Semigroups and Monoids, properties and examples, Homomorphism of Semigroups and Monoids , Groups: Definition and examples, Subgroups and homomorphism.
Algebraic systems N = {1,2,3,4,….. } = Set of all natural numbers.
Z = { 0, ± 1, ± 2, ± 3, ± 4 , ….. } = Set of all integers.
Q = Set of all rational numbers.
R = Set of all real numbers.
Binary Operation: The binary operator * is said to be a binary operation (closed operation) on a non- empty set A, if
a * b ∈ A for all a, b ∈ A (Closure property).
Ex: The set N is closed with respect to addition and multiplication
but not w.r.t subtraction and division.
Algebraic System: A set A with one or more binary(closed) operations defined on it is called an algebraic system.
Properties: 1. Associativity: Let * be a binary operation on a set A. The operation * is said to be associative in
A if (a * b) * c = a *( b * c) for all a, b, c in A
2. Identity: For an algebraic system (A, *), an element ‘e’ in A is said to be an identity element of A if a * e = e * a = a for all a ∈ A.
Note: For an algebraic system (A, *), the identity element, if exists, is unique.
3. Inverse: Let (A, *) be an algebraic system with identity ‘e’. Let a be an element in A. An element b is said to be inverse of A if
a*b=b*a=e Semi groups: Semi Group: An algebraic system (A, *) is said to be a semi group if
1. * is closed operation on A.
2. * is an associative operation, for all a, b, c in
A. Ex. (N, +) is a semi group.
Ex. (N, .) is a semi group.
Ex. (N, – ) is not a semi group.
Monoids: An algebraic system (A, *) is said to be a monoid if the following conditions are satisfied.
1) * is a closed operation in A.
2) * is an associative operation in A.
3) There is an identity in A.
Ex. Show that the set ‘N’ is a monoid with respect to multiplication.
Solution: Here, N = {1,2,3,4,……}
3. Closure property : We know that product of two natural numbers is again a natural number.
i.e., a.b = b.a for all a,b ∈ N
∴ Multiplication is a closed operation.
4. Associativity : Multiplication of natural numbers is
associative. i.e., (a.b).c = a.(b.c) for all a,b,c ∈ N
5. Identity : We have, 1 ∈ N such that
a.1 = 1.a = a for all a ∈ N.
∴ Identity element exists, and 1 is the identity element.
Hence, N is a monoid with respect to multiplication.
Examples
Ex. Let (Z, *) be an algebraic structure, where Z is the set of integers
and the operation * is defined by n * m = maximum of (n,
m). Show that (Z, *) is a semi group.
Is (Z, *) a monoid ?. Justify your answer.
Solution: Let a , b and c are any three integers.
Closure property: Now, a * b = maximum of (a, b) ∈ Z for all a,b ∈ Z
Associativity : (a * b) * c = maximum of {a,b,c} = a * (b * c)
∴ (Z, *) is a semi group.
Identity : There is no integer x such that
a * x = maximum of (a, x) = a for all a ∈ Z
∴ Identity element does not exist. Hence, (Z, *) is not a monoid.
Ex. Show that the set of all strings ‘S’ is a monoid under the operation ‘concatenation of strings’.
Is S a group w.r.t the above operation? Justify your answer.
Solution: Let us denote the operation
‘concatenation of strings’ by + .
Let s1, s2, s3 are three arbitrary strings in S.
Closure property: Concatenation of two strings is again a string.
i.e., s1+s2 ∈ S
Associativity: Concatenation of strings is associative.
(s1+ s2 ) + s3 = s1+ (s2 + s3 )
Identity: We have null string , l ∈ S such that s1 + l = S.
∴ S is a monoid.
Note: S is not a group, because the inverse of a non empty string does not exist under concatenation of strings.
Groups: Group: An algebraic system (G, *) is said to be a group if the following conditions are satisfied.
1) * is a closed operation.
2) * is an associative operation.
3) There is an identity in G.
4) Every element in G has an inverse in G.
Abelian group (Commutative group):
A group (G, *) is said to be abelian (or
commutative) if
a * b = b * a "a, b ∈ G. Properties: In a Group (G, * ) the following properties hold good
1. Identity element is unique.
2. Inverse of an element is unique.
3. Cancellation laws hold good
a * b = a * c => b = c (left cancellation law)
a * c = b * c => a = b (Right cancellation law)
4. (a * b) -1 = b-1 * a-1
In a group, the identity element is its own inverse.
Order of a group: The number of elements in a group is called order of the group.
Finite group: If the order of a group G is finite, then G is called a finite group.
Ex1 . Show that, the set of all integers is an abelian group with respect to addition.
Solution: Let Z = set of all integers.
Let a, b, c are any three elements of Z.
1. Closure property : We know that, Sum of two integers is again an integer.
i.e., a + b ∈ Z for all a,b ∈ Z
2. Associativity: We know that addition of integers is associative.
i.e., (a+b)+c = a+(b+c) for all a,b,c ∈ Z.
3. Identity : We have 0 ∈ Z and a + 0 = a for all a ∈ Z .
∴ Identity element exists, and ‘0’ is the identity element.
4. Inverse: To each a ∈ Z , we have – a ∈ Z such that
a+(–a)=0
Each element in Z has an inverse.
5. Commutativity: We know that addition of integers is commutative.
i.e., a + b = b +a for all a,b ∈ Z.
Hence, ( Z , + ) is an abelian group.
Ex2 . Show that set of all non zero real numbers is a group with respect to multiplication .
Solution: Let R* = set of all non zero real numbers.
Let a, b, c are any three elements of R* .
1. Closure property : We know that, product of two nonzero real numbers is again a nonzero real number .
i.e., a . b ∈ R* for all a,b ∈ R* .
2. Associativity: We know that multiplication of real numbers is
associative.
i.e., (a.b).c = a.(b.c) for all a,b,c ∈ R* .
3. Identity : We have 1 ∈ R* and a .1 = a for all a ∈ R* .
∴ Identity element exists, and ‘1’ is the identity element.
4. Inverse: To each a ∈ R* , we have 1/a ∈ R* such that
a .(1/a) = 1 i.e., Each element in R* has an inverse.
5.Commutativity: We know that multiplication of real numbers is
commutative.
i.e., a . b = b . a for all a,b ∈ R*.
Hence, ( R* , . ) is an abelian group.
Note: Show that set of all real numbers ‘R’ is not a group with respect to multiplication.
Solution: We have 0 ∈ R .
The multiplicative inverse of 0 does not exist.
Hence. R is not a group.
Example: Let S be a finite set, and let F(S) be the collection of all functions f: S → S under the operation of composition of functions, then show that F(S) is a monoid.
Is S a group w.r.t the above operation? Justify your answer.
Solution:
Let f1, f2, f3 are three arbitrary functions on S.
Closure property: Composition of two functions on S is again a function on S.
i.e., f1o f2 ∈ F(S)
Associativity: Composition of functions is associative.
i.e., (f1 o f2 ) o f3 = f1 o (f2 o f3 )
Identity: We have identity function I : S→S
such that f1 o I = f1.
∴ F(S) is a monoid.
Note: F(S) is not a group, because the inverse of a non bijective function on S does not exist.
Ex. If E = { 0, ± 2, ± 4, ± 6, ……}, then the algebraic structure (E, +) is
a) a semi group but not a monoid
b) a monoid but not a group.
c) a group but not an abelian group.
d) an abelian group.
Ans; d
Ex. Let A = Set of all rational numbers ‘x’ such that 0 < x £ 1. Then with respect to ordinary multiplication, A is
a) a semi group but not a monoid
b) a monoid but not a group.
c) a group but not an abelian group.
d) an abelian group.
Ans. b
Ex. Let C = Set of all non zero complex numbers .Then with respect to multiplication, C is
a) a semi group but not a monoid
b) a monoid but not a group.
c) a group but not an abelian group.
d) an abelian group.
Ans. d Ex. Show that G = {1, -1} is an abelian group under multiplication.
Solution: The composition table of G is
. 1 –1
1 1 –1
–1–1 1
1. Closure property: Since all the entries of the composition table are the elements of the given set, the set G is closed under multiplication.
2. Associativity: The elements of G are real numbers, and we know that multiplication of real numbers is associative.
3. Identity : Here, 1 is the identity element and 1 belongs to G.
4. Inverse: From the composition table, we see that the inverse elements of
1 and – 1 are 1 and – 1 respectively. Hence,
G is a group w.r.t multiplication.
5. Commutativity: The corresponding rows and columns of the table are identical. Therefore the binary operation . is commutative.
Hence, G is an abelian group w.r.t. multiplication..
Ex. Show that G = {1, w, w2} is an abelian group under multiplication.
Where 1, w, w2 are cube roots of unity.
Solution: The composition table of G is
w w w2 1
w2 w2 1 w
1. Closure property: Since all the entries of the composition table are the elements of the given set, the set G is closed under multiplication.
2. Associativity: The elements of G are complex numbers, and we know that
multiplication of complex numbers is associative. 3. Identity : Here, 1 is the identity element and 1∈ G.
4. Inverse: From the composition table, we see that the inverse elements of 1
w, w2 are 1, w2, w respectively.
Hence, G is a group w.r.t multiplication.
5. Commutativity: The corresponding rows and columns of the table are identical. Therefore the binary operation . is commutative.
Hence, G is an abelian group w.r.t. multiplication.
Ex. Show that G = {1, –1, i, –i } is an abelian group under multiplication.
Solution: The composition table of G is
. 1 –1 i -i
1 1 -1 i -i
-1 -1 1 -i i
i i -i -1 1
-i -i i 1 -1
1. Closure property: Since all the entries of the composition table are the elements of the given set, the set G is closed under multiplication.
2. Associativity: The elements of G are complex numbers, and we know that
multiplication of complex numbers is associative.
3. Identity : Here, 1 is the identity element and 1∈ G.
4. Inverse: From the composition table, we see that the inverse elements of
1 -1, i, -i are 1, -1, -i, i respectively.
5. Commutativity: The corresponding rows and columns of the table are identical. Therefore the binary operation . is commutative. Hence, (G, .) is an abelian group.
Modulo systems. Addition modulo m ( +m )
let m is a positive integer. For any two positive integers a and b
a +m b = a + b if a + b < m
a +m b = r if (a + b ) % m where r is the remainder obtained
by dividing (a+b) with m.
Multiplication modulo p ( ×p)
let p is a positive integer. For any two positive integers a and b
a ×m b = a b if a ×m b < p
a ×m b = r if (a × b) % p where r is the remainder obtained
by dividing (a×b) with p.
Ex. 3 ×5 4 = 2 , 5 ×5 4 = 0 , 2 ×5 2 = 4
Example : The set G = {0,1,2,3,4,5} is a group with respect to addition modulo 6.
Solution: The composition table of G is
+6 0 1 2 3 4 5
0 0 1 2 3 4 5
1 1 2 3 4 5 0
2 2 3 4 5 0 1
3 3 4 5 0 1 2
4 4 5 0 1 2 3
5 5 0 1 2 3 4
1. Closure property: Since all the entries of the composition table are the elements of the given set, the set G is closed under +6 .
2. Associativity: The binary operation +6 is associative in G.
for ex. (2 +6 3) +6 4 = 5 +6 4 = 3 and
2 +6 ( 3 +6 4 ) = 2 +6 1 = 3
3. Identity : Here, The first row of the table coincides with the top row. The element heading that row , i.e., 0 is the identity element.
4. . Inverse: From the composition table, we see that the inverse elements of 0, 1, 2, 3, 4. 5 are 0, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1 respectively.
5. Commutativity: The corresponding rows and columns of the table are identical. Therefore the binary operation +6 is commutative.
Hence, (G, +6 ) is an abelian group.
Example : The set G = {1,2,3,4,5,6} is a group with respect to multiplication modulo 7.
Solution: The composition table of G is
*7 1 2 3 4 5 6
1 1 2 3 4 5 6
2 2 4 6 1 3 5
3 3 6 2 5 1 4
4 4 1 5 2 6 3
5 5 3 1 6 4 2
6 6 5 4 3 2 1
1. Closure property: Since all the entries of the composition table are the elements of the given set, the set G is closed under *7 .
2. Associativity: The binary operation *7 is associative in G.
for ex. (2 *7 3) *7 4 = 6 *7 4 = 3 and
2 *7 ( 3 *7 4 ) = 2 * 7 5 = 3
3. Identity : Here, The first row of the table coincides with the top row. The element heading that row , i.e., 1 is the identity element.
4. . Inverse: From the composition table, we see that the inverse elements of 1, 2, 3, 4. 5 6 are 1, 4, 5, 2, 5, 6 respectively.
5. Commutativity: The corresponding rows and columns of the table are identical. Therefore the binary operation *7 is commutative.
Hence, (G, *7 ) is an abelian group.
Sub groups: Def. A non empty subset H of a group (G, *) is a sub group of G,
if (H, *) is a group.
Note: For any group {G, *}, {e, * } and (G, * ) are trivial sub groups.
Ex. G = {1, -1, i, -i } is a group w.r.t multiplication.
H1 = { 1, -1 } is a subgroup of G .
H2 = { 1 } is a trivial subgroup of G.
Ex. ( Z , + ) and (Q , + ) are sub groups of the group (R +).
Ex. Show that the union of two sub groups of a group G need not be a sub group of G.
Proof: Let G be an additive group of integers.
Let H1 = { 0, ±2, ±4, ±6, ±8, …..}
and H2 = { 0, ±3, ±6, ±9, ±12, …..}
Here, H1 and H2 are groups w.r.t addition.
Further, H1 and H2 are subsets of G.
∴ H1 and H2 are sub groups of G.
H1 U H2 = { 0, ±2, ±3, ±4, ±6, ..}
Here, H1 U H2 is not closed w.r.t addition.
For ex. 2 , 3 ∈ G
But, 2 + 3 = 5 and 5 does not belongs to H1 U H2 .
Hence, H1 U H2 is not a sub group of G.
Homomorphism: Homomorphism : Consider the groups ( G, *) and ( G1, ⊕)
A function f : G → G1 is called a homomorphism
if f ( a * b) = f(a) ⊕ f (b)
Consider the groups ( G, *) and ( G1, ⊕) and function f : G → G1 where f is
homomorphism from ( G, *) to ( G1, ⊕ ) 1.Isomorphism : If a homomorphism f : G → G1 is a bijective then f is called Isomorphism between G and G1 . Then we write G ≡ G1
2. Epimorphism: If a homomorphism f : G → G1 is a onto, then f is called
Epimorphism between G and G1 .
3. Monomorphism: If a homomorphism f : G → G1 is a one-to-one, then f is called
Monomorphism between G and G1 4. Endomorphism : A homomorphism f : G → G1 from ( G, *) to ( G1, ⊕ ) is called Endomorphism if G1 includes in G. 5. Automorphism: A homomorphism f : G → G1 from ( G, *) to ( G1, ⊕ ) is called Automorphism if G1 = G. Example : Let R be a group of all real numbers under addition and R + be a group of all positive real numbers under multiplication. Show that the mapping f : R → R+ defined by f(x) = 2x for all x ∈ R is an isomorphism.
Solution: First, let us show that f is a homomorphism.
Let a , b belongs to R .
Now, f(a+b) = 2a+b
= 2a 2b
= f(a).f(b)
∴ f is an homomorphism.
Next, let us prove that f is a Bijection.
For any a , b belongs to R, Let, f(a) = f(b)
=> 2a = 2b
=> a = b
∴ f is one.to-one.
Next, take any c ∈ R+.
Then log2 c ∈ R and f (log2 c ) = 2 log2 c = c.
⇒ Every element in R+ has a pre image in R.
i.e., f is onto.
∴ f is a bijection.
Hence, f is an isomorphism.
Ex. Let R be a group of all real numbers under addition and R + be a group of all positive real numbers under multiplication. Show that the mapping f : R+ → R defined by f(x) = log10 x for all x blongs to R is an isomorphism.
Solution: First, let us show that f is a homomorphism.
Let a , b belongs to R+ .
Now, f(a.b) = log10 (a.b)
= log10 a + log10 b
= f(a) + f(b)
∴ f is an homomorphism. Next, let us prove that f is a Bijection.
For any a , b belongs to R+ , Let, f(a) =
f(b)
=> log10 a = log10 b
=> a = b
∴ f is one.to-one.
Next, take any c belongs to R.
Then 10c belongs to R and f (10c) = log10 10c = c.
