Chapter 1.

INTRODUCTION

DEVELOPMENT OF FISH PROCESSING TECHNOLOGY

1950’S
 Freezing at sea
 Chilling in chilled/refrigerated seawater in on-board fishing vessels
 On-board processing into fillet blocks

1970’s
 Meat-bone separator or deboner
 Improvement of surimi and fish analogues manufacture

1980’s – 1990’s
 No new major technologies introduced
 Only consolidation and development of current ones

1.1 WORLD UTILIZATION (1985-1993)

 Decrease in frozen fish quantity due to withdrawal of factory vessels and freezer trawlers
from USSR
 Amount of cured fish (salted, dried, smoked) and canned products declined due to shift
from cured/canned fish to fresh fish

1.1.1 Southeast Asia

 Traditional processing methods (drying, salting, fermentation and smoking) still practiced
 Consumer preference to value-added products (frozen fillet, fish balls, etc.)
 “Ready to heat and eat” fishery products are becoming in demand
 Philippines is 2nd to Indonesia in cured fish production

1.1.2 Philippines
 >7,000 islands
 17,640 km coastline
 290,000 km2 continental shelf area
 2.5M km2 EEZ area including territorial waters
 9,000 km2 freshwater bodies
 5,000 km2 brackish water and swamplands
 >2,000 species of fish, mollusk, crustaceans and echinoderms and other aquatic fauna
and flora
 Fish sauce(patis) and fish paste peak production in April and declines to October

1.2 NUTRITIVE VALUE OF FISH

 Healthy due to fish oils (PUFA) or omega-3
 Fish is low-calorie and low-fat edge
 Good source of vitamins A and B complex and minerals such as iodine, fluoride,
selenium and zinc
 Oysters and mussels have very high levels of iron; higher than red meats.

1.2.1 Structure of fish and fish muscles

 Fish are divided into classes
  Cephalaspidomorphi – jawless fish like lampreys and slime eels
 Chondrichthyes – cartilaginous fish (elasmobranchs) like sharks and rays
 Osteichthyes – lungfish and bonyfishes(teleosts)

1.2.1.1 Structure of fish (bony and cartilaginous fish)

 Main parts of a typical bony fish
 Skeleton
 Muscle tissues
 Skin and fins
 Viscera

1.2.1.2 Structure of fish muscles

 Edible meat/portion is about 60% of whole weight
 Muscle contains
 myotomes (muscular tissue)
 myocommata (connective tissue)
 fat
 90% white muscle (light or no pigment) – sprinting muscle for abrupt, fast movements
 10% is red (dark) due to myoglobin pigment content – cruising muscle for slow
continuous motion
 Higher levels of lipids, hemoglobin, glycogen and most vitamins in dark muscle.
 Myocommata contains mostly the protein collagen
 Bony fish contains 3% collagen; cartilaginous fish contains 16%
 Perimysium envelops the muscle bundle
 Endomysium encloses muscle cell or fiber
 Connective tissue protein constitutes 17% of the total protein in mammals.

1.2.2 Composition of fish

 Important to food processor, nutritionist and consumer
 Varies from species to species, individual to individual depending on age, sex,
environment and season

1.2.2.1 Protein
 Composed of building blocks- amino acids
 16-22% high quality protein contained in most fish
 Lysine and methionine – EAA lacking in cereal and root crop-based diets

1.2.2.2 Fat (lipids)

 Ranges from 0.2-2.5% in fish
 Rarely exceeds 5% in tropical species
 80% of flesh is water and fat
 Fish contains long chain fatty acids (14-22 carbon atoms0 which are highly unsaturated
 Fish fat is rich in high-grade PUFAs (omega-3)
 2 of the 7 omega-3 FA not found in beef and pork and vegetables
 EPA(eicosapentaenoic acid)
 DHA (docosahexaenoic acid)-brain growth and development
 O-3 prevents heart disease by suppressing formation of blood clot
 Effects of fish oils on human health
 Decrease blood circulatory diseases
  Decrease serum total cholesterol levels
 Increase HDLP (high density lipoprotein) cholesterol

1.2.2.3 Vitamins
 Varies from species to species
 Red meat is rich in Vitamins:
 A (retinol)
 B1 (thiamine)
 B2 (riboflavin)
 B12 (cyanocobalamin)
 D3 (cholecalciferol)
 Skin contains more B1 (thiamine) and B2 (riboflavin) than in flesh.
 Liver are rich in Vitamins A (retinol), D3 (cholecalciferol) and B3 (Niacin)
 Mollusk and crustaceans are important sources of Vitamin B complex, mainly Vitamin B6
(pyridoxine) and B3 (Niacin)
 Vitamin A prevents night blindness, promotes growth, reduces susceptibility to
infections, dry skin and dry hair
 Vitamin B group prevents mental depression, convulsions, irritability, anemia, nerve
damage, skin rashes, tissue degeneration and weight loss
 Vitamin D3 – peculiar to fish, assist in calcium metabolism

1.2.2.4 Minerals
 Iodine – for thyroid function/ found rich in fish, seaweeds, mollusks and crustaceans
 Fluorides in fish – protection against tooth cavities
 Selenium – prevention of heart disease and possibly cancer
 Fish are low in sodium

1.2.2.4 Other components

 66-81% moisture content
 Taurine –sulphonic AA–decreases total cholesterol in blood, brain fetal development
Chapter 2. HANDLING OF FRESH (WET) AQUATIC PRODUCTS

 Fish and aquatic products – most perishable commodities

 Spoilage begins after death
 Spoilage of fish – no single factor responsible/ combination of interrelated processes
resulting to:
 formation of hypoxanthine, trimethylamine…
 dev’t of undesirable odors and flavors
 softening of the flesh
 loss of cellular fluid containing fat and protein

2.1 SPOILAGE OF FRESH AQUATIC PRODUCTS

 fresh fish spoilage – mainly bacterial in nature aided by enzymatic activity
 bacterial and enzymatic spoilage – temperature dependent
 the higher the temperature, the faster the rate of spoilage
 fatty fish spoil faster than lean fish
 small spoils faster than large fish of same species
 cold-water spoils faster than warm-water fish
 round fish spoils faster than flat fish
2.1.1 Bacteria
 flesh of live fish is sterile but normally present in surface slime, gills and guts
 freshwater fish - mesophilic gram+ bacteria (Micrococcus, Bacillus and Coryneforms)
 marine fish – psychrotrophic gram-negative genera (Pseudomonas, Alteromonas,
Moraxella, Acinetobacter, Flavobacterium, Cytophaga and Vibrio)
 > 4oC – reproduction and growth rates of bacteria generally increase
 60oC – some bacteria remains active
 Alteromonas putrefaciens, certain Pseudomonas, Vibrio and Aeromonas - the most
active SSO gram-, psychrotrophic rods in chilled fish
 Shewanella putrefaciens – SSO for the aerobic chill spoilage of temperate fishes
 Bacterial spoilage does not start until the passage of rigor mortis.
 Rigor mortis – progressive stiffening of muscle shortly after death. Starts from tail to
head. May range from an hour to 3 days or more depending upon
 Species, size, catching method, handling of fish, temperature, physical condition
of fish
 Any delay in rigor will prolong keeping time of the fish.

2.1.2 Enzymes
 Present in muscle and gut
 Initiate or speed up chemical reactions
 At death, oxygen and energy production ceases
 Glycolysis (glycogen breakdown) and degradation of energy rich compounds begins.
 Self-breakdown or self-digestion (autolysis) occurs due to enzymes in gut and muscles
resulting to weakening, softening and discoloration of fish tissues
 Rate of autolysis can be retarded by keeping at low temperature just above freezing
point
 Enzymatic activity can be stopped by heating and can be controlled to a large degree by
other methods (salting, drying, frying and marinating)

2.1.2.1 Muscle enzymes and their activity

 Autolysis involves carbohydrates and nucleotides
 ATP production stops
 Rigor mortis develops at low ATP levels
 Fish has lower glycogen than mammals so post-mortem(PM) pH is higher
 Glycogen is degraded by glycolysis or by direct amylolytic hydrolysis
 Glycolysis under PM conditions continues under anaerobic conditions resulting to lactic
acid formation
 Lactate formed reduces pH
 PM lowering of pH causes decline in water-binding capacity of proteins because they are
brought closer to their isoelectric point

2.1.2.2 Digestive enzymes and their activity

 Ungutted fish is vulnerable to tissue degradation and may rupture within a few hours of
capture

2.1.3 Chemical spoilage

 Mainly occur during storage in ice or in frozen condition
  Rancidity of lipids may involve lipid autolysis (enzymatic hydrolysis with free fatty acids,
and glycerol as main product) and auto-oxidation (the reaction of unsaturated lipid with
oxygen.
 Auto-oxidation is generally more prevalent in aquatic products due to their higher degree
of unsaturation than in other foods
 Oxidative rancidity – results to rancid flavor and odor as well as discoloration
 Denaturation of protein during frozen storage results to tough, dry and fibrous texture.
 Darkening of red meat in fresh fish may occur due to change of myoglobin from bright
red to red-brown nor dark brown in the cellular tissues

2.2 HYGIENE AND SANITATION

 Hygiene science of good health, signifies cleanliness and freedom from risk of infectious
disease
 In foods and food processing – good quality and absence of poisoning hazard
 Contamination with bacteria – major cause of fish flesh spoilage
 Pathogenic bacteria can cause illness or even death
 Fish should be kept clean and held at low (chilled) temperature

2.2.1 Cleanliness
 Needed at every stage of fish handling and preparation
 Clean – absence of visible dirt and unwanted matter
 Cleaning – removal of soil, food residues, dirt grease or other objectionable matter
 Sanitation or disinfection is required – cleaning can’t reduce # of microbes
 Sanitation – process of reducing the # of living microorganisms in the plant to a level
judged safe by public health authorities
 Detergents and disinfectants or sanitizers – used in hygienic cleaning procedure
 Detergents – loosen and help remove dirt
 Sanitizer – kills actively growing microbes
 Ideal detergents would be characterized by:
o Good wetting capacity
o Ability to remove soil from surfaces
o Power to emulsify
o Capacity to hold material in suspension
o Good rinsing property
o Non-corrosive
o Compatible with other materials
o Quick and complete solubility
o Dissolving action on food solids
o Germicidal action
o Complete water softening power
o Non-toxic
o Economical to use
 Properties of good sanitizer or disinfectant
o Effective germicide
o Easy to dissolve in water
o Low level of toxicity
o Stable in concentrated form
o Does not significantly corrode metal and plastic
 o Effective at low concentrations unaffected by water conditions
o Safe to health in both concentrated and diluted form
o Deodorizes
o Compatible with cleaning compounds
o Of low persistence
 Sanitation and disinfection can be made by physical treatment
o Heat
o UV radiation
 Chemical disinfectants in food industry
o Chlorine and chlorine compounds
o Iodophors
o Quaternary ammonium compounds
o Ampholytic compounds
o Peracetic acid
o Hydrogen peroxide
 All equipment, tools and premises must be kept clean by using detergents and sanitizers
2.2.2 Personal hygiene
 Good personal hygiene can be practiced through:
o Bathing daily
o Using appropriate deodorants
o Washing hair at least weekly
o Keeping nails clean and trimmed
o Wearing clean uniforms and clean underclothing
o Using a hair net or cap and paper masks over nose and mouth when on duty
o Preparing for work in a systematic fashion so that the individual and his clothing
are clean at the time he starts to work

 Washing of hands is more important in the prevention of contamination in foods

 Washing should be done after:
o coughing and sneezing
o Visiting the toilet
o Smoking
o Handling equipment and other items
o Handling raw fish
o Handling garbage or soiled materials
o Handling money

2.3 WAYS OF PREPARING FISH

 Drawn fish (Gutted) – eviscerated/ entrails removed

 Dressed fish – scales, viscera, fins, head and tail removed
 Steaks – cross-section slices of a large, dressed fish (usually 2-3 cm thick)
 Fillet - meaty sides of fish removed from the backbone and ribs of the fish
o Block/butterfly/double – 2 sides joined together
o Cross-cut fillet – fillet from flatfish taken from each side as a single piece
o Quarter-cut fillet – cross-cut fillet taken into 2 pieces
o Single fillet – one side of fish
  Sticks and portions – small elongated chunks (rectangles) of uniform size and thickness
cut from the meaty portion of the fish

2.4 FILLETING OF FISH

 Fish that have been chilled and hence have just passed the rigor (stiffening) condition
will be the most suitable raw material for filleting
 Good quality fillets can also be obtained from frozen thawed fish, which have been
frozen within 2-3 days of death (storage being near 0oC)
 In this case, the fillets produced will not suffer from gaping, which is the tendency of
fillets to split into fissures.

2.5 CHARACTERISTICS OF FRESH AND SPOILED AQUATIC PRODUCTS

 The freshness quality and the extent of spoilage of aquatic products after harvesting and
prior to consumption are generally evaluated by using the human senses (sight, smell
and touch)

2.6 HANDLING OF FRESH AQUATIC PRODUCTS

 Handle aquatic products with care to avoid losses to damage and subsequently to
spoilage
 Shellfishes should be alive until processing or cooking

2.6.1 Fish
 Sort fish according to species and size without delay and keep at low temperatures.
 Low temperature, cleanliness, speed and care – important factors in maintaining quality
of newly caught fish.

2.6.2 Oysters and Mussels

 Harvest with care. Gather in clusters to reduce water loss w/c shortens their life
 Byssus gland – secretes sticky hairs w/c must not be pulled out or it will die within hours
 Can be chilled 2-4oC using blanket or melting ice. Avoid direct contact w/ ice
 Can survive for one week out of water if properly handled
 Brush shells first before shucking. Shucked meat must be washed with water

2.6.3 Crabs
 Delicate, so don’t handle frequently
 Can be kept alive in seawater in lengths of time
 Can be kept in moist bags or boxes at high humidity
 High temperatures weakens crab

2.6.4 Shrimps
 Harvested shrimps must be cleaned and protected at high temperatures
 Chilling with crushed ice should be done immediately

2.6.5 Lobsters
 Keep alive
 14oC – immobilizes lobsters
 Beheading dead lobsters prevents blackening.
2.6.6 Squids and cuttlefish
 Clean well and store at low temperatures
 Crushed ice or ice slurry can be used in chilling.

2.6.7 Seaweeds
 Local consumption – washed in clean seawater then packed in baskets with banana leaf
covering

Chapter 3. CHILLING

 Lowering the temperature (chilling, refrigeration and freezing) – key factor in maintaining
the quality of fresh fish
 Chilling – most common practice; reduction to some point below (-2 to -4 oC for super
chilling) or above (between 0 – 5oC) the freezing point of water in the fish muscle
 Does not stop spoilage but it slows down

3.1 METHODS OF CHILLING

3.1.1 Wet ice (icing)

 Most common and useful way of chilling
 Cooling – effect of direct contact of ice and fish
 Heat transfer from the warm fish to ice resulting to melting of ice and cooling of fish.
 Considerations when icing fish:
 Sufficient ice be used to maintain 0oC
 1:1 – usual ice-fish ratio; more ice be given for longer trips
 Arrangement of ice and fish should make drainage of water, blood and slime at
ease
 Alternate ice and fish. Surround w/ ice on dides, top and bottom
 Mixed fish: big on bottom and small on top
 Fish w/ delicate skin on top
 Gutted: fill w/ ice in belly cavity and arrange w/ belly down in a slanting position
inside the container

3.1.2 Chilled Seawater (CSW) or ice slurry
 Slush ice or mixture of seawater and crushed ice
 Amounts of ice depends on:
 Initial temperature of the water and the fish
 Size of the container
 Quality of insulation
 Length of trip

 Advantages of CSW over icing:

 CSW chills faster than wet ice
 Fish do not suffer from physical damage due to crushing or pressure from other
fish
 Fish in CSW are washed in the slurry
 Disadvantage: do not keep longer than wet iced fish
3.1.3 Other methods

3.1.3.4 Refrigerated air

 Employed in big commercial boats
 Chilled air is circulated by finned evaporator and fan (air blowers)
 Fish are packed in containers and stocked in the fish hold
 Chilling is slower than icing and CSW.
 Cooling time generally exceeds 24 hours
 Slow heat transfer

3.1.3.5 Dry ice

 Solid carbon dioxide
 Cooling is effected by its evaporation
 (-78.9oC)
 Don’t use in direct contact to avoid cold burns.
 Use in air shipment of fish
 Restricted use…it expands to gas so it may expel oxygen in airplanes

3.1.3.6 Gel ice mat

 Made by freezing a water-based gel
 Advantage: bound w/ no chance of water leakage during thawing
 Suitable for air transport of fish

3.2 TYPES OF ICE

 Ice should be clean

3.2.1 Block ice

 Not used directly due to size and weight

3.2.2 Crushed ice

 Blocks or slabs crushed mechanically or manually
 Irregular size w/ sharp edges – may cause physical damage

3.2.3 Flake ice or “scale”

 Freshwater thin flakes
 Maintained at -6oC storage
 Good ice-fish contact due to large surface area
 Disadvantages:
 Denser than crushed ice; more ice to use
 Tends to clump
 Melts very rapidly, less practical for long transport

3.2.4 Tube ice

 Last longer and melts more evenly than other shaped ice
 Useful for transport in uninsulated containers bulk density midway of flaked ice and
crushed ice
 Not practical due to cylindrical shape can bruise fish due to relatively large size

3.3 METHODS OF STORING ICED FISH

3.3.1 Bulking
 Done in fishing boats to economize space
 Disadvantages:
 Physical damage due to pressure above and pressure of ice
 Poorer quality than shelved or boxed fish (same storage time)
 Unloading of catch is difficult

3.3.2 Shelfing
 Applicable to large gutted fish
 Better or at least equal quality to bulked fish

3.3.3 Boxing
 Preferred method
 Easily moved for transport
 Advantages:
 Segregation of first caught to last caught
 Small from large
 One species from another
 Disadvantage:
 Greater space occupied than bulking

3.4 TYPES OF CONTAINERS

 Points to consider in fish container selection:
 Insulating properties
 Proper shape and dimensions for the product
 Easy to handle, fill and empty
 Easy to clean and stack securely one on top of the other
 Constructed from nonpoisonous materials
 Adequate provision for drainage of melt-water

3.4.1 Plastic box

 Made of polymers – chain of monomers.
 HDPE and polypropylene – widely used in manufacture of containers
3.4.1.1 Polyethylene (PE)
 Low density 0.910 to 0.925 g/cm3
 Medium density 0.926 to 0.940 g/cm3
 High density
 Type III 0.941 to 0.959 g/cm3
 Type IV 0.960 g/cm3 & above

3.4.1.2 Polypropylene (PP)

 Low density of 0.902 g/cm3
 One of lightest plastic
 Resistant to grease and most chemicals
 Good barrier to water vapor
 Can withstand high temperatures
 More rigid, stronger and lighter than PE
3.4.1.3 Polystyrene (Styropore)
 Low thermal conductivity
 Weight saving
 Difficult to clean
 Do not last long
 Do not have drainage for melt-water

3.4.2 Galvanized Iron (GI) Sheet Tubs (Bañera)

 Most commonly used container in the Philippines
 Easily corrode
 Poor insulating property40-50 kg..difficult to handle
 Becoming less popular due to polystyrene boxes

3.4.3 Wooden Boxes

 Can withstand rough handling
 Good insulating property
 Not easy to clean
 Slightly difficult to handle

3.4.4 Coconut, Bamboo or Rattan boxes

 Cheap and easy to handle
 Difficult to clean
 Do not last long
 Ice easily melt
 Can kept cool 24 hours if insulated with coconut fiber pillows

3.5 TYPES OF INSULATION

 Aim is to slow down rate of heat exchange

 Efficiency of insulation is measured w/ thermal conductivity (k)
 K = amount of heat in kl calories passing every hour through one sq. m. of material one
meter thick when there is a 1oC temperature difference between two surfaces of the
material
 The lower the k value, the more efficient is the insulation
 Choice of insulating material depends on:
 Thermal conductivity
 Resistance and permeability to water vapor (waterproof)
 Density and compressive strength

3.5.1 Cork and fiberglass mat

 Good insulation but highly permeable to water vapor

3.5.2 Rice hull, kapok, coconut fibers and sawdust

 Cheap but not water resistant
 Kapok when compressed loses insulating power

3.5.3 Polystyrene
 Low k value
  Low density
 Low permeability
 Low compression resistance

3.5.4 Polyurethane
 Same properties with expanded polystyrene
 Good vapor resistance

3.6 POINTERS IN HANDLING CHILLED FISH

 No form of processing improves quality of spoiled or partially spoiled fish.
 Maintain quality by good handling practices from harvest to consumption
 Factors to consider in handling chilled fish:
 Temperature
 Low temperatures (around 0oC) must be maintained until reching
consumer
 Chill fish ASAP
 Keep chilled before processing and at all stages of preparation
 Time
 Kept all delays at minimum
 Know length of time for keeping in the medium
 Contamination
 Observe good sanitation and hygiene at all times
 Damage
 Avoid physical damages such as bruises, cuts, punctures, etc.

Chapter 4. FREEZING

 Keeps fish for several months

 Arrests bacterial and enzymatic activity
 Dehydration by transformation of water into ice
 60-80% of fish is water depending upon species
 -5oC – 75% of the water in fish is frozen
 -65oC – approx. 12% of water remains unfrozen
 3 stages in the freezing process:
 Stage 1 – Removal of Heat
 Falling of temperature to just below 0oC (FW freezing point)
 Freezing rate (FR) is influenced by air temperature (AT)
 High FR attained by lowering AT

 Stage 2 – Conversion of water to ice (crystallization of water)

 Fairly constant -1oC
 Around 75% of water freezes (critical zone or period of thermal arrest)
 Faster the product pass through this stage the less quality loss will occur
 FR is affected by air velocity (AV)
 AV – influences removal of latent heat equivalent to 60-70% of heat
removed
 Stage 3 – Further cooling of frozen fish
 Rapid drop of temperature of fish flesh
 -30oC is the desired temperature of storage
4.1 TYPES OF FREEZING

4.1.1 Slow freezing

 -1 to -5oC – zone of maximum crystal formation
 Maximum enzyme activity
 Keep this period short
 Long freezing can result to bacterial spoilage and protein denaturation

4.1.2 Quick freezing/ Snap freezing

 IQF/ individual quick frozen
 Usually takes 2 hours or less to go through the zone of maximum crystal formation
 Warmest portion of fish should be -20oC.
4.2 FREEZING SYSTEMS
 There are 3 basic methods
 Choice depend on cost, function and feasibility

4.2.1 Air Blast Freezing

 A continuous flow of cold air is passed over the product
 Uniform freezing is attained only if the temperature and speed of the air over the product
are constant
 Air blast freezers can be:
 Continuous – where the product moves through a freezer
 Batch type – where the product is stationary
 Versatile; useful in producing IQF products (crustaceans, fillets, VAP-breaded)
 Disadvantage: occupies a lot of space and consume more power than equivalent plate
freezers

4.2.2 Contact or plate freezing

 Product is placed in direct contact with hollow, metal, freezer plates. Through which a
cold fluid is passé
 Used for freezing products such as whole fish, fillets, shrimps into blocks.
 There are 2 types:
 Vertical type – freezing whole fish at sea for bulk freezing
 Horizontal plate freezer – requires packing of products into trays or cartons
before placing them in the freezer.

4.2.3 Spray or immersion freezing

 Product comes in direct contact with the fluid refrigerant
 Mainly used for producing very high value and specialized IQF products
 Includes liquid nitrogen and carbon dioxide freezers

4.3 FREEZING PROCEDURE

Raw material
 Freezing at below -10oC will stop bacterial action.
 Chemical, biochemical and physical processes leading to irreversible changes will occur
at a very slow rate
 Hence, the state of the raw material will determine the quality of the final product.
Treatment before freezing
 Fish must be kept well iced or chilled before freezing
 Iced water or chilled seawater (2 parts ice to 1 part water) can be used to lower the
temperature of the fish to or close to 0oC.
 Dipping or immersion of fish in the slurry for 1-2 hours will be sufficient
 Chilling can reduce the time of freezing when slow freezers are used
Freezing
 Freezing method employed will depend on the type of product to be frozen.
 Overloading of the freezer must be avoided
 The freezing time must be as short as possible to prevent quality loss

Treatment After Freezing

 Glazing – dipping or immersion in iced water, 0oC to prevent dehydration and oxidation

Packaging
 Proper packaging must be used

Storage
 -30oC – recommended storage temperature

4.4 QUALITY ASSESSMENT OF FROZEN FISH

Protein denaturation
 Irreversible changes in appearance and texture
 Loss in functional properties of the muscle proteins (solubility, water retention, gelling
ability) and lipid emulsifying properties and gradual decrease in enzyme activities

Lipid changes
 Rusting – movement of oil to the surface of the fish during cold storage
 Yellow or light brown discoloration
 Rancidity – unpleasant odor and color that develop upon oxidation

Freezer burn
 Excessive drying resulting to matt (white patches on the surface of frozen fish)

Dehydration and weight loss

 Dehydration (1%) occurs naturally during freezing

Development of Cold-Store Flavor and Odor

 Due to improper and extended cold storage

4.5 THAWING OF FROZEN PRODUCTS

 Quick thawing is important

 1) heat is directed into the flesh from the surface
 2) heat is generated more or less uniformly throughout the flesh
4.5.1 Thawing in Air

Still air
 Overnight at room temperature (not >20oC
 Single fish (10cm thick) – 8-10 hours to thaw

Moving Air (Air blast thawing)

 20oC at 8m/s

4.5.2 Thawing in water

 Immersion, spraying or combination
 Fillets not recommended – may become waterlogged and may lost flavor
 Not warmer than 18oC at thawing rate of at least 5mm/s
 10 cm thick fish takes 4 ½ hours to thaw

4.5.3 Vacuum thawing

 Almost 120 kg of water will condense per ton of fish thawed

4.5.4 Electrical methods

 Dielectric (20% of air/vacuum thawing) and electrical resistance heating for thawing or
tempering (partial thawing or softening) and microwave heating for tempering only.

4.6 HANDLING OF FROZEN FISH

 Do not pry fish apart during thawing

 Do not put on floor (cross contamination)
 Use clean containers
 No repeated freezing and thawing

4.7 MANUFACTURED PRODUCTS

4.7.1 Boneless milkfish

 Dorsal = 86-88
 Rib bones = 26-28
 Lateral = 40-44
 Ventral = 44-48
 TOTAL = 196-208

4.7.2 Freezing of squids

 Peak season = August
 Cebu = June-November
 Bicol = squid

4.8 TECHNICAL PROBLEMS

4.8.1 Browning or blackening of Tuna and Bonito Meat

 Due to oxidation of hemoglobin in blood and myoglobin in muscle
 Converted to oxyhemoglobin and oxymyoglobin w/c are brilliant red in color
  Further conversion to methahemoglobin and metamyoglobin w/c is dark red or dark
brown in color through the action of oxidative enzymes
 Adding sodium nitrate or antioxidant (ascorbic acid) prevents discoloration

4.8.2 Green discoloration of tuna meat

 Due to TMAO (trimethylamine oxide) in the flesh and other factors such as myoglobin
content, cysteine concentration and cooking conditions
 To avoid: use fresh tuna for freezing and gutting and bleeding before freezing

4.8.3 Browning or black spot in shrimps and prawns

 Melanosis – browning or blackening of frozen shrimps and prawns
 Due to oxidation of tyrosine into melanin by the tyrosinase in the blood
 Dipping in 1% sodium metabisulphate solution for 30 seconds
 3% HQ Bacterol F solution for 15 minutes

4.9 RESEARCH NOTES

 Pre-chilling of milkfish in ice at 4Oc right after harvest
 FW Tilapia – delaying icing at 4,8 & 12 hours has shelflife of 20, 16 and 24 hours
 Cooked shrimps is better than raw prior to freezing

Chapter 5. SALTING

 One of the earliest techniques for preserving fish.

 Preserves by lowering the moisture content to the point where bacterial and enzymatic
activities are retarded.
 6 to 8% salt content - spoilage organisms generally can’t survive long.
 Removes water from the fish by osmosis.
 26% - saturated brine solution
 <26% - concentration in salted product due to solutes in flesh.
 Salting – salt is the only means of preservation.
 Salt – condiment, favoring agent, or as an accessory preservative
 Solar salt – evaporation of seawater by sun
 Mined salt – from underground salt deposits or dried up salt lakes

5.1 Salt Quality

 Pure common salt – 99.9% NaCl
 Iron (>30 ppm) and copper (0.5 ppm) – encourages rancidity in fatty fish, unsightly
yellowish and brownish color in finished product
 Calcium and magnesium sulfates – can impart a desirable whiteness and firmness to the
product

5.1.2 Microbiological Quality

 Halophiles – results to ‘pinking’ in cured fish
 Dun – results from halophilic molds

5.1.3 Physical Properties

 Fine grain salt – suitable for brine preparation
 Large grain salt – more appropriate in dry salting
  Salt burn – resulted from using fine grain salt due to rapid moisture removal in the
surface making it hard and prevents entrance of salt to the inside
 2/3 coarse grain salt + 1/3 fine grain salt – recom. salt mixture for direct salting

5.2 Factors Influencing Salt Penetration

 Fat and protein content. The higher the fat content the slower the salt uptake.
 High protein content ( 18-19%) – takes long to attain osmotic equilibrium
 Thickness of the flesh - The thicker the flesh, the slower the diffusion of salt
 Purity of the salt – the purer the salt, the faster the salt penetration. Impurities such as
CaCl and MgCl and sulfates – reduces salt penetration
 Temperature during salting – salt uptake faster at higher temperature but the rate of
bacterial spoilage is also accelerated.
 Freshness of the fish – the fresher the fish, slower the salt penetration

5.3 Methods of salting

5.3.1 Dry salting or Kench process

 Rubbing fish with salt before packing and layer sprinkled with salt.
 Recommended for lean fish due to oxidation problem in fatty fish.
 30% of fish weight – amount of salt to be used
 Quantity of salt should not exceed 35-40%

5.3.2 Wet salting

 Brining - placing fish in saturated brine (26%)
 Pickle-curing – starts as dry salting (1:0.3-0.4/ fish:salt ratio) and liquid or pickle formed
were retained. Saturated brine may also be poured. Appropriate for oily fish with fat
contents 2% or more.

5.4 Manufactured product

 Kench-cured fish (Binoro) – mackerel, sardines, small fish – brined, drained for
several hours and then packed in dry salt
 Visayan salted/ fermented fish (Tinabal) – maybe classified fermented but fish retains
natural shape (from Leyte) parrot fish and frigate tuna.
 Shrimp cake (Guinamos) - 2:3 salt to shrimp then tracing/pounding is done
 Salted sea urchin – Tripneustes gratilla. Gonads ranges from orange to yellow and
from greenish yellow to brown. Bright orange gonads – preferred in Japanese market.

5.5 Spoilage of Salted Fish

 ‘Pink’ or Reddening – halophilic bacteria w/c has a pink or rose color

-Pseudomonas salinaria and Sarcina littoralis
 Dun – peppering of light brown spots or fawn spots. Caused by molds of Wallema genus
grows at 5-26% salt concentration, 10-37˚C (opt. 25˚C) and pH 4-8 (opt. 6-7).
Prevention: good sanitation, good ventilation and drying or dipping in 0.1% sorbic acid.
 Sliming – semi-greasy, sticky, glistening layer of yellow-gray or beige color. Sour
pungent off-odor. Caused by slime producing bacteria can live (6-12% salt).
 Souring – due to improper salting and results to uneven salt distribution
  Salt burn – due to excessive amount of fine salt that draws moisture rapidly
 ‘Putty’ fish – related to sliming, occurs in thickest part of fish where the rate of increase
in salt concentration is slowest.

Chapter 6. DRYING

 Drying – refers to removal of water from the product, exposure to currents of air and
humidity
 Dehydration – controlled and artificial means like mechanical dryers
 <15% moisture content – prevents growth of many spoilage microorganisms
 10% MC – mold growth is completely suppressed

6.1 Fundamentals of drying

6.1.1 Water activity (aw)

 Ratio of vapor pressure in the product to that of pure water.
 Lufft aw meter – used to measure water activity
 Free or loosely bound water or available water needed to support biological activity.
 0.9 or below – most spoilage bacteria will not grow
 0.8 – most molds are inhibited
 0.75 – most halophilic bacteria stop to grow
 25% MC (wet-basis) – most spoilage bacteria cease growth
 <15% MC (wet-basis) – mold seldom grow

6.1.2 Moisture content

 Can be expressed as wet and dry basis, salt-free or fat-free basis
 Measured by drying the sample for 24 hours at 105˚C.

6.2 Phases of Drying

 Constant rate period – near or surface water evaporates at constant rate. Influenced by
surface area, relative humidity, and temperature, product thickness, salt content.
 Falling rate period – near or surface water had already evaporated. Slowly decreasing
rate of drying. Several factors that affect: product shape, temperature, relative humidity,
salt content.

6.3 Types of dried fishery products

 Dried in the round or whole fish (Tuyo) - sardines
 Split-salted fish (Daeng) – threadfin bream (bisugo), mackerel, milkfish but due to
scarcity, rabbitfish (samaral), scads (galunggong) are also used
 Dried anchovies
 Fish Jerky
 Dried squid

6.4 Methods of Drying

 Air/ Contact drying – sundrying, solar dryers
 Vacuum drying – heated surface, radiation and remove by vacuum pump
  Freeze Drying – lowpressures by efficient vacuum pumps and fish in contact with
refrigerated plates and freezes. At pressures below 0.64 kPa ice sublimes and remove
by vacuum pump.

6.5 General drying procedure

 Raw material
 Preparation of raw material
 Salting process
 Drying process (sundrying for 2-3 days, turning fish every 1-2 hours)
 Packaging and storage

6.6 Spoilage and Defects of Dried Fish

 Case hardening – chalky white, hard and brittle due to fast drying of surface while the
inner portion is still moist
 Mold growth – growth of black, blue and green molds due to high moisture content.
Unpacked product will get moist if relative humidity is >75%.
 Reddening - caused by red halophilic bacteria that grow on dried fish.
 Insect attack – prevention: proper packaging, dipping in dilute ‘pyrethrum’, fumigation of
spaces where product is stored.

Chapter 7. SMOKING

 Preserves through combination of drying, salting, heat treatment and deposition of

chemicals from smoke
 Steps in smoking.
 Salting. Makes flesh firm and easy to handle. Improves flavor and appearance. Salt
content is 2-5%.
 Heat treatment. Contributes to bactericidal effect of smoking. Not only kills
microorganisms and inactivates enzymes but also makes flesh firm and less susceptible
to autolysis (self-digestion).
 Smoke deposition. Smoke is partly responsible for preservation and flavor. There are
200 chemical components in vapors. Smoke has antioxidant and bactericidal properties.
Smoke is concentrated at surface pellicle.
 Drying. The longer the fish is smoked, the drier it becomes.
 Shelf life: 2-3 days only

7.1 Factors affecting the generation of smoke

 Type of wood. Softwood is not recommended (resinopus, imparts acrid flavor)

 Temperature. High temp. = cooking, rapid drying, lower RH, rapid chem.rxn.
 Relative humidity. High RH favors smoke absorption but slower drying (60%)
 Smoke velocity, density and air flow

7.2 Types of smoking

 Hot smoking – temperature may reach 70-80˚C, product is cooked, can be eaten
directly, flavorful and juicy, low keeping quality/ should be stored at low temp.,or dried to
suitable moisture level. Disadvantage: deposition of Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons
(PAH)/ carcinogen = total of 27
  Cold smoking – temperature usually do not exceed 30˚C, product not cooked,
perishable/ should be chilled or frozen.
 Liquid smoke application. Liquid used to absorbed smoke, can be aqueous, oil
medium or in dry powder form.
 Electrostatic Smoking. Smoke particles given +charge while product is given –charge.

7.3 Types of smokehouse

 Clay pot (Pelon)
 Drum type
 Variation drum type
 Concrete type
 Concrete type w/ metal chamber for smoking tray

7.4 Smoking Procedure

 Raw material
 Cleaning
 Salting (not <8% brine)
 Rinsing
 Drying (Sun or air dry=30-45mins./ dry to the touch)
 Smoking
 Packaging and storage

7.5 Manufactured products

 Smoked sardine (Tinapa)

 Smoked Soft-boned milkfish
 Tuna sticks (Katsuobushi)

7.6 Spoilage of smoked fish

 Spoilage due to high moisture content
 Must be stored at low temperatures
 Rapid cooling is necessary.

Chapter 8. FERMENTATION

 Breakdown of organic substances into simpler components mainly by the action of

enzymes aided by microorganisms.
 1 part coarse salt to 3 parts small fish

Country Fish Sauce Fish Paste Fermented Rice-Fish

Philippines Patis Bagoong Buro
Cambodia Nuoc-mam Phaac/ Man Chao
Thailand Nam-pla Pla-ra
Indonesia Kecap ikan Trassi
Malaysia Belacan Pekasam/ Cencalok
Burma Ngapi
Vietnam Nuoc-mam

8.1 Classification of fermented products

Paste (Bagoong)
 Whole/ground fish, fish roe, shrimp, shellfish + salt added
 Characteristics of good fish paste:
1. Slightly fishy, cheesy odor
2. Fish is either partially or completely disintegrated
3. Pasty and not watery consistency
4. Ash to reddish in color
5. Free from foreign materials, sand, etc.
6. Pleasing taste, not biting, bitter, sour or very salty

Sauce (Patis)
 Clear liquid sauce, straw yellow to amber in color.
 Results from separation of solid from the liquid portion of the hydrolysate
 Flavor due to halophiles (Coryneforms, Streptococcus, Micrococcus, Staphylococcus
and Bacillus species).
 Flavor arises from free AA (glutamic acid, alanine, lysine, aspartic acid, leucine or valine)
and peptides
 pH is 5.3-6.7 while soy sauce is 4.7-4.9

Fermented productrs with added carbohydrates such as cooked rice (Buro)

 Fish or shrimp with salt added
 Burong isda – fish added
 Burong hipon/ Balao balao – shrimps added
 Angkak/angka (Monascus purpureus) – culture added which enhances fermentation
8.2 Methods of hastening fermentation
 Fermentation usually takes 6-12 months.

Physical
 Elevated temperature – bet. 37-42˚C
 Agitation – stirring with wooden paddle
 Grinding – increases surface area for enzymatic action

Application of enzymes/ (Proteases from…

 Plants (bromelin and papain)
 Proteolytic bacteria (Brevibacterium, Bacillus and Micrococcus species)
 Proteolytic molds (Aspergillus oryzae)
 Natural enzymes (Trypsin and cathepsin)
Use of acid
 Hydrochloric and acetic acids
 Neutralization of acid is needed after fermentation
8.3 General Procedure
 Raw materials: sardines (tunsoy), scad (galunggong), mackerel (hasa-hasa), anchovy
(dilis), alamang, ouster and mussel meats.
 Cleaning – wash to remove sand, stone, seaweeds, etc.
 Mixing with salt: 3:1 – 5:1
 Fermentation: more than a month, usually takes 6 months or more.
 Suitable containers: plastic buckets, concrete tank, earthen jar, plastic/oil drum, oil can
and wooden vat
 Packaging: plastic, glass bottles w/ plastic caps

8.4 Manufactured products

Fermented fish w/ cooked rice (Burong isda)

 White burong isda – natural product color/ preferred in Western provinces
 Red burong isda – angkak/angka is added/ preferred in Eastern prov/ Central Luzon
 Burong bangus – Fermentation initiators 1. Streptococcus 2. Pediococcus 3.
Leuconostoc and Lactobacillus.
 Leuconostoc – predominating bacteria in the final days of fermentation.
 Lactobacillus plantarum (9 strains) – hydrolyze starch

Fermented shrimp w/ cooked rice (Burong hipon)

 Balao balao/ Burong hipon or tagbilao-Central Luzon – red in color after ripening
 Tagunton (Palaemon sp.)
 Suwahe (Metapenaeus ensis)

Chapter 9. PICKLING AND MARINATING

 Preservative action – combination of vinegar and salt

 Commonly used for fatty fish where salting will not cure well
 Maturation – stage of tender texture and proper blending of spices

Preservative action of ingredients

Salt
 In pickling, exerts selective action on growth of microorganisms.
 Affects maturation: high level (reduces protein solubility/ firmer product)
Vinegar
 Gives flavor, firms product and act as preservative (not for long period as salt)
 Acetic acid – accounts for antiseptic property of vinegar
 15% acetic acid – bacterial growth completely stopped
 5% or more – vinegars retards spoilage for weeks and months if chilled
 Distilled vinegar commonly used in pickling – it has high grain strength
 2-3% usually in retail stores – low grain strength – product is soft

Sugar
  Acts as preservative by increasing the thickness of the pickling solution/ lowering its
water activity
 Also adds sweetness to the product
Spices
 Whole cloves, black pepper, bay leaves, onions and allspice
 Mask color and odor rather than inhibit spoilage\

Pickling procedure

Raw material
 Sardines/herrings containing 5-15% fat
Preparation
 Washed and soaked in salt solution (10%) for 1 hour to firm the fish
 Bones removed and portions rinsed in 5% brine to remove blood traces
Marinating/Pickling
 Deboned sardines/herring or fillet are immersed in strong solution of acetic acid (around
10%) in a cool room for up to 3 weeks
 Fish to liquid ratio: 1:1 to 1.5:1 (open wooden vats and barrels)
 Fish to liquid ratio: increased to 2.3:1 (closed vats)
 Equilibrium is attained 1 week in warm room and 3 weeks in cool room
 Can be stored up to 6 months at 3˚C if required.
Packing
 Packed in glass jars and covered with pickle/sauce
 Fish: covering liquid/ 1:1 to 2:1 (liquid must contain 1-2% acetic acid and 2-4% salt.
Store at 3˚C or near 0˚C and keep for at least 3 months.

Chapter 10. MINCED FISH PROCESSING

 Aims for maximum utilization of fish flesh for direct human consumption
 Often done in fish with low market value, seasonal and caught in abundance.
 Meat-bone separators or deboners are used.

Fish Mince
 Trimmings from filleting operations
 It contains sarcoplasmic proteins (albumin, myoglobin and enzymes) and lipids unlike in
leached surimi.
 Unstable during frozen storage

Surimi
 Minced fish paste
 Japanese term for semi-processed frozen minced fish protein, where the minced meat
has undergone leaching by water and additives such as sugars and polyphosphates
have been added.
 Any fish can be utilized but white fleshed marine fish like Alaska pollock (Theragra
chalcogramma) and Blue whiting (Micromesistius poutassou) preferred
 Tropical by-catch used. Threadfin bream (Nemipterus spp.) big-eye snapper
(Priacanthus spp.), barracuda (Sphyraena spp.), croaker (Pennahia spp.), fusilier
(Caesio spp.) and lizardfish (Saurida spp).
 Cryoprotective agents – sucrose and sorbitol, reduces protein denaturation
  Polyphosphates – like sodium tri-polyphosphate and sodium pyrophosphate used,
enhances water-holding capacity resulting in smoother paste.

Processing of Surimi
 Fish should have white flesh and good gel-forming ability.
 Meat-bone separation: belt-drum type deboner, auger screen machine or hydraulic ram-
type
 Leaching- improves gel-forming capacity, removes fat, skin, blood, off-odors. Washing
meat 2-3 tomes w/ 4-5 times its volume of chilled water (10-15˚C) with 02-03% salt
 Dewatering or dehydration
 Straining
 Mixing – w/ additives like sugar and polyphosphate
 3-5% - level of sugar
 Polyphosphate should not exceed 0.3%

Manufactured products
 Fish balls, fish burger, surimi-shrimp value added products (nuggets, sticks (fish fingers),
sausages and crab analogue from bighead carp surimi

Chapter 11 CANNING

Classification of Food for Canning (3 pH groups)

 High acid (below pH 4.5) – marinades and pickles

 Medium acid (pH 4.5 to pH 5.3) – fish in tomato sauce. Sterilization processed is based
on destruction of Clostridium botulinum.
 Low acid (above pH 5.3) – requires full heat sterilization. Bacillus stearothermophilus-
heat resistant spore-forming, thermophilic organisms.

Containers

 Tin Cans – widely used. Should be C-enameled to prevent blackening of product due to
ferrous sulfide formation.
 Aluminum cans – advantageous but high cost of manufacture
 Glass – used for home canning
 Retort pouch packs – polyester/aluminum film
 Plastic can – polyvinylidene chloride (PVDC)

Packing methods

 Cold or raw-pack method – fish is packed cold or raw in cans or glass jars. Ingredients
are added after packing.
 Hot-pack method – fish are pre-cooked and packed while still hot in containers

Equipment for heat processing

 Batch retorts – medium used is saturated steam under pressure. Can be either static
vertical retort or horizontal retort.
 Continuous retorts
  Steriflamme – french sterilizer using flames and cooling w/ water

General Procedure for canning

 Raw material – fresh fish must be used

 Preparation of raw material – scaling, cleaning, etc.
 Filling into cans
 Exhausting/sealing-to make vacuum in headspace/ prevent oxidation
 Heat processing – for killing of C. botulinum
 Cooling
 Storage

Manufactured products

 Milkfish, salmon style

 Tuna, Adobo style
 Roundscad, sardine style
 Indian sardine in oil
 Smoked mussel in oil
 Squid, Adobo style

Spoilage and Technical Problems

 Curd formation and adhesion – common if raw or previously frozen fish is canned.
Adhesion- fish meat sticks to the can. Prevention: moistening of can inner side w/ 0.1%
silicon tresin before filling
 Glass-like crystal or struvite formation - common in marine canned foods. It is
Magnesium-ammonium phosphate. Prevention: citric acid is added to canned food.
 Blackening of tuna meat - iron sulfide from iron impurities in added salt
 Blackening in Canned Shrimps and Crabs – H2S generated from meat during boiling
and processing + ferrous ion from tin imperfection
 Softening of Canned shrimps – decomposition of the protein to soluble non-prpotein
substances. Takes place when raw mat. Is not fresh.
 Blue discoloration of canned crabs – due to haemocyanin/ copper-containing
respiratory pigment in the blood of athropod and mollusk. Blood should be effectively
removed. Rinse pickled meat w/ 1% citric, acetic, lactic or tartaric acid.

Chapter 12 ADDITIVES

 Food additive – any substance the intended use of which results or may reasonably be
expected to result, directly or indirectly, in its becoming a component or otherwise
affecting the characteristic of ay food (inc. radiation)

Purpose of additives
 Maintenance of nutritional quality of the food
 Improvement of keeping quality or stability of food, thus reducing food wastage
 Making food attractive to consumers in a way which prevents deception
 Giving essential aids in food processing
 Code Food Additive
100-199 Coloring agents
200-299 Mainly preservatives
300-399 Mainly antioxidants and food acids
400-499 Thickeners, vegetable gums, emulsifiers, stabilizers, humectants
Mineral salts, flour treatment agents, anti-caking agents, acidity
500-599
regulators, color retention agents
600-699 Flavor enhancers
900-999 Glazing agents, bleaching agents, artificial sweeteners
 Additives in fish processing are used mainly to improve and preserve the fish and fishery
products.
 Food labels with the prefix letter “E” means the EU has approved the additive.
Types of additives

Antibiotics- Chemical substances produced by certain microorganisms, which can inhibit or

entirely stop the growth of several kinds of microorganisms
 Chloetetracycline from Streptomyces aureofaciens
 Oxytretracycline from Streptomyces rimosus
 Biostat or oxytetracycline hydrochloride
Antioxidants
 Extends shelf-life of food by preventing oxidation which causes rancidity and color
changes
 Natural. Tocopherol – naturally deposited in adipose tissue of fish. Ascorbic and citric
acid – mainly from citrus fruits and usually combined with other antioxidants
 Synthetic.
1. Butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) – soluble in oil or alcohol but not in water
2. Butylated Hydroxyanisole (BHA) – potent in animal fats, not affected by high temp
under alkaline condition, stable in metals, insoluble in water, soluble in ethanol and
propylene glycol.
3. Propyl Gallate (PG) – most widely used antioxidant

Preservatives
 Added to foods to prevent or inhibit the growth of spoilage organisms.
 Benzoic acid, sodium benzoate, citric acid, sorbic acid, sodium citrate, polyphosphates

Emulsifiers/Stabilizers
 Emulsifiers - Added to food to ensure that oil and water mixtures do not separate into
layers. Polysorbates, lecithin, mono/diglycerides of fatty fish, etc.
 Stabilizers – make possible the maintenance of uniform dispersions of two or more
substances in a food which are incapable of being mixed. Mg stearate, etc.

Thickeners and vegetable gums

 Enhances texture and ensure uniform consistency.
 Usually extracted from seaweeds.
 Alginic acid and its salts (Na, K, NH4, Ca, and propylene glycol alginates.
 Three basic types of carageenan
1. Kappa-carrageenan – contributes strong and bitter flavor
2. Iota-carrageenan – gives soft and elastic gel
3. Lambda-carrageenan – mainly adds viscosity and body to the product
Humectants
 Used to prevent food from drying out.
 Glycerin, 2,3 propylene glycol, sorbitol, mannitol, xylitol, polydextrose, etc.

Flavor enhancers
 Improves the existing flavor and or aroma in food
 Monosodium L-glutamate (MSG)
 Monopottassium and monoammonium L-glutamate

Food colors
 Imparts color or shade to a food; to make them attractive or restore color
 Natural – curcumin, turmeric, xanthophyll; Artificial – tartrazine, azorubine, etc.
Additives permitted in the Philippines

Group I
 Directly added to food
 Anti-caking agents, anti-microbial agents, antioxidant synergists, antioxidants,
emulsifiers, flour treatment agents/ dough conditioners, firming agents, flavor enhancers,
food colors, leavening agents, surface finishing agents, pH-control agents, nutrient
supplements, sequestrants, stabilizers and thickeners, sweeteners, caffeine, lanolin.

Group II
 Processing aids
 Anti-foam agents, clarifying agents, catalyst, contact freezing agents, extraction/ carrier
solvents, fat crystal modifiers, filtration aids, flocculating agents, lubricants, anti-stick
agents and molding aids, propellant and packaging gases, enzyme preparations

Group III
 Flavoring substances

Chapter 13 MINOR AQUATIC PRODUCTS

 Includes seaweeds (fresh/processed), shells and their by-products.

I. Seaweeds
 Benthic algae utilized for medicine, fertilizer and animal feeds
 Freshwater
 Chlorophyceae – green algae
 Cyanophyceae – blue-green algae
 Marine
 Phaeophyceae – brown algae
 Rhodophyceae – red algae

Nutritive value of Seaweeds

 Main components are saccharides, cellulose, protein and minerals.
 Also contains vitamins and minerals
 Carbohydrates – consist large amount of mucopolysaccharides
 Dried laver (Porphyra tenera) – 34-40% protein
Edible seaweeds
Acanthophora spicifira – kulot Caulerpa racemosa – lato
Enteromorpha intestinalis - lumot Hydroclathrus clathratus - balbalulang
Gelidiella acerosa - kulot Gracilaria verrucosa - gulaman-dagat
Halymenia durvillaei – gayong-gayong
Uses of Seaweeds

Food
 Acanthophora spicifira – kulot
 Caulerpa racemosa – lato
 Codium muelleri – pupuklo
 Gracilaria spp. - gulaman-dagat
 Hydroclathrus clathratus – balbalulang

Animal feeds
 Meals from brown seaweeds (Ascophyllum and Laminaria)

Fertilizers
 Brown algae Macrocystis and Ascophyllum –not from NPK components but for
properties as soil conditioner and growth promoter.
 Sargassum polycystum and Hydroclathrus clathratus – used in corn & mungbean
 Eisenia and Ecklonia are also used.

Agar (Gulaman)
 Extracted from red algae Gelidium, Pterocladia and Gracilaria
 Gracilaria – primary source of agar locally
 Low degree of hysteresis (melting-gelling point difference)
 Thickener, emulsifier, gel-forming agent, absorbent, lubricant, culture media
 Classification: food grade, microbial grade, sugar reactive
 Sugar reactive agar (bakery and confectionery) G. lemanaeformis, fisheri, firma,
eucheumoides

Alginates
 Hydrophilic derivatives of alginic acid
 Macrocystis and laminaria, locally Sargassum

Carrageenan
 Originally polysaccharide from red seaweeds Chondrus crispus (Irish moss) and
Gigartina stillata
 Today also refers to red seaweeds Eucheuma and Iridea
 Primarily used in non-settling chocolate milk drinks & pharmaceutical products

II. FISH OILS

 Sharks, rays and skates – have large oily livers (10-15% or > BW)
 Used for human (margarine and shortening)
 Animal foods (fish oils in feeds)
 Medical and pharmaceutical
 Industry. Soaps and detergents, lubricants, ink, etc.
Extraction of fish oil
 Wet reduction process – grinding, cooking and pressing
 Solvent extraction
 Dry reduction process – for non-oily type fish using hydraulic press
 Direct steaming process – simplest process/ steamed at low pressure and supernatant
liquid collected and centrifuged
 Enzyme digestion method – liver digested by commercial proteolytic enzymes from
Bacillus subtilis, then passed through separators and centrifuge
 Alkali digestion method- caustic soda solution (NaOH) is used
 Acid ensiling method – using formic acid and fermentation, centrif. & decanted

Squalene
 Acylic hydrocarbon (C30H62) found in shark liver
 Coined by Dr. Mitshumaru Tsujimoto from sharks of Squalidae family

III. Shark fin

 Hongkong and Singapore – most important commercial center for shark fins
 Most valuable: 1st dorsal, pair of pectoral and lower part of the tail
 Dried to 10-15%/ must not exceed 18%(Codex standard)
 White fins higher price than black

 Most important species

1. Hammerhead shark (Sphyna spp.)
2. Mako shark (Isurus spp.)
3. Blue shark (Prionace glauca)

 Other sources are:

1. Thresher shark (Alopias vulpinus)
2. White/black tipped shark (Carcharinus spp.)
3. White shark (Carcharodon carcharias)
4. Sharp nosed or yellow dog shark (Scoliodon spp.)
5. Tiger shark (Galeocerdo cuvier)
6. Shovel nosed/ guitar fish (Rhinobactus spp.)

IV. Jellyfish
 Umbrella of jellyfish is processed
 At least 5 species are exploited in East and SE asian regions
 China, Korea and japan.
 White type – widely distributed
 Red type – quite rare and higher commercial value

V. Fish Protein Concentrate

 Type A (odorless and tasteless); Type B (w/ definite fishy flavor; Type C (Ordinary fish
meal under hygienic condition). Preparation: Chem, Enzym, Phys.)
VI. Sea Cucumber
 Popular in China & chinese communities in SE Asian countries
 Sea slug or “trepang”/ Bêche-de-mer (French)
 Balatan (Tagalog), balat (Visayas)
  About 500 spp. But 10-17 spp. Are valuable commercially

Sandfish Holothuria scabra

Blackfish Actinopyga miliaris
Black teatfish Holothuria nobilis
Deep-water redfish Actinopyga echinites
Elephants trunk fish Holothuria fuscopuntata
Prickly redfish Thelenota ananas
Lollyfish Holothuria atra
White teatfish Holothuria fuscogilva

VII. Fish Meal

 Dried fishery product from excess catch, waste materials from fish processing plants,
rejects and market surpluses
 High lysine content
 2 methods: wet reduction process (for fatty fish) and dry reduction process (for low
fat content)
 Protein: ranges from 55-70%/ most contain 60-65%/ local, at least 45%
 Fat: varies from 5-10% but should not be more than 8%
 Ash: 18% - satisfactory
 Moisture: 8% preferred/ allowable 6-10%/ 12% susceptible to mold growth/ <6% -heating
will happen
 Crude fiber: <1%
 Problems: reducing odor during processing and salmonella contamination

VIII. Fish Silage

 Liquid product from minced fish or fish offal prepared with acid or fermentable sugar w/c
favors growth of lactic acid bacteria
 2 types: Acid preserved silage/ Microbial or fermented silage
 Use in pig, poultry and fish nutrition

IX. Shells and Shellcraft

 Univalves (Gastropoda)/ Cephalopods (Cephalopoda)/ Bivalves (Bivalvia)
 Buttons from pearl oyster, top shell and turban shell
 Kapiz (Placuna placenta) / “lampirong” – Visayan term
 Lime-making – Apog

Chapter 14. MARKETING OF AQUATIC PRODUCTS

 Typical channels
1. Producer – consumer
2. Producer – retailer – consumer
3. Producer – wholesaler – retailer – consumer
4. Producer – agent - wholesaler – retailer – consumer

Chapter 15. PACKAGING OF AQUATIC PRODUCTS

Packaging materials

1. Wood-Pulp Based Material

 Paper and boards
 Cellulose - cellophane

2. Plastics
 Rigid/ Hard plastics
1. Polystyrene
2. Expanded polystrene (EPS)
3. Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)
 Films
1. Polyethylene (PE)
2. Polypropylene (PP)
3. Polyamide (PA) - nylon
4. Polyester (PET)
5. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
6. Polyvinylidine chloride (PVDC) – saran or cryovacs
7. Ethyene-Vinyl Acetate (EVA)
 Laminates
1. Boil-in-bag
2. Retort pouch packs

3. Rigid containers

Packaging methods

1. Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP)

 30% Nitrogen, 40% Carbon dioxide, 30% oxygen – commonly used
 Lean fish: 30% O2, 40% CO2, 30% N
 Oily and smoked fish: 0% O2, 60% CO2, 40% N

2. Vacuum packaging

Labeling requirements

The ff. labels are needed in the Philippines:

 Name of food
 Name and address of manufacturer, repacker or distributor
 List of ingredients in descending order
 Metric net contents in weight or volume
 Country of manufacture
 Open date marking for specific products

Bar codes

There are two widely used Standard Coding Systems:

 Universal Product Code (UPC) for the USA
 European Article Number (EAN) System for Europe & other region
  13 digit number of the bar code
1st digit – logistical validator
Nxt 2 digit – country code
Nxt 5 digit - Manufacturer number
Nxt 5 digit - Item Number
Last digit - Check digit

Chapter 16 QUALITY ASSURANCE IN FISH PROCESING

Naturally toxic fishes

1. Ciguatera
 Derived from Spanish name of a mollusc, Turbo pica.
 Results from eating reef fish and shellfish that consumed toxic dinoflagellates or
eating predators of these reef fish
 Gambierdiscus toxicus – main dinoflagellate liable
 Ciguatoxin–can’t be destroyed/ prevention: avoid eating spp. w/ history

2. Puffer Fish or Tetraodon Poisoning

 Eating puffer fish or globe fish, “fugu” in Japanese
 Tetraodotoxin
 More serious than ciguatera/ Mortality rate >50%

3. Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning (PSP) / ‘Red Tide”

 Eating mussel, clams and scallops w/ saxitoxin
 Dinoflagelate of genera Alexandrium, Gymnodinium and Pyrodinium
 Philippines: Pyrodinium bahamense var. compressa

4. Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning (DSP)

 Similar w/ PSP but no death reported
 Dinoflagellate Dinophysis and Prorocentrum
 Ocadaic acids (OA) & derivatives, dinophysistoxin-1 (DTX-1), dinophysistoxin-3
(DTX-3), pectinotoxin-1 (PTX-1), PTX-2,3,6; and yessotoxin (YTX) & derivatives

5. Neurotic Shellfish Poisoning (NSP)

 Dinoflagellate Ptychodiscus breve
 Brevitoxins

6. Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning (ASP)

 Diatom Nitzschia pungens f. multiseries
 Diato produces amino acid domoic acid