Basic Principles of Animal

Form and Function

BINGGUI SUN, Ph.D.

School of Brain Science and Brain Medicine
Zhejiang University
bsun@zju.edu.cn
Outline

 Major organ systems and main types of tissues in

mammals

 Coordination and control

 Homeostasis and feedback control

 Thermoregulation
Organ Systems in Mammals
 I: Exploring Structure and Function in
Animal Tissues

 Tissues are classified into four main categories:

 I: Exploring Structure and Function in
Animal Tissues

 Tissues are classified into four main categories:

epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous

 Different tissues have different structures that are

suited to their functions
Epithelial Tissue

• Epithelial tissue covers the outside of the body and lines the
organs and cavities within the body

• It contains cells that are closely joined

• The shape of epithelial cells may be cuboidal (like dice),

columnar (like bricks on end), or squamous (like floor tiles)

• The arrangement of epithelial cells may be simple (single cell

layer), stratified (multiple tiers of cells), or pseudostratified (a
single layer of cells of varying length)
Epithelial Tissue
Stratified squamous
epithelium

Pseudostratified
Cuboidal Simple columnar Simple squamous columnar
epithelium epithelium epithelium epithelium
Connective Tissue
• Connective tissue mainly binds and supports other tissues

• It contains sparsely packed cells scattered throughout an

extracellular matrix

• The matrix consists of fibers in a liquid, jellylike, or solid

foundation
Connective Tissue

• There are three types of connective tissue fiber, all

made of protein:
 Collagenous fibers provide strength and flexibility
 Elastic fibers stretch and snap back to their original
length
 Reticular fibers join connective tissue to adjacent tissues

• Connective tissue contains cells, including

 Fibroblasts that secrete the protein of extracellular
fibers
 Macrophages that are involved in the immune system
Connective Tissue
• In vertebrates, the fibers and foundation combine to form six major types
of connective tissue:

 Loose connective tissue binds epithelia to underlying tissues and

holds organs in place
 Cartilage is a strong and flexible support material
 Fibrous connective tissue is found in tendons, which attach muscles
to bones, and ligaments, which connect bones at joints
 Adipose tissue stores fat for insulation and fuel
 Blood is composed of blood cells and cell fragments in blood plasma
 Bone is mineralized and forms the skeleton
 Connective Tissue
Loose connective tissue
Collagenous fiber Blood
Plasma
White
blood cells
120 m

55 m
Elastic fiber Red blood cells
Cartilage
Fibrous connective tissue
Chondrocytes

100 m
30 m

Chondroitin sulfate
Nuclei Bone Adipose tissue
Central
canal Fat droplets
700 m

Osteon 150 m
Muscle Tissue

• Muscle tissue consists of long cells called muscle fibers, which

contract in response to nerve signals

• It is divided in the vertebrate body into three types:

 Skeletal muscle, or striated muscle, is responsible for
voluntary movement
 Smooth muscle is responsible for involuntary body activities
 Cardiac muscle is responsible for contraction of the heart
 Muscle Tissue
Skeletal muscle
Nuclei

Muscle
fiber
Sarcomere

100 m

Smooth muscle Cardiac muscle

Nucleus Muscle fibers 25 m Nucleus Intercalated disk 50 m

Nervous Tissue

• Nervous tissue senses stimuli and transmits signals throughout the animal

• Nervous tissue contains

 Neurons, or nerve cells, that transmit nerve impulses
 Glial cells, or glia, that help nourish, insulate, and replenish neurons
Coordination and Control

• Control and coordination within a body depend on the

endocrine system and the nervous system
 Endocrine system
 The endocrine system transmits
chemical signals called
hormones to receptive cells
throughout the body via blood

 A hormone may affect one or

more regions throughout the
body

 Hormones are relatively slow

acting, but can have long-lasting
effects
 Nervous system
• The nervous system transmits
information between specific
locations

• The information conveyed depends

on a signal’s pathway, not the type
of signal

• Nerve signal transmission is very

fast

• Nerve impulses can be received by

neurons, muscle cells, endocrine
cells, and exocrine cells
II: Feedback control maintains the internal
environment in many animals
 Regulating and Conforming

• A regulator uses internal control mechanisms to

moderate internal change in the face of external,
environmental fluctuation

• A conformer allows its internal condition to vary

with certain external changes
The relationship between body and environmental temperatures
in an aquatic temperature regulator and an aquatic temperature
conformer
Homeostasis

• Organisms use homeostasis to maintain a “steady

state” or internal balance regardless of external
environment

• In humans, body temperature, blood pH, and glucose

concentration are each maintained at a constant level
Mechanisms of Homeostasis

• For a given variable, fluctuations above or below a set

point serve as a stimulus; these are detected by a
sensor and trigger a response

• The response returns the variable to the set point

Feedback control
Feedback Control in Homeostasis

• The dynamic equilibrium of homeostasis is maintained by

negative feedback, which helps to return a variable to a normal
range

• Positive feedback amplifies a stimulus and does not usually

contribute to homeostasis in animals
Feedback Control in Homeostasis

• The dynamic equilibrium of homeostasis is maintained by

negative feedback, which helps to return a variable to a normal
range

• Positive feedback amplifies a stimulus and does not usually

contribute to homeostasis in animals

• Most homeostatic control systems function by negative

feedback, where buildup of the end product shuts the system
off
 III: Homeostatic processes for
thermoregulation involve form, function,
and behavior

• Thermoregulation is the process by which

animals maintain an internal temperature
within a tolerable range
 Endothermy and Ectothermy

• Endothermic animals generate heat by metabolism; birds and

mammals are endotherms

• Ectothermic animals gain heat from external sources;

ectotherms include most invertebrates, fishes, amphibians,
and nonavian reptiles
 Endothermy and Ectothermy

• Endothermic animals generate heat by metabolism; birds and

mammals are endotherms

• Ectothermic animals gain heat from external sources;

ectotherms include most invertebrates, fishes, amphibians,
and nonavian reptiles

• In general, ectotherms tolerate greater variation in internal

temperature

• Endothermy is more energetically expensive than ectothermy

 Variation in Body Temperature

• The body temperature of a poikilotherm varies with its

environment

• The body temperature of a homeotherm is relatively constant

• The relationship between heat source and body temperature

is not fixed (that is, not all poikilotherms are ectotherms)
 Balancing Heat Loss and Gain

• Organisms exchange heat by four physical processes:

radiation, evaporation, convection, and conduction
 Balancing Heat Loss and Gain

• Heat regulation in mammals often involves the

integumentary system: skin, hair, and nails

• Five adaptations help animals thermoregulate:

 Insulation
 Circulatory adaptations
 Cooling by evaporative heat loss
 Behavioral responses
 Adjusting metabolic heat production
Insulation

• Insulation is a major thermoregulatory adaptation in

mammals and birds
• Skin, feathers, fur, and blubber reduce heat flow
between an animal and its environment
• Insulation is especially important in marine mammals
such as whales and walruses
Circulatory Adaptations

• Regulation of blood flow near the body surface significantly

affects thermoregulation

• Many endotherms and some ectotherms can alter the amount

of blood flowing between the body core and the skin

• In vasodilation, blood flow in the skin increases, facilitating

heat loss

• In vasoconstriction, blood flow in the skin decreases, lowering

heat loss
Circulatory Adaptations

• The arrangement of blood vessels in many marine mammals

and birds allows for countercurrent exchange
Circulatory Adaptations

• The arrangement of blood vessels in many marine mammals

and birds allows for countercurrent exchange

• Countercurrent heat exchangers transfer heat between fluids

flowing in opposite directions and reduce heat loss
Cooling by Evaporative Heat Loss

• Many types of animals lose heat through evaporation

of water from their skin
• Panting increases the cooling effect in birds and many
mammals
• Sweating or bathing moistens the skin, helping to cool
an animal down
Behavioral Responses

• Both endotherms and ectotherms use behavioral

responses to control body temperature
• Some terrestrial invertebrates have postures that
minimize or maximize absorption of solar heat
Adjusting Metabolic Heat Production

• Thermogenesis is the adjustment of metabolic heat

production to maintain body temperature

• Thermogenesis is increased by muscle activity such as

moving or shivering
 Physiological Thermostats and Fever

• Thermoregulation is controlled by a region of the brain

called the hypothalamus

• The hypothalamus triggers heat loss or heat generating

mechanisms

• Fever is the result of a change to the set point for a

biological thermostat
The thermostatic
function of the
hypothalamus in
human
thermoregulation
IV: Energy requirements are related to
animal size, activity, and environment
 Energy Allocation and Use

• Animals harvest chemical energy from food

• Energy-containing molecules from food are usually used to

make ATP, which powers cellular work

• After the needs of staying alive are met, remaining food

molecules can be used in biosynthesis

• Biosynthesis includes body growth and repair, synthesis of

storage material such as fat, and production of gametes
 Quantifying Energy Use

• Metabolic rate is the amount of energy an animal uses in a

unit of time

• Basal metabolic rate (BMR) is the metabolic rate of an

endotherm at rest at a “comfortable” temperature

• Standard metabolic rate (SMR) is the metabolic rate of an

ectotherm at rest at a specific temperature

• Ectotherms have much lower metabolic rates than endotherms

of a comparable size
 Influences on Metabolic Rate

• Metabolic rates are affected by many factors

besides whether an animal is an endotherm or
ectotherm

• Two of these factors are size and activity

Size and Metabolic Rate

• Metabolic rate is proportional to body mass to the power of

three quarters (m3/4)

• Smaller animals have higher metabolic rates per gram than

larger animals

• The higher metabolic rate of smaller animals leads to a higher

oxygen delivery rate, breathing rate, heart rate, and greater
(relative) blood volume, compared with a larger animal
Activity and Metabolic Rate

• Activity greatly affects metabolic rate for endotherms

and ectotherms

• In general, the maximum metabolic rate an animal

can sustain is inversely related to the duration of the
activity
Outline

 Major organ systems and main types of tissues in

mammals

 Coordination and control

 Homeostasis and feedback control

 Thermoregulation
Quiz
These data show that the organism
tested can be categorized as an osmo
___ and a thermal ___.

– Conformer; regulator
– regulator; conformer
– conformer; conformer
– regulator; regulator
 If thermoregulation is considered to be a secondary
function of the large ears of jackrabbits, then the
primary function of the ears is

a) to optimize nutrient intake through the thin, permeable surfaces on the

ears.
b) to protect against pathogens by having a thick, waxy surface on the
ears.
c) to protect offspring from bright sunlight by positioning of the ears to
cast the maximum shadows.
d) to detect predators by using the large size and flexible positioning of
the external ears to channel sound waves into the ear canal.
e) to alter the rate of gas exchange, based on the adjustable radius of
the ears’ blood vessels.
Which is the best interpretation of
these data?
a) Maia, the spider crab, is an
osmoconformer in salt water but is
capable of precise osmoregulation
in fresh water.
b) Nereis, the clam worm, is an
osmoconformer in fresh water and is
capable of precise osmoregulation
in brackish water.
c) Carcinus, the shore crab, is
capable of precise osmoregulation
in brackish water and fresh water.
d) All three crabs are precise
osmoregulators in all three
environments.
Which of the following is an example
of a negative feedback response?
– As the uterus contracts in labor and delivery,
more oxytocin is released to intensify uterine
contractions.
– Meerkats bask in the sun in the cool mornings
but avoid the sun during the heat of the day.
– Sexual stimulation leads to sexual arousal.
– A nursing baby stimulates the release of
oxytocin, which causes letdown of milk.
You measure body temperatures of desert animals at
7 AM and again at 2 PM. Your data are these:
7 AM 2 PM
snake 77°F 87°F
mouse 100°F 99°F
lizard 80°F 105°F
beetle 72°F 102°F

Which animal is most likely endothermic?

– snake
– mouse
– lizard
– beetle
The sea star Porcellanaster ceruleus is
found exclusively in the deep sea
where the water temperature is
around 4°C year round. How would
you classify this organism?

– Endothermic homeotherm
– Endothermic poikilotherm
– Ectothermic homeotherm
– Ectothermic poikilotherm
Naked mole rats, Heterocephalus glaber, are mammals
that inhabit burrows with a stable temperature of 28 to
32°C. The rats have no fur, a poorly developed
subcutaneous fat layer, no sweat glands, and skin that is
highly permeable to water. Body temperature stays only
slightly above ambient (0.5°C) over a range of 12 to 37°C.
How would you classify this mammal?

– Endothermic homeotherm
– Ectothermic poikilotherm
– Ectothermic homeotherm
– Endothermic poikilotherm
The best time to measure basal metabolic
rate is

– prior to a human baby’s first meal of the day.

– just after a lizard’s third meal of the day.
– while an adult human is watching TV after a
meal.
– just after a cricket has escaped from a bird.
A mouse and lizard with the same body mass
were placed in experimental chambers and their
metabolic rates measured over a range of
temperatures. From the data shown in the graph,
which were collected from the mouse and which
from the lizard?

– A–lizard; B–mouse
– A–mouse; B–lizard
– can’t tell
The temperature difference between
arterial and venous blood near the
goose’s body
– allows the goose to lose
maximum heat to the
environment.
– allows the goose to minimize
heat loss to the environment.
– allows the goose’s legs to
remain cool in freezing water.
– is minimized by the dilation of
capillaries in the goose’s feet.