Lecture 1

Introduction and importance of biodiversity

Conservation biology is the study of the conservation of nature and of Earth's biodiversity with the aim
of protecting species, their habitats, and ecosystems from excessive rates of extinction and the erosion
of biotic interactions. It is an interdisciplinary subject drawing on natural and social sciences, and the
practice of natural resource management.

Biodiversity is a broad term for biological variety, and it can be measured at a number of organizational
levels. Traditionally, ecologists have measured biodiversity by taking into account both the number of
species and the number of individuals in each of those species. However, biologists are using measures
of biodiversity at several levels of biological organization (including genes, populations, and
ecosystems) to help focus efforts to preserve the biologically and technologically important elements
of biodiversity.

When biodiversity loss through extinction is thought of as the loss of the passenger pigeon, the dodo,
or, even, the woolly mammoth there seems to be no reason to care about it because these events
happened long ago. How is the loss practically important for the welfare of the human species? Would
these species have made our lives any better? From the perspective of evolution and ecology, the loss
of a particular individual species, with some exceptions, may seem unimportant, but the current
accelerated extinction rate means the loss of tens of thousands of species within our lifetimes. Much of
this loss is occurring in tropical rainforests, which are especially high-diversity ecosystems that are
being cleared for timber and agriculture. This is likely to have dramatic effects on human welfare
through the collapse of ecosystems and in added costs to maintain food production, clean air and water,
and improve human health.

Biologists recognize that human populations are embedded in ecosystems and are dependent on them,
just as is every other species on the planet. Agriculture began after early hunter-gatherer societies first
settled in one place and heavily modified their immediate environment: the ecosystem in which they
existed. This cultural transition has made it difficult for humans to recognize their dependence on living
things other than crops and domesticated animals on the planet. Today our technology smoothes out the
extremes of existence and allows many of us to live longer, more comfortable lives, but ultimately the
human species cannot exist without its surrounding ecosystems. Our ecosystems provide our food. This
includes living plants that grow in soil ecosystems and the animals that eat these plants (or other
animals) as well as photosynthetic organisms in the oceans and the other organisms that eat them. Our
ecosystems have provided and will provide many of the medications that maintain our health, which
are commonly made from compounds found in living organisms. Ecosystems provide our clean water,
which is held in lake and river ecosystems or passes through terrestrial ecosystems on its way into
groundwater.

Patterns of Biodiversity

Latitudinal gradient: Biodiversity tends to increase as you move closer to the equator, and decreases
as you move toward the poles. This is known as the latitudinal gradient, and it is one of the most
consistent and widely observed patterns of biodiversity. It is not yet clear why biodiversity increases
closer to the equator, but hypotheses include the greater age of the ecosystems in the tropics versus
temperate regions, which were largely devoid of life or drastically impoverished during the last ice age.
The greater age provides more time for speciation. Another possible explanation is the greater energy
the tropics receive from the sun versus the lesser energy input in temperate and Polar Regions. But
scientists have not been able to explain how greater energy input could translate into more species. The
complexity of tropical ecosystems may promote speciation by increasing the habitat heterogeneity, or
number of ecological niches, in the tropics relative to higher latitudes.
Regardless of the mechanisms, it is certainly true that biodiversity is greatest in the tropics. The number
of endemic species is higher in the tropics. The tropics also contain more biodiversity hotspots. At the
same time, our knowledge of the species living in the tropics is lowest and because of recent, heavy
human activity the potential for biodiversity loss is greatest.
Species-area relationship: This pattern describes the relationship between the size of an area and the
number of species found within it. Larger areas tend to have more species, while smaller areas have
fewer.

Habitat heterogeneity: The more varied the habitats in an area, the more species it is likely to support.
This is because different species have different habitat requirements, and a more diverse range of
habitats provides more opportunities for different species to thrive. The greater heterogeneity provides
more opportunities for coevolution, specialization, and perhaps greater selection pressures leading to
population differentiation. However, this hypothesis suffers from some circularity—ecosystems with
more species encourage speciation, but how did they get more species to begin with? The tropics have
been perceived as being more stable than temperate regions, which have a pronounced climate and day-
length seasonality. The tropics have their own forms of seasonality, such as rainfall, but they are
generally assumed to be more stable environments and this stability might promote speciation.

Evolutionary history: Biodiversity can also be influenced by the evolutionary history of a region.
Areas that have been stable for longer periods of time tend to have more species, as they have had more
time for speciation and adaptation to occur.

Human impact: Human activities, such as habitat destruction, pollution, and climate change, can have
a significant impact on biodiversity. These activities can lead to the loss of species, reduction in genetic
diversity, and changes in ecosystem function.

Biogeography
Biogeography is the study of the distribution of the world’s species both in the past and in the present.
The work of biogeographers is critical to understanding our physical environment, how the environment
affects species, and how changes in environment impact the distribution of a species.

There are three main fields of study under the heading of biogeography: ecological biogeography,
historical biogeography (called paleobiogeography), and conservation biogeography. Ecological
biogeography studies the current factors affecting the distribution of plants and animals. Historical
biogeography, as the name implies, historical biogeography studies the past distribution of species.
Conservation biogeography, on the other hand, is focused on the protection and restoration of species
based upon the known historical and current ecological information. Each of these fields considers both
zoogeography and phytogeography—the past and present distribution of animals and plants.
Importance of Biodiversity
Biodiversity and its maintenance are very important for sustaining life on earth. Few of the reasons
explaining the importance of biodiversity are:
Ecological Stability
Every species has a specific role in an ecosystem. They capture and store energy and also produce and
decompose organic matter. The ecosystem supports the services without which humans cannot survive.
A diverse ecosystem is more productive and can withstand environmental stress.
Economic Importance
Biodiversity is a reservoir of resources for the manufacture of food, cosmetic products and
pharmaceuticals. Crops livestock, fishery, and forests are a rich source of food. Wild plants such as
Cinchona and Foxglove plant are used for medicinal purposes.
Wood, fibres, perfumes, lubricants, rubber, resins, poison and cork are all derived from different plant
species. The national parks and sanctuaries are a source of tourism. They are a source of beauty and joy
for many people.
Ethical Importance
All the species have a right to exist. Humans should not cause their voluntary extinction. Biodiversity
preserves different cultures and spiritual heritage. Therefore, it is very important to conserve
biodiversity.
Loss of biodiversity eventually threatens other species we do not impact directly because of their
interconnectedness as species disappear from an ecosystem other species are threatened by the changes
in available resources. Biodiversity is important to the survival and welfare of human populations
because it has impacts on our health and our ability to feed ourselves through agriculture and harvesting
populations of wild animals.
Human Health
Many medications are derived from natural chemicals made by a diverse group of organisms. For
example, many plants produce secondary plant compounds, which are toxins used to protect the plant
from insects and other animals that eat them. Some of these secondary plant compounds also work as
human medicines. Contemporary societies that live close to the land often have a broad knowledge of
the medicinal uses of plants growing in their area. For centuries in Europe, older knowledge about the
medical uses of plants was compiled in herbals—books that identified the plants and their uses. Humans
are not the only animals to use plants for medicinal reasons. The other great apes, orangutans,
chimpanzees, bonobos, and gorillas have all been observed self-medicating with plants.

Modern pharmaceutical science also recognizes the importance of these plant compounds. Examples of
significant medicines derived from plant compounds include aspirin, codeine, digoxin, atropine, and
vincristine. Many medications were once derived from plant extracts but are now synthesized. It is
estimated that, at one time, 25 percent of modern drugs contained at least one plant extract. That number
has probably decreased to about 10 percent as natural plant ingredients are replaced by synthetic
versions of the plant compounds. Antibiotics, which are responsible for extraordinary improvements in
health and lifespans in developed countries, are compounds largely derived from fungi and bacteria.

In recent years, animal venoms and poisons have excited intense research for their medicinal potential.
Other toxins under investigation come from mammals, snakes, lizards, various amphibians, fish, snails,
octopuses, and scorpions.

Aside from representing billions of dollars in profits, these medications improve people’s lives.
Pharmaceutical companies are actively looking for new natural compounds that can function as
medicines. It is estimated that one third of pharmaceutical research and development is spent on natural
compounds and that about 35 percent of new drugs brought to market between 1981 and 2002 were
from natural compounds.

Finally, it has been argued that humans benefit psychologically from living in a biodiverse world. The
chief proponent of this idea is entomologist E. O. Wilson. He argues that human evolutionary history
has adapted us to living in a natural environment and that built environments generate stresses that
affect human health and well-being. There is considerable research into the psychologically
regenerative benefits of natural landscapes that suggest the hypothesis may hold some truth.
Agricultural
Since the beginning of human agriculture more than 10,000 years ago, human groups have been
breeding and selecting crop varieties. This crop diversity matched the cultural diversity of highly
subdivided populations of humans. For example, potatoes were domesticated beginning around 7,000
years ago in the central Andes of Peru and Bolivia. The people in this region traditionally lived in
relatively isolated settlements separated by mountains. The potatoes grown in that region belong to
seven species and the number of varieties likely is in the thousands. Each variety has been bred to thrive
at particular elevations and soil and climate conditions. The diversity is driven by the diverse demands
of the dramatic elevation changes, the limited movement of people, and the demands created by crop
rotation for different varieties that will do well in different fields.

Potatoes are only one example of agricultural diversity. Every plant, animal, and fungus that has been
cultivated by humans has been bred from original wild ancestor species into diverse varieties arising
from the demands for food value, adaptation to growing conditions, and resistance to pests. The potato
demonstrates a well-known example of the risks of low crop diversity: during the tragic Irish potato
famine (1845–1852 AD), the single potato variety grown in Ireland became susceptible to a potato
blight—wiping out the crop. The loss of the crop led to famine, death, and mass emigration. Resistance
to disease is a chief benefit to maintaining crop biodiversity and lack of diversity in contemporary crop
species carries similar risks. Seed companies, which are the source of most crop varieties in developed
countries, must continually breed new varieties to keep up with evolving pest organisms. These same
seed companies, however, have participated in the decline of the number of varieties available as they
focus on selling fewer varieties in more areas of the world replacing traditional local varieties.

The ability to create new crop varieties relies on the diversity of varieties available and the availability
of wild forms related to the crop plant. These wild forms are often the source of new gene variants that
can be bred with existing varieties to create varieties with new attributes. Loss of wild species related
to a crop will mean the loss of potential in crop improvement. Maintaining the genetic diversity of wild
species related to domesticated species ensures our continued supply of food.

Wild Food Sources

In addition to growing crops and raising food animals, humans obtain food resources from wild
populations, primarily wild fish populations. For about one billion people, aquatic resources provide
the main source of animal protein. But since 1990, production from global fisheries has declined.
Despite considerable effort, few fisheries on Earth are managed sustainability.

Fishery extinctions rarely lead to complete extinction of the harvested species, but rather to a radical
restructuring of the marine ecosystem in which a dominant species is so over-harvested that it becomes
a minor player, ecologically. In addition to humans losing the food source, these alterations affect many
other species in ways that are difficult or impossible to predict. The collapse of fisheries has dramatic
and long-lasting effects on local human populations that work in the fishery. In addition, the loss of an
inexpensive protein source to populations that cannot afford to replace it will increase the cost of living
and limit societies in other ways. In general, the fish taken from fisheries have shifted to smaller species
and the larger species are overfished. The ultimate outcome could clearly be the loss of aquatic systems
as food sources.