BIOLOGY 106 NOTES

CHAPTER 1) CLASSIFICATION: TAXANOMY

*On a fundamental level there are only two classes. NON-LIVING OBJECTS (inert) and LIVING OBJECTS
(ORGANISMS). We can separate organisms from inert objects by knowing that organisms REPRODUCE. (they produce
new organisms). These organisms like themselves, which means that they have (HEREDITY).
*The most primitive organisms known (BACTERIA and CYANOBACTERIA). Organisms from simplest to most
complex, adapted to widely varying environments through a process called EVOLUTION. A system was used to classify
these organisms. Using the commonality of ancestry, the TAXONOMIC system recognizes 5 broad categories, or
KINGDOMS which are: MONERA, PROTISTA, FUNGI, PLANTAE, ANIMALIA

1) MONERA KINGDOM
*Monera differ from other kingdoms in that their cells lack a membrane enclosed nucleus, as well as other intracellular
membranous structures present in the cells of other types of organisms. Therefore, they are PROKARYOTIC organisms.
Kingdom has two subgroups: BACTERIA and CYANOBACTERIA
a) Bacteria:
*The most abundant organisms are single celled (UNICELLULAR). They must obtain their nutrients already synthesized
from other organisms. Some obtain these nutrients from dead organisms (decomposer bacteria), other from living
organisms (pathogenic bacteria). Most of them have strong cell walls which protect them from damage as well as
flagellum and pillus.
b) Cyanobacteria:
*All cyanobacteria formerly called BLUE-GREEN ALGAE contain chlorophyll, which enables them to do PHOTOSYNTHESIS
(a process by which they manufacture sugars from CO2 and H2O). They can synthesis their own food so that they can
survive in many habitats. (mostly moist like marine). Their ability to produce O2 as a byproduct is important because it
helps the Ozon layer to form and more.

2) PROTISTA KINGDOM
*This kingdom includes a variety of groups whose members are PREDOMINANTLY UNICELLULAR and starting from this
kingdom, all the rest of the members of the remaining kingdoms are EUKARYOTIC. (Meaning that they have organized
cells with well-defined intracellular membranous structures or COMPARTMENTS called ORGANELS). Members are
classified according to their feeding habits: Plant-Like and Animal-Like Protists
a) The Plant-Like Protists:
*Members have chlorophyll and therefore photosynthetic. They were classified as primitive plants before, but their
unicellular nature classifies them as protists. (Ex: Euglenoids, Diatoms, Volvox)
b) The Animal-Like Protists:
*Members lack chlorophyll and therefore non-photosynthetic. Some are fungus-like but others known as PROTOZOA,
have been viewed as unicellular animals. Protozoa are often highly specialized, their single cell exhibiting a complexity
and a separation of functions similar to that observable in multicellular animals.
Protozoa are generally much larger than bacteria and more mobile (can swim rapidly in water).
**GIARDIA: Propel themselves by the whip like motion of long hair like structures known as FLAGELLA.
**PARAMECIUM: Bear many shorter hair-like structures called CILIA.
**AMOEBA: Have neither flagella nor cilia, but move by a complex flowing motion in which the cell constantly
changing shape, sends out extensions called PSEUDOPODIA or false feet into which the rest of the cell contents flow.

3) FUNGI KINGDOM
*Fungi was used to classified as plants because they are predominantly sedentary, and their cells have walls. But unlike
plants they lack chlorophyll and therefore can’t manufacture their own food. Fungi must obtain their food in an already
synthesized form from outside , but unlike animals, they can not INGEST this food but only can ABSORB it. They either
live on other organisms PARASITIC or on the dead remains of organisms DECOMPOSER.
* Some fungi (Ex: Yeast) are unicellular, but most are multicellular like Bread molds, Fruit molds, mushrooms.

4) PLANTAE KINGDOM
Common to all plants are cells with rigid walls and chloroplasts (organelles containing chlorophyll). There are two
subgroups depending the presence or absence of the vascular tissue (made up of Xylem and Phloem cells which are
responsible for the transport of water + minerals and photosynthetic products respectively, within the plant): Non
Vascular Plants, Vascular Plants
 a) Non Vascular Plants:
*These plants lack roots, flowers, fruits etc. since they do not posses vascular tissues, they either live in water or only in
very moist environments. This group in turn is further subdivided into 3 subgroups:
**Brown and Red Algae: They are primarily MARINE (live only in sea water) and are commonly known as SEAWEEDS.
They are prevalent in the inter-tidal zones along rocky coasts, where they can easily be observed at low tide. Their
colors are due to the brown and red pigments, which often mask the chlorophyll these algae also contain.
**Green Algae: They only live in water or in very moist environments on land. Some are unicellular, some are
multicellular. In multicellular algae, cells are not specialized and they form a single continuous tissue, which is the plant
body. The plants are green because their chlorophyll is not masked by accessory pigments like the browns and reds.
**Mosses, Liverworts and their allies: Although these plants live on land, their survival is strictly dependent on moisture
and shade. Parts of their reproductive cycle is dependent on abundant moisture. On land, because of the lack of
vascular system, they could only obtain water through the moisture surrounding the plants.

b) Vascular Plants:
* The vascular plants show the greatest internal specialization into tissues and organs (roots, stems, leaves and
reproductive organs ‘cones, flowers’). Because they are vascular (they can move water and dissolved substances from
one part to other in the plant body), they are less dependent than the other plant groups on water. They are the
dominant group on land today. Vascular plants are divided into 3 subgroups: The FERNS, the CONIFERS and their allies
(GYMNOSPERMS), and the flowering plants (ANGIOSPERMS).
**Ferns: These are the most primitive. They dominated the land for a long time and they gave the way.
**Gymnosperms: The gymnosperms and the flowering plants are collectively called as the SEED PLANTS. (They are more
specialized for a terrestrial existence than ferns.) Ex: Pine, Cedar, Spruce, Fir. All of these bear cones and have needle-
like leaves, though not all gymnosperms do.
**Angiosperms: The angiosperms; or the FLOWERING PLANTS, are the most advanced of the three groups. Angiosperms
are divided into two subgroups: DICOTYLEDONS (Dicots), which include beans, peas, roses, maple trees, oak trees,
potatoes etc.; and the MONOCOTYLEDONS (Monocots), which include the grasses and grass-like plants such as corn,
lilies, wheat, barley, rice and the palm trees. We can divide these to by:
*The seeds of dicots are composed of two halves but the monocots have a single seed structure.
*The leaves of dicots usually show a network of veins, whereas monocots usually show parallel veins.
*The petals (colored leaves of flowers) of dicots occur in fours or fives or multiples whereas in monocots petal
number is three or multiples of three.

5) ANIMALIA KINGDOM
* Animal cells lack a rigid cell wall. The principle mode of nutrition in animals is digestion of food; most plants, by
contrast depend on photosynthesis and most fungi on absorption. Kingdom is divided into subgroups by their degree of
complexity: COELENTERATES and FLATWORMS
a) Coelenterates: They constitute a large group of primitive aquatic animals whose body plan is radially
symmetrical rather than the bilateral symmetry most other animals display. They have a sac-like body with only one
opening which serves both as the mouth and the anus. The nerves and muscles of these animals are primitive, and no
circulatory system is present. Ex: jelly fish, sea anemones and corals. A fresh water form of coelenterates is the hydra.
b) Flatworms: In some ways they are more complex than coelenterates but they too have a digestive tract with
only one opening. Many flatworms, (Tapeworms), are parasites. Others such as planarians are small free-living non-
parasitic aquatic organisms.
c) Molluscs: They are complex animals, most of which have shells (Snails, Oysters). Octopuses and Squids don’t.
Mostly in oceans but also exist in fresh water. Some snails evolved over time (Lungs, terrestrial).
d) Annelids: They are often called segmented worms and their bodies are divided into a series of units or
segments. (Often clearly visible externally)
e) Arthropods: They are very advanced animals that include more different species than all other. All arthropods
have jointed legs and a hard outer skeleton. Ex: Spiders, scorpions, crabs, lobsters, crayfish and INSECTS. Insects are by
far the largest group, they are rivaled only by the mammal.
f) Echinoderms: They are all strictly marine. (Not anywhere else) Ex: sea stars or starfish, sea urchins, sea
cucumbers and a variety of other forms.
g) Chordates: This group contains a major subgroup called the VERTEBRATES, which comprises all animals
possessing an internal body skeleton, particularly a backbone. Ex: Fish, amphibians (frogs and salamanders), reptiles
(snakes, lizards, turtles, alligators), birds, mammals (humans included).
**NOTE: Marine (only in sea water), Aquatic (fresh water)
CHAPTER 2) MACROMOLECULES OF LIFE
*INORGANIC CHEMISTRY: A branch of chemistry which studies the structures, synthesis and reactions of
compounds other than hydrocarbons and their derivatives.
*ORGANIC CHEMISTRY: A branch of chemistry that deals specifically with the structures, synthesis and reactions
of carbon-containing compounds.
*IONIC BONDS: The bond in which a complete transfer of an electron from one atom to another and the mutual
attraction of the two ions thus formed is termed an ionic bond. Ex: NaCl or the table salt.
*COVALENT BONDS: If the electron is shared between two atoms and keeps them together, this type of a bond
is called covalent bonds Ex: H2O, H2, N2, O2, CH4.
*Organic compounds are based on the element CARBON which has a covalent bonding capacity of 4. Only Hydrogen has
more compounds than Carbon. It is most commonly bonded to Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen or more Carbon. Of central
importance in organic chemistry are the compounds containing only C and H, which are called HYDROCARBONS and the
number of compounds of this kind is immense.
*There are three types of molecular formulas that are used to represent hydrocarbons. 1) Molecular Formulas 2)
Condensed structural formulas and 3) Structural formulas
*Compounds of the same atomic content and molecular formula but differing structure and hence, differing properties
is called ISOMERS.
*Other than pure hydrocarbons, substitution of other elements or groups of elements for hydrogen atoms makes
possible an almost infinite number of DERIVATIVE HYDROCARBONS.

1) CARBOHYDRATES
*Carbohydrates are composed of Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen atoms although; derivative carbohydrates may contain
other elements like Nitrogen and Phosphorus.
*In simple carbohydrates, per Carbon atom the hydrogen and oxygen are characteristically present in the same
proportions as in H2O; i.e. there are 2H and one O atom for each C atom. More complex carbohydrates like cellulose,
starch and glycogen are composed of simpler subunits bonded together.
a) Monosaccharides: Simple Sugars: The basic building blocks of complex carbohydrates are the simple sugars.
Some contain as few as 3Cs; others contain 5Cs, 6Cs (most important) or more. There are many 6C sugars, of which
GLUCOSE (more uses), FRUCTOSE and GALACTOSE are three of the most important. Since all 6C sugars have the same
proportions of C, H and O, all have the same molecular formula of C6H12O6 and therefore are ISOMERS of each other.
Glucose most often exists as a ring, called “Haworth projection”. There are a variety of monosaccharides containing
other elements which are called “Derivative Monosaccharides”
b) Disaccahrides: Disaccharides are compound sugars composed of two simple sugars bonded together through
a reaction that involves the removal of a molecule of H2O. This kind of reaction is called a CONDENSATION REACTION or
a DEHYDRATION REACTION. Since all disaccharides composed of two 6C monosaccharides have the general formula of
C12H22O11, they are ISOMERS of each other. Some disaccharides are; SUCROSE (Table sugar), LACTOSE (Milk Sugar) and
MALTOSE (Malt sugar). Synthesized by CONDENSATION REACTIONS, disaccharides can be broken down to their
constituent simple sugars by the reverse process, which is called HYDROLYSIS REACTION, involves addition of a H2O
molecule. However, monosaccharides can not be hydrolyzed into smaller C-containing substances.
c) Pollysaccharides: They are complex carbohydrates composed of many simple sugar building blocks bonded
together through many condensation reactions called “ POLYMERIZATION REACTIONS”. Just like disaccharides, they are
broken down to monosaccharide building blocks through Hydrolysis reactions. Cellulose, Starch and Glycogen are such
polysaccharides where the building block units are Glucose molecules. Cellulose is a linear (straight chain)
polysaccharide whereas starch is a branched polysaccharide. Glycogen is a polysaccharide where the branching is more
extensive than starch. Cellulose is common to plants, where it is a major supporting material. While starch is the
principal storage form of Glucose in plants, glycogen is the principal storage form in animals therefore it is sometimes
called “animal starch”.

2) LIPIDS
*Lipids are composed principally of C, H and O, but O is found in much smaller proportions. In some structures N and P
are also participated in the structure of lipids (Ex: plasma membranes). Among the best known lipids are the NEUTRAL
FATS. Important as ENERGY-STORAGE molecules in living organisms, the fats also provide INSULATION, CUSHIONING
and PROTECTION for various parts of the body.
*Each molecule of fat is composed of two different types of building block compounds: an alcohol called GLYCEROL and
FATTY ACIDS. One molecule of glycerol and three fatty acid molecules combine, through condensation reaction, by
yielding three molecules of H2O and a fat molecule or “TRIGLYCERIDE”. The fatty acids in edible fats and oils contain an
even number of C atoms and most of them have relatively long C-backbones usually from 4-24.
 a) Saturated Fats: All three fatty acids contain no C=C bonds and thus all the carbons are saturated with
hydrogen atoms. These compounds are solid at room temperature and sometimes they are called “margarines”.
b) Unsaturated Fats: At least one C=C present in at least one fatty acid. These fats are usually liquid at room
temperatures.

3) PROTEINS
*Proteins play crucial roles in both the structure and function of living organisms. They are the major component of
muscles and responsible for muscle contraction; also found in skin, bones, nails and hair. They are also function as O2
carrying in blood, vision in eyes, metabolism regulation as hormones in our body. Proteins are the catalysts (Enzymes) of
biological reactions. They are also composed of simple building block compounds.

a) Amino Acids:
*All proteins contain 4 essential elements; C, H, O, and N and most proteins also conta in some SULFUR. These elements
bonded together to form compounds called AMINO ACIDS. 20 amino acids found in nature differ from each other by the
differences occurring in the R-group which is attached to the central carbon atom (α-Carbon).
*Proteins are long and complex polymers of 20 amino acids. The amino acids are bonded together by CONDENSATION
REACTION between the COOH and the NH2 groups and split apart by HYROLYSIS REACTION. These bonds are called
PEPTIDE BONDS, because the proteins thus, formed are called “polypeptides”. The number of amino acids in a single
polypeptide chain is usually between 40 and 500. Proteins may also combine with non-protein groups called “prosthetic
groups” and such proteins are called CONJUGATED PROTEINS.

b) Enzymes:
*All of the enzymes are proteins. Most enzymes will interact with only one set of reactants (SUBSTRATES). They speed
up only one of the various possible reactions of these substrates. Enzyme-substrate interactions are described as “lock
and key model”. First an ENZYME binds to a SUBSTRATE, and an ENZYME-SUBSTRATE complex form. This complex
quickly gives rise to a PRODUCT and the ENZYME come out of this reaction unchanged. ‘E + S
ES E + P'
*Since enzymes are proteins, those factors affect protein activity also affect enzyme activity such as pH, temperature,
concentration of the enzyme and/or concentration of the substrate and also the presence of chemical agents
(inhibitors) that mask or block the binding sites of the enzymes which interact with the substrates.

4) NUCLEIC ACIDS
*They are composed of C, H, O, N, and Phosphorus elements. They are the materials of which the genes, the units of
heredity, are composed of. They are also the messenger substances that convey information from the genes in the
nucleus to the rest of the cell, information that not only determines the structural attributes of the cell but also
regulates its ongoing functional activities.
*Nucleic acid molecules are long polymers of smaller building block units. In this case the building blocks, called
NUCLEOTIDES, and actually nucleotides themselves are composed of still smaller constituent parts; a 5C sugar, a tri-
phosphate group and a N-containing base, both of which is covalently bonded to the sugar.
a) Deoxyribonucleic acids (DNA): These molecules are the essential components of the genes located on our
chromosomes. The sugar in this group of nucleic acids is DEOXYRIBOSE. There are four different N-containing bases;
Adenine, Guanine (A class of compounds called PURINES) and Cytosine and Thymine (PYRIMIDINES). The sugar of one
nucleotide is always attached to the phosphate group of the next nucleotide in the sequence (creating a sugar-
phosphate backbone). Two chain form.
The chains are held together by the correct pairing of the N-containing bases through the hydrogen bonds
forming between them. The correct pairings are: Adenine with a Thymine (2H bonds) and Guanine with a Cytosine (3H
bonds). The entire double-chain molecule is coiled into a double helix structure.
b) Ribonucleic acids (RNA): There are several types of RNA, each with a different role in PROTEIN SYNTHESES.
Some act as messengers (mRNA) carrying instructions from the DNA (genes) to the ribosomes, bodies that are
the sites of protein syntheses in the cell. (rRNA: ribosomal RNA) by combining with ribosomal proteins, forms the
ribosomes where the protein synthesis occurs. (tRNA: transfer RNA) transports amino acids to the ribosomes and in
accordance with the information written on the mRNA, assembles the proteins.
Converting the DNA information to mRNA information is called TRANSCRIPTION and this information’s
conversion into protein information is called TRANSLATION. When the DNA and RNA molecules are compared from a
structural point of view, three major differences are apparent.
CHAPTER 3) CELL STRUCTURE & FUNCTION (CYTOLOGY)
*MEMBRANES are the boundaries around the cells. Basic component of this membrane is lipids or more specifically
PHOSPHOLIPIDS. The charge separation in the molecule; the “head” portion is (+) charged and therefore HYDROPHILIC
(likes water), and the “tail” portion is (-) charged and therefore HYDROPHOBIC (hates water). When these phospholipids
contacted water, they form a “theoretical monolayer”, however they soon assume a BILAYER structure. This bilayer
tends to form a closed bubble (lipid vesicle) in water (it minimizes the contact between water and the hydrophobic tails
and is energetically the most stable configuration).
*Membranes consist of phospholipid bilayers with various sorts of PROTEINS located on the membrane surfaces
according to the widely accepted FLUID MOSAIC MODEL of membrane structure.

MOVEMENT OF MATERIALS ACROSS MEMBRANES

*All materials (including the cellular solvent: H2O) move across membranes through highly regulated mechanisms:
Osmosis, Simple Diffusion, Active Transport

a) Osmosis: A membrane is said to be “PERMEABLE” to a substance if it allows free passage of that substance.
The living cell membranes “is not openly permeable” to any substance, including, H2O, although H2O may cross more
freely than most other substances. Cellular membranes are SEMIPERMEABLE, meaning solvents but not solutes may
cross. When a solute is more concentrated on one side of a membrane than the other, a CONCENTRATION GRADIENT
exists. If a solvent is capable of traversing a membrane it will move from the side where the solute is more dilute
(HYPOTONIC) (or alternatively speaking, where the free water is more), to the side of greater solute concentration
(HYPERTONIC) (or alternatively speaking, where the free water is less) and will continue to move until the
concentrations are equal across both sides of the membrane (ISOTONIC). The process by which a solvent crosses a
membrane in response to a concentration gradient is known as OSMOSIS and the force with which the solvent is drawn
from dilute solute side to the concentrated side is the OSMOTIC PRESSURE. EXPERIMENT: If red blood cells are placed in
solutions with different concentrations of ions; HYPERTONIC SOLUTION: Red blood cells lose water and shrink.
HYPOTONIC SOLUTION: Red blood cells gain water and explode. ISOTONIC SOLUTION: Red blood cells remain
unchanged.

b) Simple Diffusion: Many solutes (dissolved in the cellular solvent: H2O) cross membranes by simple diffusion,
moving “DOWN” a concentration gradient from a higher concentration of solute side to the lower concentration side by
the involvement of special membrane proteins. In general the greater the charge on an ion, the less readily it will cross a
membrane (Na+ and K+ pass easily than Ca+2 and Mg+2). The rate of diffusion through a membrane is known as FLUX.

c) Active Transport: Active transport is able to achieve a net movement of a solute “UPHILL” against a
concentration gradient. To accomplish this task the cell must use ATP as the energy source. To push substances out of
the cell or pulling them in against a concentration gradient in a resting human body 30-40% of all energy used goes in to
active transport (may be higher in some organs like brain and kidneys).
Nearly all cells (either prokaryotic or eukaryotic) use active transport to pull valuable molecules like sugars.
Expenditure of 1 ATP molecule to pull one molecule of glucose, for example, yields 38 ATP molecules, which is an
extremely efficient trade.

EUKARYOTIC CELL STRUCTURE

*All organisms except those in the Monera kingdom are composed of eukaryotic cells. Eukaryotic cells are characterized
by internal membrane systems and by compartmentalization that subdivides the chemical activities. These membrane
bound structures within eukaryotic cells are called ORGANELLES.

1) NUCLEUS
*The cell’s nucleus is surrounded by the NUCLEAR ENVELOPE which consists of two layers of membranes.
Macromolecules (mRNA, rRNA, nuclear proteins etc) can exit or enter the nucleus through PORES, which provide routes
for communication with the surrounding cytoplasm.
*Within the nucleus, DNA is organized in linear arrays of NUCLEOSOMES particles about 11 nm in diameter separated by
stretches of DNA double helix. A nucleosome contains a relatively fixed length of DNA wrapped up with 8+1 sets of
special proteins called HISTONES. The most obvious visual evidence of DNA organization within the nucleus is the
CHROMOSOMES (which are further coiled DNA + Histone proteins which become visible during cell division).
*Within the nucleus, are one or more masses called NUCLEOLI where rRNA is synthesized and stored prior to leaving the
nucleus and combining with ribosomal proteins to form the ribosomes; the sites for protein synthesis.
 2) ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
*Immediately surrounding the nucleus is a network of flattened tubes called ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM. This organelle
is of two types: 1) ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (RER) and 2) SMOOTH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (SER).
a) RER: It is called “rough” because its surface is studded with ribosomes. This is the place where proteins are
synthesized by translation of the mRNA. Following their synthesis the proteins are modified and transported to other
parts of the cell or outside the cell within small carrier vesicles.
b) SER: SER do not contain ribosomes and do not function in protein synthesis. Phospholipids, neutral fats,
sterols and other lipids can easily be observed. This composition reflects the fact that SER is the site for LIPID
BIOSYNTHESIS.

3) GOLGI APPARATUS
*In most eukaryotic cells, one or more GOLGI BODIES are present in the form of membranous sacs. Membranous sacs
(transfer vesicles) from RER and SER bring proteins and lipids to the Golgi body, where they are repackaged into
SECRETORY VESICLES. These vesicles then move to the plasma membrane where their contents are expelled from the
cell (Exocytosis). Thus, actively secreting cells, such as pancreas gland, often have prominent golgi bodies which often go
by the term GOLGI APPARATUS.
*In plant cells golgi bodies (DICTYOSOMES) are involved in formation of the polysaccharide cell wall.
*Golgi bodies also carry on synthesis. In them, proteins from the RER are converted to glycoproteins, polysaccharides of
various sorts and mucoproteins which form the mucus are synthesized.

4) LYSOSOMES
*Lysosomes are membrane-bound organelles that contain a variety of powerful hydrolytic enzymes which catalyze the
breakdown of large biological molecules. The separation of hydrolytic enzymes from the cytoplasm by the lysosome’s
membrane protects the normal working components of a living cell from digesting itself. Lysosomes vary in size and
appearance, and probably derived either from the ER or Golgi.

5) MITOCHONDRIA
*Mitochondria act as power plants in the energy system of eukaryotic cells. The output of this energy production is the
high compound called ATP. Mitochondria have double membrane system; the outer one is fairly typical, unspecialized
UNIT MEMBRANE, but the inner one is highly specialized for ATP production. Elaborate folds of this inner membrane
(called CRISTA) extend into the mitochondria’s interior gel-like matrix (called STROMA). All the ATP synthesizing
enzymes are located on the inner surfaces of crista.
*Mitochondria have their own molecules of DNA but the amount is only enough to provide information for the
synthesis of limited number of proteins; most mitochondrial proteins are actually come from the cytoplasm and are
coded for by the DNA in the nucleus. It contains a protein synthesizing apparatus of their own complete with ribosomes.
However, not only the DNA but also the protein synthesizing apparatus with the ribosomes resembles more to bacterial
systems rather than eukaryotic systems.
*A theory called ENDOSYMBIOSIS THEORY is proposed to explain the origins of mitochondria (because of its similarity
with bacteria). According to it, mitochondria are the remnants of bacteria that were internalized by organisms less
proficient at energy production early in the evolution of eukaryotic cells. And during the time course lost their bacterial
properties.

6) CHLOROPLASTS
*Chloroplasts are green organelles present only in photosynthetic cells of plants and in the cells of eukaryotic protists
capable of photosynthesis. Each chloroplast is surrounded by an envelope consisting of two membranes. While the
outside membrane is a typical unit membrane, inside, an internal membrane system is made up of specialized
THYLAKOIDS elaborately organized into stacks of flat membrane sacs called GRANA. Embedded in the thylakoid
membranes are enzymes and pigments essential for photosynthesis.
*Chloroplasts have their own DNA as well as protein synthesis apparatus complete with ribosomes. The
ENDOSYMBIOSIS THEORY is also applicable to the explanation of the origins of chloroplasts. Chloroplasts, like
mitochondria, may have evolved from prokaryotic cells, possibly from cyanobacteria, which entered a non-
photosynthetic cell and took up permanent residence and during the time course lost their bacterial properties.
 7) OTHER INTRACELLULAR ORGANELLES
a) Storage Granules: Unit membranes surround the storage granules found in many cells. Cells that export
substances (the hormone producing cells of the endocrine glands), often store their products in granules until
something causes their release through the plasma membrane. In plants, we see AMYLOPLASTS and CHROMOPLASTS
which store starch and non-photosynthetic pigments respectively.
b) Microbodies: Microbodies are similar in structure to lysosomes but are smaller. There are two types:
PEROXISOMES and GLYOXISOMES. Peroxisomes are found in both animal and plant cells and contain the enzyme called
CATALASE. Certain cellular reactions that produce the highly toxic oxidizing agent hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) are
confined to Peroxisomes, with catalase functioning to breakdown. 2H2O2 -> 2H2O + O2
Glyoxysomes are found in plant cells and also contain catalase which in this case split the H2O2 formed during the
conversion of lipids to sugars specifically.
c) Cytoskeleton: Within the cytoplasm a network of protein fibers support cell shape and anchor organelles.
Within these proteins ACTIN filaments are responsible for cell movement whereas MICROTUBULES (tubular polymers of
the “tubulin” protein) not only involves in the cell division event but also assemble the pair of cylindrical 9X3 structures
(CENTRIOLES) located at right angles to each other. And finally the INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS provide physical support
network for the cell.

8) CELLS AND TISSUES

*Cells within a multicellular eukaryotic organism are not simply packed together. They rather form layers and
assemblies referred to as TISSUES of which all organs and larger structures are made.
*Organs of multicellular plants and animals are composed of one or more tissues, which in turn are composed
of specific types of cells and extracellular materials. Three examples are given below:
*The cells of the outer surfaces of animals and those lining the small intestines make up the EPITHELIAL tissues.
*The cells that line the heart chambers and blood vessels make up the ENDOTHELIAL tissues.
*CONNECTIVE tissues consist of both cells and intracellular materials. Cells called FIBROBLASTS produce the
protein COLLAGEN, which forms a though but flexible organic framework in BONE CARTILAGE and TENDONS (where
muscles connected to the bone).
*During development, different tissues chemically signal each other and join to construct a given organ. For
example, skin with Its variety of cell types and structures is formed from the mutual interactions between the surface
epithelium (the EPIDERMIS) and a deeper layer of connective tissue called DERMIS.
*Similar assemblies of cell types into tissues also occur in plants. Important structures in the development of
plant tissues are the MERISTEMS.
*Two types of meristems: Apical meristems are located in tips of roots and buds of shoots and responsible in
Primary Growth; growth in length, whereas Lateral meristems are cylinders of dividing cells along the length of roots
and shoots and responsible in Secondary Growth; growth in girth.
*Meristems are also responsible for the development of VASCULAR TISSUES . Vascular tissues are composed of
specialized tissues and cells of Xylem which are responsible for the movement of water and dissolved minerals from the
soil up, and the Phloem which are responsible for the distribution of photosynthetic products within the plant and its
movement to storage areas (sinks).