TER207 Thermodynamics I

Instructor: Assoc. Prof. Elif Begüm Elçioğlu

ebelcioglu@eskisehir.edu.tr

Schedule: Wednesday 13-16

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 Some information regarding this course
- This course (Thermodynamics I) is the first part of the thermodynamics curriculum in ME. The next part
(Thermodynamics II) will be offered next semester.

- Textbook: I combine different references to prepare the course material, therefore there is no single
textbook to be followed in this course. You are responsible from all the material discussed during the class
(and Lecture Notes).

- You MUST use the Thermodynamic Property tables uploaded on CANVAS. No other property tables are
allowed in this course.

- On the other hand, you are free to check or study from various thermodynamics references and textbooks
(see some examples below).
Borgnakke, C., Sonntag, R.E., Fundamentals of Thermodynamics, 2014, John Wiley & Sons Singapore Pte.
Ltd.
Moran, M.J., Shapiro, H.N., Boettner, D.D., Bailey, M.B. Principles of Engineering Thermodynamics, 7th
Ed., 2012, John Wiley & Sons Singapore Pte. Ltd.

- Take notes during the lectures.

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 Some information regarding this course
- This course (Thermodynamics I) is the first part of the thermodynamics curriculum in ME.
The next part (Thermodynamics II) will be offered next semester.

- Important reminder:
Please read the ethics statement on http://makine.eskisehir.edu.tr/Dersler.aspx
You are expected to behave according to the academic honesty rules.
Acts of cheating, copying, deceiving etc. on exams will result in a zero grade.
Violating the ethics statement may result in disciplinary actions.

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 Some information regarding this course
• In class notes you will see some symbols. Here are their meanings:

Something for you to think

Some recommendations:

Something for you to work on • Be ready on time for the class

(you’ll probably need to write things down) • Be interactive, you are an important part of
this course.
• Write down your questions so that you do not
Something for you to read forget to ask them in the end
• Work on the assignments and homeworks

Something for you to solve • Always remember that thermodynamics is a

fundamental aspect of ME, be responsible

Something for you to pay attention

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 TER207 Thermodynamics I
Lecture-1: Fundamental Concepts
In this lecture, we will cover the following concepts:
• Thermodynamics
• System (open system, closed system, isolated system), control mass, control volume
• Surroundings, boundary (control surface)
• Phase, state
• Property (intensive and extensive), e.g., pressure, temperature, specific volume, etc.
• Quantity
• Process, steady state
• Equilibrium
• Units

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 Lecture-1: Introduction
• Thermodynamics: therme (heat) + dynamics (power) in Greek words
Science of the relations
- It is the science of energy
between heat, work
- It covers all aspects of energy & energy conversion and system properties
- It is both a branch of science & technology
• Thermodynamics find applications in the following systems (not limited):
Aircraft & rocket propulsion
Alternative energy systems
Automobile engines, combustion systems
Bio-engineering applications
Cooling, heating, ventilating, air conditioning systems
Steam and gas turbines, compressors, pumps, etc.
• Main motivation: to develop an improved design and better performance, evaluated via:
- Improved output - Reduced input
- Lower cost - Lower environmental impact 𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝜂=
(Thermodynamics play an important role in achieving these.) 𝑅𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
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 Lecture-1: Fundamental Concepts
System. The subject of analysis.
The composition of matter inside the system may be: (i) fixed or (ii) changing via chemical or nuclear reactions.
Surroundings. Everything external to the system.
Boundary. The system is distinguished from its surroundings by its boundary.
The boundary may be: (i) at rest (fixed boundary) or (ii) in motion (moving boundary). → control surface
Closed system. A fixed quantity of matter. (→ control mass). Contains the same matter. There is no transfer of
mass across its boundaries.
Open system. A region of space within a prescribed boundary, through which mass may flow (→ control volume)
Mass
Surroundings Surroundings

Energy Open system Energy

Energy Closed system Energy

Mass
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 A little more detail on closed/open systems
Control mass (closed system) Control volume (open system)

High
Weighs pressure
gas out

Piston Work
Low
pressure
Gas gas in
Compressor Motor
System
boundary
No energy transfer
The 3rd system type is an isolated system.
No energy or mass can be transferred across its boundaries. Isolated system No mass transfer

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 Macroscopic & microscopic views of thermodynamics
Macroscopic approach: Microscopic approach:

- Used in classical thermodynamics - Used in statistical thermodynamics

- Concerned with the overall system behavior - Concerned directly with the structure of matter
- No model of the structure of matter at the molecular, - Its objective is to characterize (by statistical means) the
atomic, sub-atomic levels is directly used. average behavior of particles making up a system (of
- Less # properties are required to describe the system. interest) and relate this information to the observed
- System properties are their average values. macroscopic behavior of the system.
- Large # of variables are needed to describe the system.
- Properties are defined for each molecule individually.

Macroscopic
system
Microscopic approach
Average properties (p, V, T, etc.) Properties defined for each particle
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 Fundamental Concepts (cont’d)
Pure substance. Material composing the system that is homogeneous and unchanging in terms of chemical
composition and molecular structure (e.g., O2).
Phase. A quantity of matter that is homogeneous throughout (e.g., solid, liquid, vapor, gas)
When there is more than 1 phase is present, the phases are separated from each other by phase boundaries.
In each phase, the substance may exist at various temperatures and pressures, i.e., in various states.
State. Refers to the condition of a system as described by certain, observable, macroscopic properties.
Property. A macroscopic characteristic of a system (e.g., mass, volume, energy, pressure, temperature, etc.)
To describe a system and predict its behavior, its properties and how they relate to each other should be known.
Process. When any of the system properties change, its state Path. Defines the type of the process.
changes, and the system is said to have undergone a process. • Isothermal (at constant temperature)
A process is a transformation from one state to another. • Isobaric (at constant pressure)
• Isochoric or isometric (at constant volume)
• Isentropic
• Adiabatic (no heat flow to/from the system)
Steady state. If system exhibits the same values
of its properties at two different times, it is in
the same state at these times. A system is at
Example: piston-cylinder system
steady state if none of its properties change
Schematic taken from https://thermo.pressbooks.com/chapter/chapter-1/ (July 2020)
with time. 10
 Fundamental Concepts (cont’d)
What is a property and what is not?

• At a given state, each property has its definite value that can be assigned without knowledge of how the
system arrived at that state.
• Therefore, the change in value of a property as the system is altered from one state to another is determined
solely by the two end states and is independent of the particular way the change of state occurred.
• That is, the change is independent of the details of the process.

• A quantity is a property iff (if and only if) its change in value between two states is independent of the
process.
• If the value of a particular quantity depends also on the process details and not solely on the end states,
that quantity is not a property.

Some examples:
Quantity Work, heat
Property Temperature, pressure, volume, etc.

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 Fundamental Concepts (cont’d)
Extensive property. If the properties value for an overall system is the sum of its values for the parts into which the system is
divided.
They are additive. 𝑋𝑎 + 𝑋𝑏 = 𝑋𝑎𝑏
• Mass, volume, energy, etc. are extensive properties. (e.g., we can find the mass of the system by adding
• Extensive properties depend on the extent (size) of a system. the masses of its components.)

Intensive property. Not additive as for extensive properties. They are NOT additive. 𝑋𝑎 + 𝑋𝑏 ≠ 𝑋𝑎𝑏
• Specific volume, pressure, temperature, etc. are intensive properties. (e.g., we cannot find the temperature of the system
• Intensive properties are independent of the extent (size) of the system. by adding the temperatures of its components.)

Cycle. When a system in a given state goes Note: When extensive properties are divided by the system mass, its
through a number of different changes of intensive counterpart can be determined.
state/processes and finally returns to its initial Example: Volume (extensive property) divided by system mass yields
state, the system has undergone a cycle. A the specific volume (intensive property).
process during which the initial and final states
are identical. Equilibrium. A state of balance. In order to talk about a system
property, that property should be valid for the entire system.
• At equilibrium, temperature is uniform throughout the system.
Pressure can be regarded uniform unless there is a gravity effect
(e.g., in a vertical column of liquid).
• There is no requirement that a system undergoing a process be in
equilibrium during the process.
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 Fundamental Concepts (cont’d)
Equilibrium (cont’d).
• If the temperature is the same for the entire system and does not change w/ time: system is in thermal equilibrium
• If the pressure is the same for the entire system (when gravity effects are neglected) and does not change w/ time:
system is in mechanical equilibrium
• If the chemical composition is the same for the entire system and does not change w/ time: system is in chemical
equilibrium

→ Once the system satisfies all the equilibrium conditions, the system is said to be in thermodynamic equilibrium.

• During processes, system’s condition changes continuously.

• Determination of system condition during a process requires consideration of quasi-equilibrium.
• During quasi-equilibrium, systems drifting apart from the equilibrium is very small and can be neglected.

• With this assumption for most of the real processes, systems thermodynamic behavior can be modeled quite accurately.

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 Dimensions and Units
Primary (fundamental) dimensions Secondary (derived) dimensions
• mass, m • velocity, V
Examples: • length, L • area, A
• time, t • energy, E
• temperature, T • Force, F

Factor Prefix Symbol

A unit is any specified amount of a quantity by comparison
1012 tera T
with which any other quantity of the same kind is measured.
109 giga G
Dimension Unit 106 mega M
Length meter (m) 103 kilo K
Fundamental SI unit
Mass kilogram (kg) 102 hecto H
dimensions prefixes
and their Time second (s) 10-2 centi c
units in SI Temperature kelvin (K) 10-3 milli m
Electric current ampere (A) 10-6 micro µ
Amount of light candela (cd) 10-9 nano n
Amount of matter mole (mol) 10-12 pico p 14
 Its your turn!
(Due next week)
→
In this course we will be using SI units.

What are the English Engineering Units?

How ft and in can be converted into meter, and lb into kg?

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 Some (measurable, intensive) material properties
The description of matter is simplified by considering it to be distributed continuously throughout a region (continuum
hypothesis).
Specific volume: volume per unit mass (i.e., reciprocal of density) [m3/kg]
𝛿𝑉
𝜐 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝛿𝑉⟶𝛿𝑉 ′ (𝛿𝑉 ′ : the smallest volume that the mass can be considered a continuum)
𝛿𝑚
1 𝑉 Density and
𝜐= =
𝜌 𝑚 specific volume
are ………………
Density: mass per unit volume [kg/m3] properties
𝑚
𝜌=
𝑉
intensive
Note the notation:
• We will use 𝜐 and 𝜌 when we talk about mass-based specific volume and density (as above).
• We will use 𝜐ҧ and 𝜌ҧ when these quantities are in a molar-basis, i.e., molar specific volume (in [m3/mol] or
[m3/kmol]) and molar density (in [mol/m3] or [kmol/m3]).
• Molal properties and mass-based properties are related via (M: molecular weight, [kg/kmol]): 𝜐ҧ = 𝑀𝜐

Reminder: liter to m3(and vice-versa) unit conversion : 1 L = 10-3 m3

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 Some (measurable, intensive) material properties (cont’d)
Terms of pressure measurement
Pressure. The normal (⊥) component of force per unit area.
𝛿𝐹𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝐹𝑛 P
𝑃 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝛿𝐴→𝛿𝐴′ , 𝑃=
𝛿𝐴 𝐴
𝛿𝐴′ : the smallest area over which we can consider fluid as a continuum
Pressure higher than Patm
Pabs,1
Units:
SI Unit: 1 Pa = 1 N/m2 Ordinary pressure gauge
1 bar = 105 Pa = 0.1 Mpa ΔP=Pabs,1 - Patm
1 atm = 101325 Pa = 760 mmHg
Patm
Absolute Pressure (Pabs): Actual Pressure relative to the
absolute vacuum Ordinary vacuum gauge
Pressure measuring devices often indicate the difference b/w ΔP=Patm - Pabs,2
the Pabs of the system and Patm existing outside the measuring Pressure lower than Patm
device. This difference is called the gage pressure, i.e., Pabs,2
Pgage=Pabs – Patm.
When the local Patm is greater than the system pressure, the
term vacuum pressure, i.e., Pvacuum=Patm – Pabs, is used. 0 Absolute zero pressure

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 Some (measurable, intensive) material properties (cont’d)
Pressure (cont’d). Pressure can be measured using manometers.
In these devices the difference b/w Patm and absolute pressure is determined via the elevation difference (L).
∆𝑃 = 𝜌𝐿𝑔
𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒 (mentioned in the previous slide)

Example -1: Pressure of water inside a tank is measured via a pressure gage as 200 kPa. Calculate the absolute pressure
of water. (See previous slide: Pgage=Pabs – Patm)

𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒 → 𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 101.325 𝑘𝑃𝑎 + 200 𝑘𝑃𝑎 = 301.325 𝑘𝑃𝑎

Example -2: Calculate the absolute pressure on the bottom of the open-top water tank for L= 10 m. (ρwater=1000 kg/m3)
𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + ∆𝑃 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝜌𝐿𝑔
𝑘𝑔 𝑚 1
𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 101.325 𝑘𝑃𝑎 + 1000 3 × 10 𝑚 × 9.81 2 = 199.425 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑚 𝑠 1000

Where is this factor coming from?

Show via dimensional analysis.

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 Energy
Energy. Capacity to do work.
Some energy forms are kinetic energy, potential energy, thermal energy, mechanical energy, electric energy,
chemical energy, and nuclear energy.

A macroscopic amount of mass can possess its energy in the form of:
• Internal energy inherent in its internal structure
• Kinetic energy in its motion
• Potential energy associated with external forces acting on the mass

The total energy is 𝐸 = σ(𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒). Unit of E is Joule [J] ≡ [N.m]

E= Internal + Kinetic + Potential (E= U+ KE + PE )

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Recall that 𝐾𝐸 = 2 𝑚𝑉 2 𝑃𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔𝑧

The specific total energy (unit: [J/kg]) is:

𝐸 1 2
𝑒= = 𝑢 + 𝑘𝑒 + 𝑝𝑒 = 𝑢 + 𝑉 + 𝑔𝑧
𝑚 2

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 Energy (cont’d) → Read this slide after the class.
Internal energy (U) is σ(𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚)
U is related to molecular structure and the degree of molecular activity.
Unlike PE and KE (both relate to energy of a system wrt external references, U relates to energy within the system.

Consider a diatomic molecule, AB. A B

Since the molecule moves about with certain V, the molecule has KE, its movement through space is translation, and its KE
is named translational energy.
AB also rotates about its center of mass with its rotational energy.
In addition to translating and rotating, its atoms oscillate about their center of mass giving rise to vibrational energy.
On a subatomic scale, the electrons of atoms “orbit” the nucleus. Electrons also spin about their own axis, and the nucleus
also possesses a spin. The sum of the translational, rotational, vibrational, and subatomic energies constitute a fraction of
the internal energy, which is named the sensible energy. Sensible energy is the energy required to change the temperature
of a system. (Ex: Suppose that we wish to boil a pan of water at 20°C. The heater imparts energy to water, increasing the
KE of water molecules, which is manifested as an increase in temperature of water. As the heater continues supplying
energy, the sensible energy of water increases, thereby increasing temperature, until the boiling point is reached.
Various binding forces exist between molecules of a substance. When binding forces are broken, the substance changes
from one phase to another. Binding forces are strongest in solids, weaker in liquids, and weakest in gases. The amount of
energy required to produce a phase change is referred to as latent energy.
Why?
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 Some material properties (cont’d)
Temperature. We are familiar with temperature but defining it is not straightforward.
Our main sense of temperature for an object is based on its hotness/coldness, but our sense of hotness and
coldness is highly unreliable.
We also know that when a hot body is brought into contact with a cold body, the initially hot one will become
cooler and the cold body will become warmer. Once this contact is established for sufficiently long time, these
bodies will have the same hotness / coldness.
Since defining temperature is difficult, we define the equality of temperature.

Bodies brought into contact

Thermal equilibrium.
(end of thermal interaction)
Cu block Cu block
Cu block Cu block Cu block Cu block
@T @ T + ΔT
colder hotter Over time, the cold ones
Equalty of temperature.
temperature will increase and the
hot ones temperature will drop.

.:. If two bodies have equality of temperature when they are in thermal communication, no change in any
observable property occurs. → This will help us to understand the Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics.
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 The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
Definition: When two bodies have equalty of temperature with a third body, they in turn have equalty of
temperature with each other.

Cu block (1) Cu block (2)

Let this Cu block be into contact with the Then, let this Cu block into contact with the
thermometer until the equalty of temperature thermometer. If there is no change in the mercury level
is established, and then removed. of the thermometer, we can say that both Cu blocks are
in thermal equilibrium with the thermometer.

→ Because this principle is not derivable from other laws, and because this law preceeds the 1st and 2nd
Laws of Thermodynamics in the logical presentation of thermodynamics, it is called the zeroth law of
thermodynamics.
→ This law is the basis of temperature measurement (everytime a body has equalty of temperature
with the thermometer, we can say that the body has the temperature we read on the
thermometer).
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 Temperature Scales
Based on 2 fixed & easily duplicated points:
Fahrenheit scale used w/ English Engineering System of Units • The ice point
Celcius scale used w/ the SI Unit System • The steam point

The ice point: the temperature of a mixture of water & ice in equilibrium with saturated air at 1 atm.
The steam point: the temperature of water & steam in equilibrium at 1 atm.
Fahrenheit (F) scale: 32 and 212, Celcius (oC) scale: 0 and 100

Absolute scale of temperature: independent of any thermometric substance

→ Thermodynamic scale of temperature → International Temperature Scale (more practical)
The absolute scale (base unit) related to the Celcius scale is the Kelvin scale (K).
𝑲 = ℃ + 𝟐𝟕𝟑. 𝟏𝟓

Rankine scale: oR = 1.8 K

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 Reading assignment (due next week):

What are the prominent temperature measurement methods and equipments?

(Hint: thermocouples, resistance temperature detectors (RTD’s), thermistors,
optical pyrometers)

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 How do we approach thermodynamics problems?
1- State briefly what is known.
You need to read the problem carefully and think about it.

2- State what is asked in the problem (what is to be determined).

3- Draw a sketch of the system. The sketch should be clear and nicely drawn.
(It is not an artistic sketch though, don’t spend a lot of time drawing it, but keep in
mind that nicely and clearly drawn sketches will help you to understand the problem.)

4- Decide whether a closed system or open system approach is suitable. Define boundaries.

5- Record the property values you are given & you will need for the solution of the problem.
Indicate which table is used to read the properties. This is of critical importance in your exams.
Sketch property diagrams, show states and process paths clearly.

6- Analysis.
Use your assumptions and idealizations, reduce & simplify the governing equations. Check units.
It is advisable to work with equations as long as possible before substituting numbers in it.
Check magnitudes and algebraic signs of your results to see if they are rational. 25
 Do a quick self-check with these short examples.
1: Answer the following questions with T for true and F for false.
You need to correct the statement if you think it is false.

❑ No mass can flow across a system boundary.

❑ In a closed system, convective transfer of a property is done at the moving boundary.
❑ A system is said to be in steady-state if its mass do not change with time.
❑ Temperature is an extensive property while the system mass is intensive.

2: Answer the following questions.

❑ State which one of the following expressions is correct.
a) Pabs=Pgage-Patm
b) Pgage=Pabs+Patm
c) Patm=Pabs+Pgage
d) Pabs=Pgage+Patm

❑ The absolute zero temperature is:

a) 273℃
b) 237 ℃
c) -373℃
d) -273℃ 26