A zero in the first column but some other elements of the row

containing the zero in the first column are nonzero.

3. Case-III: A zero in the first column and the other elements of the row

containing the zero are also zero.

4. Case-IV: As in the third case but with repeated roots on the jw -axis.
 Case-I: No element in the first column is
Second-Order System. zero.
The characteristic polynomial of a second order system is given below

The Routh array is written as

Where

The requirement for a stable second order system is simply that all the
coefficient be positive or all the coefficient s be negative.
 Third-Order System.

The characteristic polynomial of a third order system is given below

The Routh array is

Where

• The requirement for a stable third order system is that the coefficients be positive
and
• The condition when results in a marginally stability case (recognized
as Case-3 because there is a zero in the first column) and one pair of roots lies on
the imaginary axis in the s-plane.
 Example-1: Find the stability of the continues system having the characteristic
equation of

The Routh table of the given system is computed and shown is the table below;

• Since there is no changes of the sign in the first column of the Routh table, it means
that all the roots of the characteristic equation have negative real parts and hence
this system is stable.
 Example-2: Find the stability of the continues system having the characteristic
polynomial of a third order system is given below

• The Routh array is

• Because TWO changes in sign appear in the first column, we find that two roots of
the characteristic equation lie in the right hand side of the s-plane. Hence the
system is unstable.
 Example-3: Determine a rang of values of a system parameter K for which the
system is stable.

• The Routh table of the given system is computed and shown is the table below;

• For system stability, it is necessary that the conditions 8 – k >0, and 1 + k > 0, must
be satisfied. Hence the rang of values of a system parameter k must be lies between -1
and 8 (i.e., -1 < k < 8).
 Example-4: Find the stability of the system shown below using Routh criterion.

The close loop transfer function is shown in the figure

The Routh table of the system is shown in the table

Because TWO changes in sign appear in the first column, we find that two roots of the
characteristic equation lie in the right hand side of the s-plane. Hence the system is
unstable.
 Example-5: Find the stability of the system shown below using Routh criterion.

• The Routh table of the system is

• System is unstable because there are two sign changes in the first column of the
Routh’s table. Hence the equation has two roots on the right half of the s-plane.
 Case-II: A Zero Only in the First
Column
There are TWO methods in case-II.

1. Stability via Epsilon Method.

2. Stability via Reverse Coefficients (Phillips, 1991).
 Case-II: Stability via Epsilon Method

• If the first element of a row is zero, division by zero would be required to

form the next row.
• To avoid this phenomenon, an epsilon, ε, (a small positive number) is
assigned to replace the zero in the first column.
• The value ε is then allowed to approach zero from either the positive or
the negative side, after which the signs of the entries in the first column
can be determined.
 Case-II: Stability via Epsilon Method
Example-6: Determine the stability of the system having a characteristic equation given below;

The Routh array is shown in the table;

Where

There are TWO sign changes due to the large negative number in the first column,
Therefore the system is unstable, and two roots of the equation lie in the right half of the s-plane.
 Example-7: Determine the range of parameter K for which the system is unstable.

The Routh array of the above characteristic equation is shown below;

Where

• Therefore, for any value of K greater than zero, the system is unstable.
• Also, because the last term in the first column is equal to K, a negative value
of K will result in an unstable system.
• Consequently, the system is unstable for all values of gain K.
 Example-8: Determine the stability of the of the closed-loop transfer function;

Table-1: The complete Routh table is Table-2: shows the first column of Table-1 along with the
formed by using the denominator of the resulting signs for choices of ε positive and ε negative.
characteristic equation T(s).

• A zero appears only in the first column (the s3 row).

• Next replace the zero by a small number, ε, and complete the table.
• Assume a sign, positive or negative, for the quantity ε.
• When quantity ε is either positive or negative, in both cases the sign in the first column
of Routh table is changes twice.
• Hence, the system is unstable and has two poles in the right half-plane.
 Case-II: Stability via Reverse Coefficients (Phillips,
1991).
• A polynomial that has the reciprocal roots of the original polynomial has its roots

distributed the same—right half-plane, left half plane, or imaginary axis—because

taking the reciprocal of the root value does not move it to another region.

• If we can find the polynomial that has the reciprocal roots of the original, it is possible

that the Routh table for the new polynomial will not have a zero in the first column.

• The polynomial with reciprocal roots is a polynomial with the coefficients written in

reverse order.

• This method is usually computationally easier than the epsilon method.

 Example-9: Repeated example-8: Determine the stability
of the closed-loop transfer function;

• First write a polynomial that has the reciprocal roots of the denominator of T(s).
• This polynomial is formed by writing the denominator of T(s) in reverse order. Hence,

• The Routh table is

• Since there are TWO sign changes, the system is unstable and has TWO right-
half-plane poles.
• This is the same as the result obtained in the previous Example.
• Notice that Table does not have a zero in the first column.
 Case-III: Entire Row is Zero.
• Sometimes while making a Routh table, we find that an entire row consists of

zeros.

• This happen because there is an even polynomial that is a factor of the original

polynomial.

• This case must be handled differently from the case of a zero in only the first

column of a row.
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 Example-10: Determine the stability of the system.
The characteristic equation q(s) of the system is
Where K is an adjustable loop gain. The Routh array is then;

For a stable system, the value of K must be;

When K = 8, the two roots exist on the jω axis and the system will be marginally stable.
Also, when K = 8, we obtain a row of zeros (case-III).
The auxiliary polynomial, U(s), is the equation of the row preceding the row of Zeros.
The U(s) in this case, obtained from the s2 row.
The order of the auxiliary polynomial is always even and indicates the number of
symmetrical root pairs.
 Example-10: continue.

• The auxiliary polynomial, U(s), can be obtain as;

• To show that the auxiliary polynomial, U(s), is indeed a factor of the characteristic
polynomial, q(s), we divide q(s) by U(s) to obtain

• When K = 8, the factors of the characteristic polynomial, q(s), are

 Case-IV: Repeated roots of the characteristic
equation on the jω-axis.
• If the jω-axis roots are repeated, the system response will be unstable with a form
tsin(ωt + Ф). The Routh-Hurwitz criteria will not reveal this form of instability.

Example-11: Determine the stability of the system with the characteristic equation of

The Routh array is;

 Example-11:Continue.
Therefore, the Auxiliary polynomial, U(s), is;

Which indicates that TWO roots are on the imaginary jω-axis.

To examine the remaining roots, we divide the characteristic equation, q(s), by the auxiliary
polynomial, U(s), to obtain;
(a)

Establishing a Routh table for this equation, we have;

• The TWO changes in sign in the first column indicate the presence of TWO roots in the
right-hand plane, and the system is unstable.
• There are THREE roots of eq. (a). The ONE root in left-hand side is s = - 3.
• The TWO roots in the right-hand plane are
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