CHAPTER (5)

Inspection and Testing

5.1- The tester

The person who carries out the test and inspection must be competent to do so, and
must be able to ensure his own safety, as well as that of others in the vicinity. It follows
that he must be skilled and have experience of the type of installation to be inspected
and tested so that there will be no accidents during the process to people, to livestock,
or to property. The Regulations do not define the term 'competent', but it should be
define to mean a qualified electrician or electrical engineer.

5.2 - Why do we need inspection and testing?

There is little point in setting up Regulations to control the way in which electrical
installations are designed and installed if it is not verified that they have been followed.
For example, the protection of installation users against the danger of fatal electric
shock due to indirect contact is usually the low impedance of the earth-fault loop;
unless this impedance is correctly measured. This safety cannot be confirmed; in this
case the test cannot be carried out during installation, because part of the loop is made
up of the supply system which is not connected until work is complete.

In the event of an open circuit in a protective conductor, the whole of the earthed
system could become live during the earth-fault loop test. The correct sequence of
testing would prevent such a danger, but the tester must always be aware of the hazards
applying to himself and to others due to his activities. Testing routines must take
account of the dangers and be arranged to prevent them. Prominent notices should be
displayed to indicate that no attempt should be made to use the installation whilst
testing is in progress.

The precautions to be taken by the tester should include the following:

1. Make sure that all safety precautions are observed

2. Have a clear understanding of the installation, how it is designed and how it has been
installed

3. Make sure that the instruments to be used for the tests are to the necessary standards
and have been recently recalibrated to ensure their accuracy

4. Check that the test leads to be used are in good order, with no cracked or broken
insulation or connectors, and are fused where necessary to comply with the Health and
Safety Executive Guidance.

5. Be aware of the dangers associated with the use of high voltages for insulation
testing. For example, cables or capacitors connected in a circuit which has been
insulation tested may have become charged to a high potential and may hold it for a
significant time.

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To this end, the person carrying out the testing and inspection must be provided with
the following data:

1. The type of supply to be connected, i.e. single- or three- phase.

2. The assessed maximum demand.
3. The earthing arrangements for the installation.
4. Full details of the installation design, including the number and position of mains of
circuits, (see Fig.1 for a typical example).
5. All data concerning installation design, including calculation of live and protective
conductor sizes, maximum demand, etc.
6. The method chosen to prevent electric shock in the event of an earth fault.

Without this complete information the tester cannot verify either that the installation
will comply with the Regulations, or that it has been installed in full accordance with
the design.

Fig 5.1 Typical mains gear schematic diagram.

5.3. Inspection

Before testing begins it is important that a full inspection of the complete installation is
carried out with the supply disconnected. The word 'inspection' has replaced 'visual
inspection', indicating that all the senses (touch, hearing and smell, as well as sight)
must be used. The main purpose of the inspection is to confirm that the equipment and
materials installed:

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1. Are not obviously damaged or defective so that safety is reduced

2. Have been correctly selected and erected

3. Comply with the applicable British Standard or the acceptable equivalent

4. Are suitable for the prevailing environmental conditions

An inspection checklist is shown in Table 5.1. Some inspections are best carried out
whilst the work is in progress. A good example is the presence of fire barriers within
trunking or around conduit where they pass through walls.

Table 5.1 - Inspection check list

1 Identification of conductors
2 Mechanical protection for cables, or routing in safe zones
3 Connection of conductors
4 Correct connection of lamp holders, socket outlets, etc.
5 Connection of single-pole switches in phase conductors only
Checking of design calculations to ensure that correct live and protective
6 conductors have been selected in terms of their current-carrying capacity
and volt drop
7 Presence of fire barriers, suitable seals and protection against fire
8 Protection of live parts by insulation to prevent direct contact
Protection against indirect contact by the use of:-
------a) protective conductors
9
------b) earthing conductors
------c) main and supplementary equipotential bonding conductors
10 Labelling of fuses, circuit breakers, switches and terminals
The settings and ratings of devices for protection against indirect contact
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and against overcurrent
12 The presence of diagrams, instructions, notices, warnings, etc.
Selection of protective measures and equipment in the light of the external
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influences involved

5.4. Correct testing sequence

Some tests will be carried out before the supply is connected, whilst others cannot be
performed until the installation is energised. {Table 5.2} shows the correct sequence of
testing to reduce the possibility of accidents to the minimum.

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 Table 5.2 - Correct sequence for safe testing
BEFORE CONNECTION OF THE SUPPLY
1 Continuity of protective conductors
2 Main and supplementary bonding continuity
3 Continuity of ring final circuit conductors
4 Insulation resistance
5 Protection by separation
6 Protection by barriers and enclosures
7 Polarity
Earth electrode resistance if an earth electrode resistance
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tester is used
WITH THE SUPPLY CONNECTED
Earth electrode resistance if an earth-fault loop tester or the
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ammeter and voltmeter method are used
10 Confirm correct polarity
11 Earth-fault loop impedance
12 Correct operation of residual current devices
13 Correct operation of switches and isolators

5.5. Why is correct sequence important?

Testing can be hazardous, both to the tester and to others who are within the area of the
installation during the test. The danger is compounded if tests are not carried out in the
correct sequence.

For example, it is of great importance that the continuity, and hence the effectiveness,
of protective conductors is confirmed before the insulation resistance test is carried out.
The high voltage used for insulation testing could appear on all extraneous metalwork
associated with the installation in the event of an open-circuit protective conductor if
insulation resistance is very low.
Again, an earth-fault loop impedance test cannot be conducted before an installation is
connected to the supply, and the danger associated with such a connection before
verifying polarity, protective system effectiveness and insulation resistance will be
obvious.

Any test which fails to produce an acceptable result must be repeated after remedial
action has been taken. Any other tests, whose results may have been influenced by the
fault concerned, must also be repeated.

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5.6. Protective conductor continuity

All protective and bonding conductors must be tested to ensure that they are electrically
safe and correctly connected. Provided that the supply is not yet connected, it is
permissible to disconnect the protective and equipotential conductors from the main
earthing terminal to carry out testing. Where the mains supply is connected, as will be
the case for periodic testing, the protective and equipotential conductors must not be
disconnected because if a fault occurs these conductors may rise to a high potential
above earth. In this case, an earth-fault loop tester can be used to verify the integrity of
the protective system.

Fig 5.2 - Protective conductor continuity test using the

neutral conductor as the return lead

5.7. Ring final circuit continuity

The ring final circuit, feeding 13 A sockets, is extremely widely used, both in domestic
and in commercial or industrial situations. It is very important that each of the three
rings associated with each circuit (phase, neutral and protective conductors) should be
continuous and not broken. If this happens, current will not be properly shared by the
circuit conductors. {Fig 5.3} shows how this will happen. {Fig 5.3(a)} shows a ring
circuit feeding ten socket outlets, each of which is assumed to supply a load taking a
current of 3 A. In simple terms, current is then shared between the conductors, so that
each could have a minimum current carrying capacity of 15 A. {Fig 5.3(b)} shows the
same ring circuit with the same loads, but broken between the ninth and tenth sockets.
It can be seen that now one cable will carry only 3 A whilst the other (perhaps with a
current rating of 20 A) will carry 27 A. The effect will occur in any broken ring,
whether simply one live conductor or both are broken.

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 Fig 5.3 - illustrating the danger of a break in a ring final circuit
a) unbroken ring with correct current sharing
b) broken ring with incorrect current sharing

Test 1
This test confirms that complete rings exist and that there are no breaks. To complete
the test, the two ends of the ring cable are disconnected at the distribution board. The
phase conductor of one side of the ring and the neutral from the other (P1 and N2J are
connected together, and a low resistance ohmmeter used to measure the resistance
between the remaining phase and the neutral (P2 and Ni). {Figure 5.4} shows that this
confirms the continuity of the live conductors. To check the continuity of the circuit
protective conductor, connect the phase and CPC of different sides together (P1 and
E2) and measure the resistance between phase and CPC of the other side (P2 and El).

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 Fig 5.4 - Test to confirm the continuity of a ring final circuit

Test 2

This test will confirm the absence of bridges in the ring circuit, see {Fig 5.5}. First, the
phase conductor of one side of the ring is connected to the neutral of the other (P1 and
N2) and the remaining phase and neutral are also connected together (P2 -and Ni). The
resistance is then measured between phase and neutral contacts of each socket on the
ring. If the results of these measurements are all substantially the same (within 0.05
Ohms), the absence of a bridge is confirmed. If the readings are different, this will
indicate the presence of a bridge or may be due to incorrect connection of the ends of
the ring. If they are connected P1 to NI and P2 to N2 then readings will increase or
reduce as successive measurements round the ring are taken, as is the case where a
bridge exists. Whilst this misconnection is easily avoided when using sheathed cables, a
mistake can be made very easily if the system consists of single-core cables in conduit.
It may be of interest to note that the resistance reading between phase and neutral
outlets at each socket should be one quarter of the phase/neutral reading of Test 1.

Fig 5.5 - Test to confirm the absence of bridges in a ring final circuit

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5.8. Correct polarity

If a single-pole switch or fuse is connected in the neutral of the system rather than in
the phase, a very dangerous situation may result as illustrated in {Fig 5.6}.

Fig 5.6 - The danger of breaking the neutral of a circuit

Fig 5.7 - Polarity test of an installation

It is thus of the greatest importance that single-pole switches, fuses and circuit breakers
are connected in the phase (non-earthed) conductor, and verification of this connection
is the purpose of the polarity test. Also of importance is to test that the outer (screw)
connection of E S lamp holders is connected to the earthed (neutral) conductor, as well
as the outer contact of single contact bayonet cap (BC) lamp holders. The test may be
carried out with a long wander lead connected to the phase conductors at the
distribution hoard and to one terminal of an ohmmeter or a continuity tester on its low
resistance scale. The other connection of the device is equipped with a shorter lead
which is connected in turn to switches, centre lamp holder contacts, phase sockets of
socket outlets and so on. A very low resistance reading indicates correct polarity (see
{Fig 5.8}). To avoid the use of a long test lead, a temporary connection of phase to
protective systems may be made at the mains position. A simple resistance test between
phase and protective connections at each outlet will then verify polarity. In the unlikely
event of the phase and protective conductor connections having been transposed at the

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outlet, correct polarity will still be shown by this method; this error must he overcome
by visual verification
Don't forget to remove the temporary connection afterwards!

Special care in checking polarity is necessary with periodic tests of installations already
connected to the supply, which must be switched off before polarity testing. It is also
necessary to confirm correct connection of supply phase and neutral. Should they be
transposed, all correctly-connected single-pole devices will be in the neutral, and not in
three phase conductor.

One practical method of checking polarity and continuity of ring or radial

circuits for socket outlets is to connect two low power lamps to a 13 A plug. One is
connected between phase and neutral, and the other between phase and earth. Plugging
in at each socket tests correct polarity and the continuity of live and protective
conductors when both indicators light. It is important where RCD protection is
employed to use very low power indicator lamps such as neon or LED devices (with
suitable current limiting resistors where necessary). The smallest filament lamp will
take sufficient current from phase to earth to trip most RCDs.

Insulation resistance
A11 electrical equipment has insulation. The purpose of the insulation is to keep
electric currents in the conductors and to prevent contact with live wires. The electrical
resistance of insulation must be very high (MΩ) to prevent current leaking away from
conductors. Insulation resistance is measured between:
 Conductors and Earth
 Conductors.
The insulation resistance includes the resistance of the insulation material and also the
resistance of any surface deposits of dirt, oil, moisture, etc. Surface deposits can reduce
the insulation resistance.
The flow of leakage currents through such surface deposits is called tracking which is
also affected by the creepage and clearance distances between terminals as shown in
Fig. 1.7.

Fig. 1.7 Creepage and clearance distances

Equipment must be maintained in a clean condition to prevent tracking and to maintain

a high value of insulation resistance (usually at least 1, MΩ).

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Insulation materials are non-metallic and have very few of the generally good physical
properties associated with metals. Insulation is adversely affected by many factors such
as humidity, temperature, electrical and mechanical stress, vibration, chemicals, oil, dirt
and, of course, old age.
Traditional insulation materials include cotton, silk, paper, etc. They may be either dry
or treated with suitable varnishes or resins to exclude moisture and other harmful
substances. Other materials include mica, glass fibre, etc., and more modern materials
such as PVC and other plastics and compounds. An extensively used medium not
normally considered as an insulation material is the air surrounding the electrical
components.
The majority of insulation materials in common use cannot withstand temperatures
much in excess of 1000C. All electrical equipment heats up when carrying load current
with the consequent rise in temperature. This temperature rise is above that of the
ambient cooling air temperature.
All marine electrical equipment is constructed and rated to work satisfactorily in a
maximum ambient air temperature of 450C. Under these conditions the expected
temperature rise will not exceed the permitted temperature limit set for the insulation
material. It is therefore the insulation material that dictates the maximum permitted
operating temperature of the electrical equipment.
For this purpose, insulation is classified according to the maximum temperature at
which it is safe to operate. Various classes of insulation are listed in British Standards
(BS) and classes A, E, B and F are used for marine electrical equipment. The maximum
temperature allowed for each of these classes is:

Insulation Class A E B F H C
Max. Temp. 55OC 70OC 80OC 105OC 130OC >130OC

These are steady surface temperatures measured with equipment stopped and no flow
of cooling air. Hot-spot temperatures of 105OC (Class A) and 130OC (Class B) are
generally accepted as normal at the centre of coils and windings of machines with these
surface temperatures. A machine operating continuously with these hot-spot
temperatures would have an expected life of 15 to 20 years before the insulation failed
completely. However, the life expectancy would be halved for every 10 OC above these
allowed hot-spot temperatures.

5.9. Testing insulation resistance between poles

A low resistance between phase and neutral conductors, or from live conductors to
earth, will result in a leakage current. This current could cause deterioration of the
insulation, as well as involving a waste of energy which would increase the running
costs of the installation. Thus, the resistance between poles or to earth must never be
less than half of one mega ohm (0.5 M Ohms) for the usual supply voltages. In addition
to the leakage current due to insulation resistance, there is a further current leakage in
the reactance of the insulation, because it acts as the dielectric of a capacitor. This
current dissipates no energy and is not harmful, but we wish to measure the resistance
of the insulation, so a direct voltage is used to prevent reactance from being included in
the measurement. Insulation will sometimes have high resistance when low potential
differences apply across it, but will break down and offer low resistance when a higher

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voltage is applied. For this reason, the high levels of test voltage shown in {Table 5.3}
are necessary.

Fig 5.8 Testing insulation resistance between poles

Before commencing the test it is important that:

1. Electronic equipment which could be damaged by the application of the high test
voltage should be disconnected. Included in this category are electronic fluorescent
starter switches, touch switches, dimmer switches, power controllers, delay timers,
switches associated with passive infrared detectors (PIRs), RCDs with electronic
operation etc. An alternative to disconnection is to ensure that phase and neutral are
connected together before an insulation test is made between them and earth.
2. Capacitors and indicator or pilot lamps must be disconnected or an inaccurate test
reading will result.

Table 5.3 - Required test voltages and minimum resistance

Nominal circuit voltage Test voltage Minimum insulation
(V) resistance (M Ohms)
Extra-low voltage circuits supplied
250 0.25
from a safety transformer
Up to 500 V except for above 500 0.5
Above 500 V up to 1000 V 1000 1.0
The insulation resistance tester must be capable of maintaining the required voltage
when providing a steady state of current of 1mA.

Where any equipment is disconnected for testing purposes, it must be subjected to its
own insulation test, using a voltage which is not likely to result in damage. The result
must conform to that specified in the British Standard concerned, or be at least 0.5 M
Ohms if there is no Standard.

5.10. The insulation test to earth

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{Fig 5.9} must be carried out on the complete installation with the main switch off,
with phase and neutral connected together, with lamps and other equipment
disconnected, but with fuses in, circuit breakers closed and all circuit switches closed.
Where two-way switching is wired, only one of the two strapper wires will be tested.
To test the other, both two-way switches should be operated and the system retested.

Fig 5.9 - Insulation test to earth

If desired, the installation can be tested as a whole, when a value of at least 0.5 M
Ohms should be achieved, see {Fig 5.9}. In the case of a very large installation where
there are many earth paths in parallel, the reading would be expected to be lower. If this
happens, the installation should be subdivided and retested, when each part must meet
the minimum requirement. The tests to earth {Fig 5.9} and between poles {Fig 5.8}
must be carried Out as indicated, with a minimum acceptable value for each test of 0.5
M Ohms. However, where a reading of less than 2 M Ohms is recorded for an
individual circuit, (the minimum value required by the Health and Safety Executive),
there is the possibility of defective insulation, and remedial work may be necessary. A
test result of 2 M Ohms may sometimes be unsatisfactory. If such a reading is the result
of a re-test, it is necessary to consult the data from previous tests to identify
deterioration. A visual inspection of cables to determine their condition is necessary
during periodic tests; perished insulation may not always give low insulation readings

5.11. Testing earth electrodes

Using an earth fault loop impedance tester.

The tester is connected between the phase at the origin of the installation and the earth
electrode under test as shown in {Fig 5.10}. The test is then carried out, the result being
taken as the electrode resistance although the resistance of the protective system from
the origin of the installation to the furthest point of the installation must be added to it
before its use to verify that the 50 V level is not exceeded. If an RCD with a low
operating current is used, the protective system resistance is likely to be negligible by
comparison with the permissible electrode resistance.

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 Fig 5.10 Measurement of earth electrode resistance using an earth-fault loop tester

It is most important to ensure that earthing leads and equipotential bonds are
reconnected to the earth electrode when testing is complete.

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