Animal tissues

A cell is a basic unit of body. Many cells form a tissue.

A tissue may be defined as the Group of cells that may be or may not be similar in structure but are specialized
to perform specific functions.
The study of tissue is called histology. Marcello Malpighi is the founder of histology
Types of Animal Tissues
On the basis of structure and function there are four types of animal tissue. They are:
• Epithelial tissues
• Connective Tissues
• Muscular tissues
• Nervous tissue.
A. Epithelial tissues-
These tissues form covering of the various body parts on outside as well as the internal organs. These epithelial
tissues are secretary, glandular, protection and sensory in functions. On the basis of cell layers they are of two
types. They are;
• Simple epithelium
• Stratified or compound epithelial tissues:

a) Simple epithelial tissue

The simple epithelium tissue is composed of a single layer of cells. All the cell rest on a basement
membrane. They are of following types;

[Link] squamous epithelium:

This is made up of thin, flat and hexagonal cells. A large central rounded nucleus contain by each cell. It is
usually forms a covering around coelom. Its main function is help in protection, absorption, filtration and
exchange of gases. Also called Pavement epithelium.
2. Simple cuboidal epithelium:
This tissue consists of cubical cells. These cell lies on a basement membrane. It forms the lining on kidney
tubules, sweat glands, salivary glands, gut lining, testis and ovary. This tissue involves in secretion, absorption
and excretion. They are also two types, ciliated cuboidal and Brush bordered cuboidal. The cubical cells have
cilia on the free surfaces and brush bordered cuboidal types of cell have microvilli at free the end of cells.
3. Simple columnar epithelium:
This type of epithelium consists of tall columnar cells. These cells are placed side by side forming a layer. It
forms the lining of the stomach, gastric glands, intestinal glands, gall bladder, ureters and uterine wall. This
tissue involves in protection, secretion etc. They are of two types. Cells having cilia on the surfaces called
ciliated columnar and cells having microvilli at free ends of the cells called brush bordered columnar.
4. Pseudo-stratified epithelium:
The stratified epithelium is formed of columnar cell. The cell remain deep but do not reach the free surface. It
is found in the lining of trachea, large bronchi, and ducts of some glands. Its function as protection against dust
particles entering the respiratory tract.
b) Stratified or compound epithelial tissues
These tissues is formed of several layers of epithelial cells. It is called multilayered tissue. They are of
following types;
1. Stratified squamous epithelium:
It is type of tissue in which the upper layer consists of large flat polygonal or squamous cell. It is also of two
types namely Ketratinised stratified epithelium which is found on hair, claws and nails. and Non ketratinised
stratified epithelium found on wet surfaces like in buccal cavity, pharynx, vegina, etc.

2. Stratified cuboidal epithelium:

It is the type of tissue in which the outer most layer consists of cuboidal cells which is found on sweet glands,
salivary glands, pancreatic gland, female urethra, etc.
3. Stratified columnar epithelium:
In this type the outer layer of tissue consists of tall columnar cells. However, the lower layer germinative cells
are cuboidal type. It is found on the lining of ducts mammary glands, lining of vasa-defferentia, trachea and
bronchi.
4. Transitional epithelium:
Transitional epithelium is composed of several layer. It is capable in extension which has the capacity to search
and relax. It is found on urinary bladder, ureters, uterus, etc.
Modified epithelium
Some epithelium cells are modified for specialized functions. These are;
1. Ciliated epithelium:
It is modified form of columnar or cuboidal cells which bear cilia help in conduction of mucus and other
substances. It is found in trachea, bronchi, sperm ducts etc.
2. Sensory epithelium:
It is the modified columnar cells found in tongue and nasal cavities which are sensitive in nature.
3. Germinal epithelium:
These are the modified cuboidal cells found in testes and ovaries. These can divide and develop in to gametes.
4. Glandular epithelium:
These are modified columnar cells which form glands.
Type of glands
[Link] on no of cells there are two type of glands-
[Link] glands:
These glands occur as a single cell, scattered in the columnar cells e.g. goblet cell/ mucus secreting cells.
[Link] glands:
These are formed of many cuboidal cells, which form many tubular invagination e.g. Sweat gland gastric
glands etc.
2. Besed on the kind of secretion and duct present
a. Exocrine glands:
These are the glands which pour secretion through the ducts their respective sites of action e.g. Salivary, tear,
gastric and intestinal glands. Secretion is called enzymes.
b. Endocrine glands:
These glands do not possess ducts and pour their secretions directly in to the blood vessels. Their secretions are
hormones.
c. Based on the shape and complexity they are of two types
1. Simples glands: These glands have a single unbranched duct. In this types of gland the secretary part could
be in the form of tubes or sacs. Various forms of simplest glands are-
• i. simple tubular glands: found in intestinal crypts.
 • ii. simpe coiled tubular glands: found in simple sweet glands of mammals.
• iii. simple branched tubular glands: found in lining of gastric and brunner’s glands.
• iv. simple alveolar glands: mucous secreting gland of frog.
• v. simple branched alveolar glands: found in sebaceous or oil gland of mammals.
2. Compound glands:These glands have number of ducts forming a branching pattern. The different forms of
compound glands are;
• i. Compound tubular glands: found in the salivary glands.
• ii. Compound alveolar glands: found in the mammary glands, pancreatic glands, etc.
• iii. Compound tubular-alveolar glands: found in the parts of salivary and mammary glands.
[Link] on the mode of secretion
1. Merocrine glands: In these glands, the secretions are discharged on its cell surface by diffusion without
losing any of its cytoplasm. Eg Goblet cells
2. Apocrine glands: In these glands, the cell loses a part of its cytoplasm while releasing its secretions. Eg .
Mammary glands
3. Holocrine glands: In these glands, the entire cell, when filled with secretary products, breaks down in order
to release its secretions. Eg. Oil glands
e. Based on the nature of secretion
1. Mucous glands: These are the glands which secretes the mucus. It is present in the goblet cells in the
intestine.
2. Serous glands: These are the glands which secretes a clear watery fluid. These cells are termed as serocytes.
3. Mixed glands: Some glands are made of both mucocytes and serocytes and hence produce both kinds of
secretion e.g. gastric glands and pancreatic glands.

B. connective tissues:
The cells of connective tissue are separated by non-living material. Connective tissue binds and supports body
parts, protects, fills spaces, stores fat (for energy), and transports materials.
• Functions:
1. Bind the different cells or tissues together.
2. Store lipids or fat globules in the cells in adipose.
3. Form skeleton to support frame work of a body.
4. Insulate the body.
5. Replace dead and damage tissues.
6. Transport material from one place to another in the body.
Structure of connective tissue
Connective tissue is composite tissue it is of three elements [Link], matrix and fibers. The types of cells found
in connective tissue vary depending on the type of tissue they support. For example, red and white blood cells
are found in blood, which is a fluid connective tissue. Adipocytes are fat cells found in adipose tissue, or fat
and fibroblasts (fiber producing), macrophages (Phagocytic ), mast cells ( Produce heparin and histamine) and
plasma cells (produce antibodies) are cells found in large quantities in many different types of connective
tissues.
• The matrix can be thought of as the substance in which the cells are embedded. The matrix can be fluid,
semifluid, gelatinous, or ground substance.
• Collagen fibers or white fibers are found in bundle and are very strong and provide only flexibility not
elasticity. They contain protein collagen. Elastin fibers or yellow fibers are very stretchy and assume
their original shape after being stretched. They contain protein elastin. Finally, reticular fibers are very
thin and provide support for many soft organs and blood vessels. They contain protein reticulin.
Types of Connective Tissue
A. Proper connective tissue
-Loose fibrous connecctive tissue
Areolar tissue and adipose tissue
-Dense fibrous connective tissue
 White fibrous and yellow fibrous CT which form Tendon and ligaments

B. Supportive connective tissue

- Bones- Spongy and compact bone
-cartilage – Hyaline, White fibrous and yellow fibrous.
C. Fluid connective tissue
Blood and lymph
A. Proper connective tissue;
Connective tissue proper, the second broad category of connective tissues, contains a variety of types. All
possess visible protein fibers embedded in a fluid ground substance. On the basis of softness, rigidity and
degree of toughness, they are two types, i.e. Loose and Dense connective tissues.
a. Loose connective tissue-
In these tissues fibers are loosely arranged so called loose connective tissue. They are also of two types, i.e.
Areolar and Adipose tissue.
1. Areolar tissue:
In this type of tissue various types of cell and fibres are loosely arranged in matrix. It contains different type
of living cells like fibroblast cells, macorophages, mast cells and plasma cells with some non living fibers called
white fibres, yellow fibres and reticar [Link] these cells and fibers are suspendeed in a hommogenous,
transparant non cellular and semi fluuid matrix. The space between fibbres is called areolar apace so called
areolar cponnective tissue. Areolar tissue acts as supporting and packing tissues. The main functions are-
• This tissue fixes skin to underlying muscles.
• It support and packing tissues.
• It protect the body from infection
• It spread throughout the body under the skin, between and around the muscles, blood vessels, nerve
fibers, GI tract and respiratory tract, so it is most abundantly found connective of our body.
2. Adipose tissue
Adipose tissue is the modified form of areolar tissue. This tissue composed of adipocytes. The cell with single
droplet called white adipocyte and with many droplets called brown adiposites. Fibers are more or less absent.
The fat is rounded with thin layer of cytoplasm. The nucleus lies at one side. This tissue is found below the
dermis skin, heart, kidney and eye balls. Its main role is to store energy in the form of fat, although it also acts
as insulating layer of the body. Main functions are-
• Serve as insulating layer
• Serve as food reservoir
• Act as shock absorber .
b. Dense connective tissue
• It consist of mostly fibroblast and fibers. Cells are fewer than the fibers. These are also of two types
1. White fibrous tissue:
• It is mainly made up of white fibers which arranged in bundle. These fibers are very tough and non elastic.
They arranged parallel to one another to form tendon.
• i) Tendon- These are the connective tissue that connect the skeletal muscles to bone. Its matrix contain
collagen fibres and the fibers compactly arranged.
• [Link] fibrus tissue:
• It consist of yellow elastic tissue or yellow fibers. These fibers are thick and branchedand are elastic in
nature. They also contain little amount of white fibes, They form ligaments.
• i) Ligament-These tissue connect the bone to bone. Its matrix contain protein elastin which provide
elasticity.
B. Supportive connective tissues
They form endoskeleton of vertebrates. These tissues support the
body and protect the delicate and vital organ from various
injuries. They are of two types;
a. Cartilage: Cartilage is a type of connective tissue composed
of special cells known as chondrocytes along with collagen or
yellow elastic fibers. The fibers and the cells are embedded in a
firm gel like matrix. Cartilage is not as hard and rigid as bone. It
is much more flexible and elastic. There are four types of
cartilage;
[Link] cartilage
[Link] cartilage
[Link] cartilage
 4. Calcified cartilage
[Link] cartilage:This type of cartilage has very thin fibers having same refractive index as the matrix of the
cartilage and thus these fibers are not seen. Hyaline cartilage is the articular cartilage of long bones, sternum,
ribs etc. Its color is bluish white and it is flexible.
[Link] cartilage:This type of cartilage has numerous white fibers. It is present in the symphysis pubis, and
sternoclavicular joint etc. Its color is glistening white and the appearance is opaque.
[Link] cartilage:This type of cartilage has numerous yellow elastic fibers. It is present in the ear pinna,
external auditory meatus, Eustachian tubes, and epiglottis etc. Its color is yellowish and the appearance is
opaque.
Calcified Cartilage- It is very hard and non elastic due to deposition of calcium in matrix. It is found in
superscapula of pectoral girdle of frog.
b. Bone:
A bone is a rigid organ that constitutes part of the vertebrate skeleton. Bones support and protect the various
organs of the body, produce red and white blood cells, store minerals and also enable mobility. Bone tissue is a
type of dense connective tissue. Bones come in a variety of shapes and sizes and have a complex internal and
external structure. Study of bone is called osteology.
Structure of bone/T.S. of bone/Internal structure of bone
-A typical weight-bearing bone has an outer membrane called the periosteum.
-It is followed by outer layer of osteoblast contain cuboidal cell which produce bone cells/ osteocytes.
-Matrix is arranged in concentric manner around the central cavity called lamallae. Each lamallae has a small
space called lacunae.
-Each lacunae contain one bone cell called osteocyte.
-Each lacunae give rise some branching channels in all direction called canaliculi.
-Inner layer of osteoblast produced bone marrow.
-Lamallae are arranged around the central canal called Haversian canal.
- Each canal with lamallae and canaliculi form haversian canal system./osteon.
-Various Haversian canal system connect together by canal of volkman.

T.S. of
bone
 C. Fluid connective tissue:
It consists of both myeloid and lymphoid tissue which forms blood and lymph respectively.
a. Blood
It is one type of fluid connective tissue. It consists of plasma and corpuscles.
[Link] plasma:
Blood plasma is the pale-yellow liquid component of blood that normally holds the blood cells in whole blood
in suspension. It makes up about 55% of the body's total blood volume. It is the intravascular fluid part of
extracellular fluid (all body fluid outside of cells).
• Composition;
• [Link]: 90 – 92% ii. Dissolved solid: 8 – 10% ,
• Iii. Protiens like serum albumen, globuline and fibrinogen.
• [Link] gases: O2 and CO2, v. inorganic constitutes like Na, Ca, Mg P etc.
• [Link] secretions: Antibodies and various enzymes.
• Function of plasma:
• The function of blood plasma is that of carrying the white blood cells, platelets and red blood cells
suspended within it.
• Plasma helps with maintaining a proper pH balance and operates as the exchange system of both
sodium and potassium within the body.
• The immunoglobulin act as antibodies and help the body to develop immunity.
2. Blood corpuscles (cells)
A blood cell, also called a hematocyte, is a cell produced by hematopoiesis and normally found in blood. In
mammals, these are divided into three general categories:
i. Red blood corpuscles or Erythrocytes (RBC)
ii. White blood corpuscles or lukocytes/WBC
iii. Platelets or Thrombocytes
i. Red blood corpuscles/RBC
• Human RBCs are biconcave and non nucleated.
• No. of RBCs in blood is about 5,400,000 per cubic mm in mle and about 4,800,000 in female.
 • Size of RBC in humam is about 7.5 µ thick.
• The average lifespan is about 120 days.
• They contain a pigment haemoglobin (Hb).
• About 2-10 million RBCs are destroyed and replaced every second in our body.
• The process of formation of RBC (bone marrow) is known as haemopoiesis and the tissue which form
is called haemopoietic tissue.
Functions of RBCs and types of Anaemia
• It help in transportation of gases.
• Oxygen is transported by respiratory pigment haemoglobin.
• Oxygenated haemoglobin is bright red and deoxygenated haemoglobin is dark red in color.
• Types of anaemia-
• Pernicius anaemia-deficiency of vit. B12
• Sickle celled amaemia- gene mutation
• Microcytic anaemia- deficiency of iron.
• Megaloblastic anaemia- deficiency of folic acid and vit. B12.
• Aplastic anaemia- destruction of bone marrow.
2 White blood corpuscles or Leukocytes (WBC):
• These are larger in diameter (8-15 micron) and nucleated but less in number than RBCs.
• They are non- pigmented having the power of amoebic movement.
• The number may be 7,000-10,000 per cubic mm.
• They act as phagocytic and defending the organism from infection.
• They are produced by bone marrow and lymph glands.
• Life span is in the blood is 1-4 days.
• Excessive WBCs formation is known as leukemia/ blood cancer.
• Depending upon their size, granules, staining reaction and numberand shape of nucleus there are two
type of WBCs-
• Granulocyte and Agranulocytes
i. Granulocyte
They have lobulated nucleus and fine granular cytoplasm. These are formed in red bone marrow. The life span
is 1-4 hrs. These are about 72% of total WBCs. These are of three types-
* Eosinophils / Acidophils- These are spherical cells having bilobed nucleus. Main function is to destroy and
detoxify the toxins.
* Basophils- these are spherical cell having S-shaped [Link] function is amoeboid type and also release
histamine and heparin.
* Neutrophils-These are spherical cells having multilobed nucleus. They engulf bacteria and foreign bodies
ii. Agranulocytes
They have oval nucleus without granules. They form 28% of total WBCs. These are of two types-
Lymphocytes- These are small cell with large nucleus. These are non motile and non phagocytic in nature.
They produce antibodies to destroy micro-organisms. These are of two types i.e. B-lymphocytes and T-
lymphocytes.
Monocytes- These are larger cells with large and bean shaped nucleus. These are actively motile and
phagocytic in nature. The main function is to engulf the microorganisms.
3. Thrombocytes / Blood Platelets
Platelets, or thrombocytes or yellow blood cells, are very small, irregularly shaped clear cell fragments (i.e.
cells that do not have a nucleus containing DNA), 2–4 µm in diameter. The average lifespan of a platelet is
normally just 5 to 9 days.
They play a very important role in initiating the formation of blood clot. They contain thromboplastinwhich
speed upthe conversion of prothrombin to thrombin.
Total no of platelets is about 2,50,000 in each cubic mm.
Functions of blood
Blood has three main three functions:
• 1. Transport
i. Gases, namely oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2), between the lungs and rest of the body.
ii. Nutrients from the digestive tract and storage sites to the rest of the body.
iii. Waste products to be detoxified or removed by the liver and kidneys.
iv. Hormones from the glands in which they are produced to their target cells.
v. Heat to the skin so as to help regulate body temperature.
[Link]
Blood has several roles in inflammation:
i. White blood cells destroy invading microorganisms and cancer cells.
ii. Antibodies and other proteins destroy pathogenic substances.
iii. Platelet factors initiate blood clotting and help to minimize blood loss.
[Link]
Blood helps regulate:
i. pH by interacting with acids and bases.
ii. Water balance by transferring water to and from tissues.
b. Lymph
Lymph is filtered blood without RBCs, WBCs and platelets. It is transparent slightly yellowish and alkaline
fluid,contain glucose, salts, amino acids vitamines in the same concentration as in plasma except protein.
Lymph is the fluid that circulates throughout the lymphatic system. It is then transported through lymph vessels
to lymph nodes before emptying ultimately into the right or the left subclavian vein, where it mixes back with
blood.
Function of Lymph:
1. Lymph acts as a "middle man" and
transports oxygen, food materials,
hormones etc
2. Body cells are kept moist by the lymph.
3. Lymph nodes produce lymphocytes.
Lymph takes lymphocytes and antibodies
from the lymph nodes to the blood.
4. It destroys the invading microorganisms and
foreign particles in the lymph nodes.
5. It absorbs and transports fat and fat
soluble vitamins from the intestine
6. It brings plasma protein macromolecules
synthesized in the liver cells and hormones
produced in the endocrine glands to the
blood.
 [Link] tissue:

Fig; [Link] muscles, b. Unstriped muscle

[Link] muscles
• Muscle tissues are derived from the mesodermal layer of embryonic germ cells in a process known as
myogenesis.
• The muscular tissue is used for movement of arms or limbs for location. They are highly contractile in
nature and are made up of elongated cells called muscle fibres. Each fiber contain fine longitudinal
fibrils called myofibrils. Its cytoplasm is called sarcoplasm. Each muscle fiber is externally covered by
a membrane called sarcolemma. Muscles are supplied with blood vessels to provide nutrition and each
muscle has its own nerve supply.
• There are three types of muscle i.e. skeletal or voluntary or striated, smooth or involuntary and
cardiac muscles.
a. Straiated, Striped or skeletal or voluntary muscles
1. These muscles are long and cylindrical fibres with blunt ends.
2. Each fibre is bounded by an elastic sarcolemma and contains many acentric nuclei.
 3. Each muscles has numerous myofibrils with alternate light and dark bands.
4. Dark band is called anisotropic band or A-band. Each dark band contain another band called
Hansens band or H-band. These are formed of myosin protein.
5. Light band is called isotropic band or I-band . Each band is bisected at a mid point called Krause's
band or Z- band. These are formed of Actin protein
6. In the vertebrates these muscles are attached to the skeleton so, they are called skeletal muscles.
7. These are under conscious or will power so called voluntary muscles.
8. These muscles fatigue or tried quickly.
9. They are found in body wall, limbs, tongue, pharynx, beginning of the oesophagus.
b. .Unstriated or unstriped or involuntary or smooth muscles
• 1. These muscles are spindle-shaped tapering at both ends with numerous fine longitudinal myofibrils.
• 2. Each myofibril contains a single oval nucleus at the middle. There is no sarcolemma.
• 3. The fibre being bounded merely by its plasma membrane.
• These muscles are found in the wall of hollow organs like alimentary canal, blood vessels, respiratory
passage, urinary bladder and genital tract, so these are also called visceral muscles.
• 4. They exhibit slow but prolonged contraction. These muscles are not fatigued.
• 5. These are under the control of autonomic nervous system but not our will power, so also called
involuntary muscles
• Light and dark bands are also absent so called smooth muscles.
c. Cardiac muscles:
• 1. These muscles are only located in the heart wall.
• 2. These contract rhythmically but do not get fatigue.
• 3. They consist of cylindrical fibres interconnected by oblique bridges and forming a continuous
contractile network.
• 4. The cardiac muscles are myogenic. It means the contraction is generated within the muscles and they
do not have to be initiated by nervous system.
• 5. Structurally, these muscle form intermediate type wall having the properties of both striped and
unstriped muscles.

d. Nervous tissue
• Nervous tissue form nervous system of animals. It control and coordinate the body functions. It is
ectodermal in origin.
• It consist of nerve cells called neuron and nerve processes, neuroglial cell and ependymal or epithelial
cells.
• Neurons have two very important basic properties i.e. excitability and conductivity.
• Excitability is the phase when nerve cell get excited upon receive any stimulus.
• Conductivity, when massage is transmittedalong with an axon.
 Structure of neuron

• The unit of nervous tissue is called neuron. It is the longest cell of the body (up to one meter). A neuron
is consist of two parts-
• 1. Cell body or cyton- The main body of nerve cell is cyton/soma. It is variable in size i.e. 4 micron
meter to 135 micron meter. Its cytoplasm contain centrally located nucleus, mitochondria, Golgi body,
Endoplasmic reticulum etc with a characteristic granules called Nissl's body/granules. These are either
excretory or nutritive in function
• 2. nerve processes- There are two type of processes are arising from the cyton called dendrones and
axon.
• i) Dendron-These are many small branched nerve processes . These are afferent in nature, conducting
impulse towards the cyton.
• Ii) Axon- One of the processes of cyton becomes long called axon. It has neurofibers but no nissl's
body. Its terminal end is divided into two or more branches called terminal aborization and each branch
has many small swelling called synaptic knob/buttons. This axon is covered by a sheath called myeiline
sheath which broken at short distance and form node of Ranvier. Externally it is covered by axolemma
and its cytoplasm is called axoplasm. It is efferent in nature, conduct impulse away from the cyton.
Types of nerve fibres/neuron
• [Link] the basis of structure, nerve fibres are of two types;
• 1. myelinated or meduallated nerve fibres:
• These fibres have myelin sheath. These are found in white matter of brain and spindal cord, cranial and
spindal nerves.
• 2. Non- myelinated nerves:
• These are fibres without myelin sheath. These are found in gray matter of brain and spinal cord.
• [Link] the basis of function of nerve impulses, they are of two types;
• 1. Afferent nerve fibres:
• These conduct nerve impulses from sense organ to the CNS.
• 2. Efferent nerve fibres:
• These conduct nerve impulses from CNS to the body organs. These are also called motor nerve fibres.
• 3. Mixed nerve fibres: These are both afferent and efferent in function. For eg. Spinal nerves.
• [Link] on the number of their processes, these are of three types;
• 1. Unipolar: These neuron have only one axon with dendrites.
• 2. Bipolar: These neuron have two processes take their origin from the cell body.
• 3. Multipolar: these neuron have many processes.
Neuroglia or glial cells
• Glial cells, sometimes called neuroglia or simply glia. They are non-neuronal cells that maintain
homeostasis, form myelin, and provide support and protection for neurons in the brain and peripheral
nervous system.

functions:
1. To surround neurons and hold them in place
2. To supply nutrients and oxygen to neurons
3. To insulate one neuron from another
4. Act as phagocytes and kill microorganisms.
Ependymal cell
• A layer of epithelial tissue, form lining of ventricles of brain.
• It is extremly thin membrane and is responsible for the formation of cerebro spinal fluid.