UNIT-I ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

UNIT-I

Syllabus: Introduction to artificial intelligence: Introduction to Artificial Intelligence,

history, intelligent systems, foundations of AI, applications, tic-tac-tie game playing,
development of AI languages, current trends in AI.

Introduction to Artificial Intelligence

Definition: AI is the field of computer science that enables machines to perform tasks
requiring human-like intelligence.
Understanding of AI: It requires an understanding of related terms such as intelligence,
knowledge, reasoning, cognition, learning and number of other computer-related terms.
Goal of AI: It aims creating intelligent agents that can sense, comprehend, learn, and act
in a way that extends human capabilities.
Two views of AI goals:
First view: Duplicating what the human brain DOES (Cognitive Science).
Second view: Duplicating what the human brain SHOULD DO (doing things logically or
rationally).
Some of the important Definitions of AI are follows:
Authors Year Definition
Charniak & 1985 AI is the study of mental faculties through the use of
Mcdermott computational models.

Kurzweil 1990 The art of creating machines that performs functions which
require intelligence when performed by people.
Schalkoff 1990 AI is the field of study that seeks to explain and emulate
intelligent behaviour in terms of computational processes.
Rich & 1991 AI is the study of how to make computers do things at which, at
Knight the moment, people are better.
Winston 1992 AI is the study of the computations that make it possible to
perceive, reason, and act.
Luger & 1993 AI is the branch of computer science that is concerned with the
Stubblefield automation of intelligent behaviour.

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Types of AI (or) Forms of AI: Artificial Intelligence is divided into two types based on capabilities
(type1) and based on functionality (type2) of AI.

AI type-1: Based on Capabilities

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Artificial Intelligence type-2: Based on

functionality
1. Reactive Machines
o Purely reactive machines are the most basic types of Artificial Intelligence.
o Such AI systems do not store memories or past experiences for future actions.
o These machines only focus on current scenarios and react on it as per possible best action.
o IBM's Deep Blue system is an example of reactive machines.
o Google's AlphaGo is also an example of reactive machines.

2. Limited Memory
o Limited memory machines can store past experiences or some data for a short period of time.
o These machines can use stored data for a limited time period only.
o Self-driving cars are one of the best examples of Limited Memory systems. These cars can store
recent speed of nearby cars, the distance of other cars, speed limit, and other information to
navigate the road.

3. Theory of Mind
o Theory of Mind AI should understand the human emotions, people, beliefs, and be able to interact
socially like humans.
o This type of AI machines are still not developed, but researchers are making lots of efforts and
improvement for developing such AI machines.

4. Self-Awareness
o Self-awareness AI is the future of Artificial Intelligence. These machines will be super intelligent,
and will have their own consciousness, sentiments, and self-awareness.
o These machines will be smarter than human mind.
o Self-Awareness AI does not exist in reality still and it is a hypothetical concept.

The difference between strong AI and weak AI:

 Strong AI makes the bold claim that computers can be made to think on a level (at
least) equal to humans.

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 Weak AI simply states that some "thinking-like" features can be added to

computers to make them more useful tools and this has already started to happen
(witness expert systems, drive-by-wire cars and speech recognition software).

Need for Artificial Intelligence:

1. To create expert systems that exhibit intelligent behavior with the capability to
learn, demonstrate, explain, and advise its users.
2. Helping machines find solutions to complex problems like humans do and applying
them as algorithms in a computer-friendly manner.
3. Improved efficiency: Artificial intelligence can automate tasks and processes that
are time-consuming and require a lot of human effort. This can help improve
efficiency and productivity, allowing humans to focus on more creative and high-
level tasks.
4. Better decision-making: Artificial intelligence can analyze large amounts of data
and provide insights that can aid in decision-making. This can be especially useful in
domains like finance, healthcare, and logistics, where decisions can have significant
impacts on outcomes.
5. Enhanced accuracy: Artificial intelligence algorithms can process data quickly and
accurately, reducing the risk of errors that can occur in manual processes. This can
improve the reliability and quality of results.
6. Personalization: Artificial intelligence can be used to personalize experiences for
users, tailoring recommendations, and interactions based on individual preferences
and behaviors. This can improve customer satisfaction and loyalty.
7. Exploration of new frontiers: Artificial intelligence can be used to explore new
frontiers and discover new knowledge that is difficult or impossible for humans to
access. This can lead to new breakthroughs in fields like astronomy, genetics, and
drug discovery.

Note: According to the father of Artificial Intelligence, John McCarthy, AI is defined as

“The science and engineering of making intelligent machines, especially intelligent
computer programs”.

Perspectives on AI:
 From a business perspective, AI is a set of very powerful tools, and
methodologies for using those tools to solve business problems.
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 From a programming perspective, AI includes the study of symbolic

programming, problem solving, and search.

Characteristics of Artificial Intelligence: Artificial Intelligence systems possess a set of

core characteristics that define their capabilities and functionalities which are described
below:
S. Characteristic Capability
no.
1. Learning and adaptation Capacity to learn and adapt.
2. Problem solving Solving complex problems that involve large amounts
of data and decision-making.
3. Natural Language Processing Empowering machines to grasp, decipher, and
produce human language.
4. Perception Perceive their environment through various sensors.

5. Automation Performing tasks with minimal human intervention.

6. Data handling Handling vast amounts of data efficiently.
7. Parallel processing Performing multiple tasks simultaneously.
8. Continuous learning Adapting to new information and evolving situations.

9. Autonomous decision-making Make autonomous decisions based on data and

predefined rules.

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10. Human-machine interaction Becoming more interactive and capable of

understanding and responding to human emotions
and intentions.

S. Characteristic Functionalities or Apps

no.
1. Learning and adaptation Recommendation systems, NLP (Natural Language
Processing) & Self–Driving cars.
2. Problem solving Medical Diagnosis, Optimisation & Game Playing.

3. Natural Language Processing Virtual Assistants, Language Translation & Sentiment

Analysis.
4. Perception Computer Vision, Speech Recognition &
Environmental Monitoring.
5. Automation Manufacturing, Customer Service & Data entry.
6. Data handling Big Data analysis, Personalisation & Healthcare.
7. Parallel processing High-Performance Computing & financial Trading.
8. Continuous learning Cyber Security & Autonomous Vehicles.

9. Autonomous decision-making Autonomous Vehicles.

10. Human-machine interaction Virtual-Reality (VR), Gaming & Customer Service.

Techniques of AI:
 Artificial Intelligence research during the last three decades has concluded that
Intelligence requires knowledge.
 To compensate overwhelming quality, knowledge possesses less desirable properties.
A. It is huge.
B. It is difficult to characterize correctly.
C. It is constantly varying.
D. It differs from data by being organized in a way that corresponds to its application.
E. It is complicated.

AI technique is a method that exploits knowledge that should be represented in such a

way that:

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 Knowledge captures generalization. Situations that share common properties are grouped
together. Without the property, inordinate amount of memory and modifications will be
required.
 It can be easily modified to correct errors and to reflect changes in the world.
 It can be used in many situations even though it may not be totally accurate or complete.
 It can be used to reduce its own volume by narrowing range of possibilities.

There are three important AI techniques:

1. Search — provides a way of solving problems for which no direct approach is

available. It also provides a framework into which any direct techniques that are
available can be embedded.
2. Use of knowledge — provides a way of solving complex problems by exploiting the
structure of the objects that are involved.
3. Abstraction — provides a way of separating important features and variations from
many unimportant ones that would otherwise overwhelm any process.

Technologies Based on Artificial Intelligence:

1. Machine Learning: A subfield of AI that uses algorithms to enable systems to learn
from data and make predictions or decisions without being explicitly programmed.
2. Natural Language Processing (NLP): A branch of AI that focuses on enabling
computers to understand, interpret, and generate human language.
3. Computer Vision: A field of AI that deals with the processing and analysis of visual
information using computer algorithms.
4. Robotics: AI-powered robots and automation systems that can perform tasks in
manufacturing, healthcare, retail, and other industries.
5. Neural Networks: A type of machine learning algorithm modeled after the
structure and function of the human brain.
6. Expert Systems: AI systems that mimic the decision-making ability of a human
expert in a specific field.

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7. Chat bots: AI-powered virtual assistants that can interact with users through text-
based or voice-based interfaces.

The Future of AI Technologies:

1. Reinforcement Learning: Reinforcement Learning is an interesting field of Artificial
Intelligence that focuses on training agents to make intelligent decisions by interacting
with their environment.
2. Explainable AI: this AI techniques focus on providing insights into how AI models arrive
at their conclusions.
3. Generative AI: Through this technique AI models can learn the underlying patterns and
create realistic and novel outputs.
4. Edge AI: AI involves running AI algorithms directly on edge devices, such as smart
phones, IoT devices, and autonomous vehicles, rather than relying on cloud-based
processing.
5. Quantum AI: Quantum AI combines the power of quantum computing with AI
algorithms to tackle complex problems that are beyond the capabilities of classical
computers.

Drawbacks of Artificial Intelligence:

1. Bias and unfairness: AI systems can perpetuate and amplify existing biases in data
and decision-making.

2. Lack of transparency and accountability: Complex AI systems can be difficult to

understand and interpret, making it challenging to determine how decisions are
being made.

3. Job displacement: AI has the potential to automate many jobs, leading to job loss
and a need for re-skilling.

4. Security and privacy risks: AI systems can be vulnerable to hacking and other
security threats, and may also pose privacy risks by collecting and using personal
data.

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5. Ethical concerns: AI raises important ethical questions about the use of technology
for decision-making, including issues related to autonomy, accountability, and
human-dignity.

Issues of Artificial Intelligence (or) Ethical Considerations of AI:

Artificial Intelligence has the potential to bring many benefits to society, but it also raises
some important issues that need to be addressed, including:
1. Bias and Discrimination: AI systems can perpetuate and amplify human biases,
leading to discriminatory outcomes.
2. Job Displacement: AI may automate jobs, leading to job loss and unemployment.
3. Lack of Transparency: AI systems can be difficult to understand and interpret,
making it challenging to identify and address bias and errors.
4. Privacy Concerns: AI can collect and process vast amounts of personal data, leading
to privacy concerns and the potential for abuse.
5. Security Risks: AI systems can be vulnerable to cyber attacks, making it important
to ensure the security of AI systems.
6. Ethical Considerations: AI raises important ethical questions, such as the
acceptable use of autonomous weapons, the right to autonomous decision making,
and the responsibility of AI systems for their actions.
7. Regulation: There is a need for clear and effective regulation to ensure the
responsible development and deployment of AI.
Note: It’s crucial to address these issues as AI continues to play an increasingly important
role in our lives and society.

Types of Goals in AI:

Scientific Goal: To determine which ideas about knowledge representation, learning, rule
systems search, and so on, explain various sorts of real intelligence.

Engineering Goal: To solve real world problems using AI techniques such as Knowledge
representation, learning, rule systems, search, and so on.

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Note: Traditionally, computer scientists and engineers have been more interested in the
engineering goal, while psychologists, philosophers and cognitive scientists have been
more interested in the scientific goal.

Task Domains of Artificial Intelligence:

S. Types of Task Example

No.
1. Mundane Tasks Perception, Vision, Speech, Natural Language,
Understanding, Generation, Translation, Common sense
reasoning, Robot Control etc.,
2. Formal Tasks  Games: Chess, Checkers etc.,
 Mathematics: Geometry, Logic, Proving properties
of programs.
3. Expert Tasks  Engineering: Design, Fault finding, Manufacturing
planning.
 Scientific Analysis.
 Medical Diagnosis.
 Financial Analysis.

Benefits of Artificial Intelligence:

1. Increased Efficiency, 2.Reducing Human Risk, 3.Aid in Decision Making, 4.Availability.

Careers in Artificial Intelligence:

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History of AI:

 Artificial Intelligence is not a new word and not a new technology for researchers.
This technology is much older than you would imagine.
 Even there are the myths of Mechanical men in Ancient Greek and Egyptian Myths.
 Following are some milestones in the history of AI which defines the journey from
the AI generation to till date development.

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Maturation of Artificial Intelligence (1943-1952)

o Year 1943: The first work which is now recognized as AI was done by Warren McCulloch
and Walter pits in 1943. They proposed a model of artificial neurons.
o Year 1949: Donald Hebb demonstrated an updating rule for modifying the connection
strength between neurons. His rule is now called Hebbian learning.
o Year 1950: The Alan Turing who was an English mathematician and pioneered Machine
learning in 1950. Alan Turing publishes "Computing Machinery and Intelligence" in

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which he proposed a test. The test can check the machine's ability to exhibit intelligent
behavior equivalent to human intelligence, called a Turing test.

The birth of Artificial Intelligence (1952-1956)

o Year 1955: An Allen Newell and Herbert A. Simon created the "first artificial intelligence
program"Which was named as "Logic Theorist". This program had proved 38 of 52
Mathematics theorems, and find new and more elegant proofs for some theorems.
o Year 1956: The word "Artificial Intelligence" first adopted by American Computer scientist
John McCarthy at the Dartmouth Conference. For the first time, AI coined as an academic
field.

At that time high-level computer languages such as FORTRAN, LISP, or COBOL were invented.
And the enthusiasm for AI was very high at that time.

The golden years-Early enthusiasm (1956-1974)

o Year 1966: The researchers emphasized developing algorithms which can solve mathematical
problems. Joseph Weizenbaum created the first chatbot in 1966, which was named as ELIZA.
o Year 1972: The first intelligent humanoid robot was built in Japan which was named as WABOT-1.

The first AI winter (1974-1980)

o The duration between years 1974 to 1980 was the first AI winter duration. AI winter refers to the
time period where computer scientist dealt with a severe shortage of funding from government
for AI researches.
o During AI winters, an interest of publicity on artificial intelligence was decreased.

A boom of AI (1980-1987)
o Year 1980: After AI winter duration, AI came back with "Expert System". Expert systems were
programmed that emulate the decision-making ability of a human expert.
o In the Year 1980, the first national conference of the American Association of Artificial
Intelligence was held at Stanford University.

The second AI winter (1987-1993)

o The duration between the years 1987 to 1993 was the second AI Winter duration.
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o Again Investors and government stopped in funding for AI research as due to high cost but not
efficient result. The expert system such as XCON was very cost effective.

The emergence of intelligent agents (1993-2011)

o Year 1997: In the year 1997, IBM Deep Blue beats world chess champion, Gary Kasparov, and
became the first computer to beat a world chess champion.
o Year 2002: for the first time, AI entered the home in the form of Roomba, a vacuum cleaner.
o Year 2006: AI came in the Business world till the year 2006. Companies like Facebook, Twitter, and
Netflix also started using AI.

Deep learning, big data and artificial general

intelligence (2011-present)
o Year 2011: In the year 2011, IBM's Watson won jeopardy, a quiz show, where it had to solve the
complex questions as well as riddles. Watson had proved that it could understand natural
language and can solve tricky questions quickly.
o Year 2012: Google has launched an Android app feature "Google now", which was able to
provide information to the user as a prediction.
o Year 2014: In the year 2014, Chatbot "Eugene Goostman" won a competition in the infamous
"Turing test."
o Year 2018: The "Project Debater" from IBM debated on complex topics with two master debaters
and also performed extremely well.
o Google has demonstrated an AI program "Duplex" which was a virtual assistant and which had
taken hairdresser appointment on call, and lady on other side didn't notice that she was talking
with the machine.

Note: Now AI has developed to a remarkable level.

 The concept of Deep learning, big data, and data science are now trending like a
boom.
 Nowadays companies like Google, Facebook, IBM, and Amazon are working with AI
and creating amazing devices.
 The future of Artificial Intelligence is inspiring and will come with high intelligence.

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Agents:

Intelligent Systems:
 Intelligent systems are technologically advanced machines that perceive and
respond to the world around them.
 Intelligent systems can take many forms, from automated vacuums such as the
Roomba to facial recognition programs to Amazon's personalized shopping
suggestions.
 What is Intelligence?

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Intelligence is a property of mind that encompasses many related mental abilities,

such as the capabilities to
 Reason
 plan
 solve problems
 think abstractly
 comprehend ideas and language and
 Learn.
ELIZA-The first so-called intelligent system
 ELIZA passed the Turing test which was written by Joseph Weizenbaum during the
period from 1964 to 1966.
 This program created breakthrough and researchers started aiming at making
human like machines.
 ELIZA is a program that conversed with user in English.
 The system initiates the conversation marked as > and user’s responses are marked
as *.
Passage of ELIZA Conversation:
> Hello, I am Eliza. How do you do. Please tell me your problem.
* I have trouble keeping my houseplants alive.
> Your houseplants alive?
* Yes, I forget to water them sometimes.
> You are sure.
* I am sure.
> Do you know anyone else who is sure?
* My plants are sure.
> Why do you say your plants are sure?
* Because they suffer the direct consequences of me not watering them.
> Does that reason seem to explain anything else?

Main Characteristics of ELIZA:

1. Simulation of Intelligence: ELIZA programs are not intelligent in real sense.

 Instead these programs simulate intelligent behaviour quite effectively by

recognising keywords and phrases.

2. Quality of response: It is limited by the number of templates available and the success
depends upon restricted notion of expected response from the system.
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3. Coherence: Coherence means the quality of being logical and consistent.

 Any sense of intelligence depends strongly on the coherence of the conversation as

judged by the user.

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