its transformations -- thermochemistry: the subdiscipline involving chemical reactions and energy changes Energy kinetic energy: energy of motion; KE = ½ mv2 -- all particles have KE -- Thermal energy is due to the KE of particles. We measure the average KE of a collection of particles as... temperature. potential energy: stored energy Chemical potential energy is due to electrostatic forces between charged particles. + + -- related to the specific arrangement of atoms in the substance Units of energy are SI unit joules (J), kilojoules (kJ), calories (cal), or James nutritional calories (Cal or kcal). Prescott Joule (1818-1889) -- conversions: 4184 J = 4.184 kJ = 1000 cal = 1 Cal = 1 kcal system: the part of the universe we are studying surroundings: everything else
-- In chemistry, a closed system can exchange energy but not matter with its surroundings.
-- Usually, energy is transferred to...
…(1) change an object’s state of motion ...or...(2) cause a temperature change Work (w) is done when a force moves through a distance. W = F d
Heat (q) is an amount of energy transferred from
a hotter object to a colder one. Find the kinetic energy of a single dinitrogen monoxide molecule moving at 650 m/s. N2O (laughing gas)
KE = ½ mv2
? m = 44 amu
= 7.31 x 10–26 kg KE = ½ (7.31 x 10–26 kg) (650 m/s)2 = 1.5 x 10–20 J First Law of Law of Conservation = Thermodynamics of Energy
-- Energy morphs between its various forms,
but the total amount remains the same. (pretty much) absorbed by In endothermic processes, heat is _________ the system. e.g., melting boiling sublimation
released by In exothermic processes, heat is ________ the system. e.g., freezing condensation deposition • Exothermic process is any process that gives off heat – transfers thermal energy from the system to the surroundings.
2H2 (g) + O2 (g) 2H2O (l) + energy
H2O (g) H2O (l) + energy
Endothermic process is any process in which heat has to be supplied to the system from the surroundings.
energy + 2HgO (s) 2Hg (l) + O2 (g)
energy + H2O (s) H2O (l)
internal energy (E) of a system: the sum of all the KE and PE of the components of a system
-- The change in the internal energy
of a system would be found by: ΔE = Efinal – Einitial
And for chemistry, this equation would become:
ΔE = Eproducts – Ereactants
ΔE is + if Efinal > Einitial (i.e., system... gains energy )
→ ENDOTHERMIC ΔE is – if Efinal < Einitial (i.e., system... loses energy) → EXOTHERMIC But we ARE able to find ΔE by measuring two types of “energy” quantities:
ΔE = q + w
q = heat: +/– q = system absorbs/releases heat
w = work: +/– w = work done on/by system
** KEY: Sign conventions are based on the
system’s point of view. To go further, we must introduce the concept of enthalpy (H).
-- Enthalpy (H) is defined as... H = E + PV
where E = system’s internal energy P = pressure of the system V = volume of the system
The Dutch physicist and Nobel laureate
H.K. Onnes coined the term enthalpy, basing it on the Greek term enthalpein, Heike Kamerlingh Onnes which means “to warm.” 1853–1926 Enthalpy is used to quantify the heat that is either gained or lost by a system that Is at constant pressure.
ΔH = Hfinal – Hinitial = qP
P indicates constant pressure conditions.
When ΔH is +, the system... has gained heat.(ENDO)
When ΔH is –, the system... has lost heat. (EXO) Enthalpy is an extensive property, meaning that… the amount of material affects its value. In the burning of firewood at constant pressure, the enthalpy change equals the heat released. ΔH is (–) and depends on the quantity of wood burned. enthalpy ΔHrxn = Hproducts – Hreactants of reaction: (also called “heat of reaction”) For exothermic rxns, the heat content of the reactants is larger than that of the products. 2 H2(g) + O2(g) → 2 H2O(g) ΔH = –483.6 kJ
What is the enthalpy change when
178 g of H2O are produced?
178 g H2O
ΔH = –2390 kJ
The space shuttle was powered
by the reaction above. ΔH for a reaction and its reverse Enthalpy/energy are the opposites of each other. is a reactant.
2 H2(g) + O2(g) 2 H2O(g) (ΔH = –483.6 kJ)
2 H2O(g) 2 H2(g) + O2(g) (ΔH = +483.6 kJ)
Enthalpy change depends on the
states of reactants and products.
2 H2(g) + O2(g) 2 H2O(g) (ΔH = –483.6 kJ)
2 H2(g) + O2(g) 2 H2O(l) (ΔH = –571.6 kJ)
Calorimetry: the measurement of heat flow -- device used is called a... calorimeter
heat capacity of an object: amount of heat needed to
raise object’s temp. 1 K = 1oC molar heat capacity: amt. of heat needed to raise temp. of 1 mol of a substance 1 K
specific heat (capacity): amt. of heat needed to raise
temp. of 1 g of a substance 1 K i.e.,
molar heat capacity = molar mass X specific heat
We calculate the heat a substance loses or gains using:
q = m cPΔT AND q = +/– m cX
(for within a given (for between two
state of matter) states of matter)
where q = heat m = amount of substance cP = substance’s heat capacity ΔT = temperature change cX = heat of fusion (s/l) or heat of vaporization (l/g) Typical Heating Curve
g l/g Temp
l .
s/l s
HEA T What is the enthalpy change when 679 g of water at 27.4oC are converted into water vapor at 121.2oC? g cf = 333 J/g l/g
ΔH = + 1767 kJ With a coffee-cup calorimeter, a reaction is carried out under constant pressure conditions. -- Why is the pressure constant? calorimeter isn’t sealed, atmospheric pressure is constant -- If we assume that no heat is exchanged between the system and the surroundings, then the solution must absorb any heat given off by the reaction. i.e., qabsorbed = –qreleased the specific heat of water -- For dilute aqueous solutions, it is a safe assumption that cP = 4.18 J/g-K THANK YOU !!!
“Foundations to Flight: Mastering Physics from Curiosity to Confidence: Cipher 4”: “Foundations to Flight: Mastering Physics from Curiosity to Confidence, #4
“Foundations to Flight: Mastering Physics from Curiosity to Confidence: Cipher 4”: “Foundations to Flight: Mastering Physics from Curiosity to Confidence, #4
