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TS. Nguyễn Quang Nhu Quỳnh

CHAPTER 3:
MODULATION
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Remind (1)

Baud and Minimum Bandwidth

Baud refers to the rate of change of a signal on the transmission medium after encoding and modulation have
occurred. Hence, baud is a unit of transmission rate, modulation rate, or symbol rate and, therefore, the terms
symbols per second

Mathematically, baud is the reciprocal of the time of one

output signaling element, and a signaling element may
represent several information bits

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Remind (2)
• The minimum theoretical bandwidth necessary to propagate a signal is called the minimum Nyquist
bandwidth. Thus, R= 2B, where R is the bit rate in bps and B is the ideal Nyquist bandwidth.
For a given bandwidth (B), the highest theoretical bit rate is Rmax=2B.
EX: a standard telephone circuit has a bandwidth of approximately 2700 Hz, which has the capacity to
propagate 5400 bps through it.

However, if more than two levels are used for signaling (higher-than-binary encoding), more than
one bit may be transmitted at a time, and it is possible to propagate a bit rate that exceeds 2B.

C = B log2 M
C = channel capacity (bps)
B = minimum Nyquist bandwidth (hertz)B=C/N (N=log2M)
M = number of discrete signal or voltage levels
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Remind (3)

• Baud is the encoded rate of change, it also equals the bit rate divided by the number of bits encoded
into one signaling element.
• The baud and the ideal minimum Nyquist bandwidth have the same value and are equal to the bit rate
divided by the number of bits encoded.

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What is Modulation?
In modulation, a message signal, which contains the information is used to control the parameters
of a carrier signal, so as to impress the information onto the carrier.
The Messages
The message or modulating signal may be either:
analogue – denoted by m(t)
digital – denoted by d(t) – i.e. sequences of 1's and 0's
The message signal could also be a multilevel signal, rather than binary; this is not
considered further at this stage.

The Carrier
The carrier could be a 'sine wave' or a 'pulse train'.

vc t  = Vc cosωc t + φc 
Consider a 'sine wave' carrier:

• If the message signal m(t) controls amplitude – gives AMPLITUDE MODULATION AM

• If the message signal m(t) controls frequency – gives FREQUENCY MODULATION FM
• If the message signal m(t) controls phase- gives PHASE MODULATION PM or M
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Binary Modulated Bandpass Signals

 On Off Keying (OOK): Carrier sinusoid is on/off with a unipolar binary

signals. (e.g., Morse code radio trasmission)
 Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK): The phase of the carrier sinusoid is either
0o or 180o based on binary inputs.
 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK): Change the frequency of the carrier sinusoid
by a certain amount.
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ASK (Amplitude Shift Keying)

m(t)

f c ( t )  A c cos(2f c t  )

f ASK ( t )  A c m( t ) cos(2f c t  )

Mark Space
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ASK (On-Off Keying)

- ASK/OOK signal: 1

f ASK (t )  Ac m(t ) cos(2f c t ) 0

T0
m(t)

- ASK/OOK spectrum:
Ac Ac
FASK ( f )  M ( f  fc )  M ( f  fc )
2 2
Modulating signal spectrum Modulated signal ASK spectrum

-fc 0 fc
-1/T0 1/T0
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ASK Modulator
Type 1

0
T0

Type 2
1

0
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Example
• Determine the baud and minimum bandwidth necessary to pass a 10 kbps binary signal using
amplitude shift keying.
• B = 10,000 / 1 = 10,000 Hz
• The baud rate = 10, 000 /1 = 10,000 b/s

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ASK Demodulator
 Coherent: need carrier

- Effective but costly

Data
ASK signal LPF
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ASK Demodulator
 Incoherent: no carrier

 Cheap, low SNR

ASK signal Data

Envelope
BPF
Detection
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ADVANTAGES
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ASK Application

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DISADVANTAGES

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FSK (Frequency Shift Keying)

Mark Space
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FSK Spectrum
f2 f1

- FSK Spectrum:

f f

f1 f2
-1/T0 1/T0
Aliasing
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FSK Modulator

f1
f2 f1 f2 f1 f2
0

1
f2
T0 T0

1
0
T0
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FSK Modulation by using 2 ASK Modulator

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FSK Demodulation (Incoherent)

f1
Envelope
BPF Dection
BFSK

Envelope
BPF Dection
f2
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FSK Application

 Used in telephone modems. For example, a 300bps modem with two frequencies,
1070Hz and 1270Hz
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PSK (Phase Shift Keying)

Out of phase In Phase

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- PSK signal: PSK Spectrum

m(t) = +1 or m(t) = -1
f PSK (t )  Ac cos[(2f c t   )   .m(t )]
 Ac cos(2f c t   ) cos[ .m(t )]  Ac sin(2f c t   ) sin[ .m(t )]
 m1 (t ) f c (t )  m2 (t ) f c (t   / 2)
- PSK spectrum: the same OOK spectrum

-fc 0 fc
-1/T0 1/T0
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PSK Modulator

1
-1
T0

Data: polar NRZ

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PSK Demodulator
A
(Coherent)
PSK Data
LPF

PSK

Carrier

Data
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PSK Aplication

 PSK achieves better SNR than ASK and FSK

 Better signal bandwidth than FSK

 PSK is commonly used in digital information systems

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Spectral Efficiency

 Spectral Efficiency measured by the rate at which information transfer (bit/s) is measured
per unit of occupied bandwidth R/W [(bit/s)/Hz]

 A quantity that reflects how efficiently bandwidth resources are used to transmit information

 How to increase Spectral Efficiency ?

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Multi-level Modulation
 Binary modulation is mapping 1 bit to a symbol. Let M be the symbol number  M = 2

 If combining k-bit group (k>1 to modulate into 1 symbol  multi-level modulation.

 Number of multi-level modulation symbols:

 Bit Rate:

Ts is the width of a symbol

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Bit Rate
 Data rate is to modulator:
Ts is the width of a symbol

 Data rate is from modulator :

(baud)
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Advantages
 Spectral efficiency

 Spectral efficiency: increase k times

k
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Implementation
 Sorts k binary bits carrying information in a symbol M level

 Example:

• M = 4: 4 symbols 00, 01, 10, 11

• M = 8: 8 symbols 000, 001, 010, 011, 100, 101, 110, 111

• Number of levels can reach 1024

 Some types of multilevel modulation: Multilevel PSK (8, 16, 64,...), QPSK, QAM,...

 By using higher order modulation formats, i.e. more points on the constellation, it is possible
to transmit more bits per symbol. However the points are closer together and they are
therefore more susceptible to noise and data errors.
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QPSK (Quadrature Phase Shift Keying)

The QPSK Modulator uses a bit-splitter, two
multipliers with local oscillator, a 2-bit serial to
parallel converter, and a summer circuit.

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QPSK Modulator

The QPSK Modulator

uses a bit-splitter,
two multipliers with
local oscillator, a 2-
bit serial to parallel
converter, and a sum
circuit.

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QPSK

QPSK constellation diagram

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8 PSK
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QAM
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
• Combining amplitude & phase changes to give
additional capacity & is widely used for data
communications. Basic signals exhibit only two
positions which allow the transfer of either a 0 or 1
• Using QAM there are many different points that
can be used, each having defined values of phase
and amplitude. This is known as a constellation
diagram.
• The constellation points are typically arranged in a
square grid with equal horizontal and vertical
spacing.
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Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

• On a constellation diagram, points are symmetrically distributed
in a square grid. The number of constellation points in the grid
determines the number of bits carried in each symbol. The
following lists two typical QAM examples:
• 256-QAM: 256 is the 8th power of 2, so each symbol can carry
8-bit data.
• 1024-QAM: 1024 is the 102, so each symbol can carry 10-bit
data.

QAM constellation diagram

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Constellation diagram

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Using the signal constellation shown, answer the following questions

a) What type of modulation does this represent?

b) How many symbols are represented (M)?
c) How many bits per symbol are used (N)?
d) If the Baud Rate is 10,000 symbols/second, what is the bit rate (Rb)?
e) Would 16-QAM be more or less susceptible to noise than this type of modulation?

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References:
• [1] H.L.U.Thuc lecture notes:
• [2]. Digital Communications by John G. Proakis, McGraw Hill
Higher Education, ISBN0071181830, 5th edition
• [3] https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R71qE8OqVAA
• [4] https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YjVbxsXjzec
• [5] https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jNV_1ba2IVU&t=21s

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