MODULE 1

PRINCIPLES OF PROCESSING
& PRESERVATION

1
 AIM
„ Develop existing knowledge &
understanding of processing &
preservation methods & supply chains

„ Aware of relationship between

methods and food safety control

At the end of session participants will understand why fish is processed and
preserved and will be able to identify how small-scale fish handling and
processing can be improved in terms of loss reduction and food safety.
Set scene for practical work and following intervention sessions.

Both export and domestic….why both?

Primarily supporting the implementaion of sections 6 and 7 of the SFP manual:

Requirements for fish hygiene controls & health standards for fishery products

Food safety hazard control issues

Intro to links with EU regs and Codex

Provides background to the GHP sessions

2
INTRODUCTION

„ Why fish is processed

„ Post mortem changes

„ Principles of

preservation

„ Supply chains &

processing methods

3
 WHY FISH IS PROCESSED

„ Preserve
„ Usable forms
„ Maintain quality
„ Safety
„ Fully utilize
„ Add value

Fish is processed for the following reasons:

Prevent spoilage and preserve;

Preservation (say more about this later)

By preserving fish and shellfish we increase the potential for transporting, storing
and marketing. If preservation was not used then the autolytic and bacterial
changes that occur after death would cause spoilage and deterioration, rendering
most fish and shellfish inedible within a short period of time.

Create usable and desirable forms;

Maintain quality;
Assure the consumer of a safe product;
Fully utilize the raw material;
Add value.

4
 USABLE FORMS

„ Filleting

„ Skinning

„ Bone removal

„ Mincing

Usable and desirable forms

Some fish and shellfish require some processing in order to turn them into usable
or desirable products. Filleting, skinning, removing bones, and mincing flesh all
make fish an easy product for consumers to prepare, cook and eat. These basic
processes also make fish easier to process in to other products such as breaded
and battered products and ready-meals.

5
 MAINTAIN QUALITY

Maintenance of quality
Processing maintains the quality of fish and shellfish as it enables a product to be
stored without the development of off-odours, bad flavours or other losses in
quality.

6
 FOOD SAFETY
CONTROL OF:

„ BIOLOGICAL HAZARDS

„ CHEMICAL HAZARDS

„ PHYSICAL HAZARDS

BRAINSTORM TO IDENTIFY DIFFERENT TYPES OF HAZARD

In the context of food, a hazard can be defined as “a biological, chemical or
physical agent in, or condition of, food, with the potential to cause an adverse
health effect. “
Biological hazards in fish and fish products are primarily associated with
pathogenic bacteria, viruses, parasites and natural toxins. Chemical hazards
include contamination of fish with agricultural pesticides, heavy metals and
veterinary drugs used in aquaculture. Physical hazards are associated with the
contamination of products with glass, metal, wood or other potentially dangerous
materials.
Examples of an adverse health effect caused by a hazard include:
Food poisoning caused by pathogenic bacteria, virus, natural toxins;
Chronic illness caused by pesticides, other chemicals, heavy metals, parasites;
Cuts to mouth and internal injury caused by glass, metal;
Choking as a result of swallowing physical hazards.
In extreme cases, a food hazard such as the toxin produced by the pathogenic
bacteria Clostridium botulinum, can result in death.
Biological Hazards
There are several important types of biological hazard associated with fish and
fishery products that the private sector and competent authorities should be
aware of. These are:
Pathogenic bacteria from aquatic, general environments and human / animal
sources;
Viruses;
Parasites; 7
 FULLY UTILIZE

„ Wide product range

„ Cost savings

„ Reduction in waste
disposal problems

Utilization
Processing can also lead to more complete utilization of raw fish and shellfish.
More complete usage can lead to a wider range of products, savings in cost and
reductions in waste disposal problems. Examples include the removal of flesh
from fish frames after filleting to make other products. The shells of shrimp are a
by-product from processing which can be used to make chitosan. Many
processing operations, such as filleting, produce fish offal (heads and internal
organs) which can be used to produce fish meal and fish oil.

8
 ADD VALUE

Add value
It can be argued that the above reasons for processing all add-value to fish and
shellfish. But processing can also be used as a means in itself to increase the
financial returns from fish and shellfish. Processing is also used to produce fish
and shellfish which are promoted as having additional health benefits for
consumers.

9
 POST MORTEM CHANGES

1. Autolysis

2. Bacterial

3. Oxidation

4. Rigor mortis

Soon after fish are dead, they begin to spoil, hence fresh caught fish pass
through various stages of decay until they become putrid and unfit for human
consumption.
In order to understand the basic principles of fish processing it is important to
have an understanding of the key post-mortem changes which occur in fish and
shellfish. These are:
autolytic changes,
changes caused by bacterial activity
changes caused by the rancidity of oils and fats
changes caused by the effects of rigor-mortis.
It is important to note that the chemical composition of fish flesh varies from
species to species and even within species according to season, maturity, fishing
ground, feed, etc. The rate of spoilage can therefore vary, and the spoilage
pattern can be influenced by these factors.

Section 7.3 (p34) of the inspection manual provides an overview of organoleptic

changes (visual appearance, smell, muscle texture) which take place after death
and which provide an indication of spoilage.

Fish inspectors need to be familiar with spoilage characteristics. Sensory

evaluation schemes should be developed for all key commercial species in the
region. Inspectors should be trained in the use of these schemes….refer to
previous training input Nile perch.

10
 AUTOLYSIS
„ Natural enzymes

„ Digest muscle &

organs

„ Texture change

„ Taste

Proteolytic enzymes are natural chemicals present in the flesh and various
organs of living organisms such as fish and shellfish. Enzymes help digest food in
the stomach and assist with other biological functions. After death enzymes are
still active and continue to breakdown muscle and other tissue. This breakdown
process is called autolysis. Autolysis is a cause of fish spoilage and the
production of off-odours, flavours and softening of flesh. The most noticeable
short-term result of autolysis is “belly burst” which is when digestive enzymes in
the gut of fish breakdown the stomach walls and surrounding tissue. Autolysis in
shellfish such as shrimp and lobster can occur extremely quickly and is one
reason why most shellfish need to be processed very quickly.
Physical damage can accelerate autolytic changes in chilled fish as many
enzymes have been show to be concentrated in discreet membrane bound
packages in the muscle. Physical abuse such as crushing will break these
packages releasing or spreading the enzymes and mixing them with muscle
tissue. Avoiding crushing and physical damage reduces the rate of autolytic
spoilage e.g. boxes of iced fish should not nest on top of fish and careful handling
must be practiced at all times.

11
 BACTERIA
„ 1,000,000 on a pin head
„ Stomach, gills, skin
„ Feed on fish
„ Like water, food, warmth!
„ Spoilage & food poisoning

Show video also.

Bacterial changes
The growth and feeding of bacteria is also responsible for the deterioration or spoilage of fish. Key
indicators of bacterial spoilage include off odours and flavours, a build up of slime on the fish
surface and a softening of the texture. Various different types of bacteria are found on the surface
of fish and shellfish, on the gills and in the animals’ stomach. The number of bacteria varies and
reflects the environment from where the fish or shellfish is harvested. Low numbers of bacteria
can be found on fish from cold clean waters whereas high numbers can be found on and in fish
and shellfish from warm tropical polluted waters. When fish or shellfish die, bacteria present
multiply and feed on the flesh of fish and shellfish flesh, which provides an ideal medium for
bacterial growth and multiplication. The rate of bacterial growth and subsequent spoilage of fresh
fish is determined by the number of bacteria present and the temperature at which the fish is held.
The spread of bacteria into the flesh can be much more rapid if the fish have been damaged in
any way.
Some bacteria digest the flesh and organs of fish and shellfish and cause spoilage and certain
types of bacteria have the potential to cause food poisoning or illness in the consumer. These
bacteria are called pathogenic bacteria.

SubstrateCompounds produced by bacterial action

Trimethylamine Oxide (TMAO)Trimethylamine
(TMA)CysteineH2SMethionineCH3SH, (CH3)2SCarbohydrates and
lactateAcetate, CO2, H2OInosine, IMPHypoxanthineAmino-acids (glycine, serine,
leucine)Esters, ketones, aldehydesAmino-acids, ureaNH3

12
 Substrate Compounds produced by
bacterial action
Trimethylamine Oxide Trimethylamine (TMA)
(TMAO)
Cysteine Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S)
Methionine Methylmercaptan (CH3SH)
Dimethylsulphide (CH3)2S
Carbohydrates and lactate Acetate, CO2, H2O
Inosine, IMP Hypoxanthine
Amino-acids (glycine, Esters, ketones, aldehydes
serine, leucine)
Amino-acids, urea NH3
Amino-acid histidine Histamine

Fish Inspection manual:

Indicators of spoilage and hence quality…not necessarily safety!

Various references to histamine incl test kits 7.4 p35, p47 limits

7.5 p40 TVB-N (total volatile bases or nitrogen) – measurement of TMA & NH3
also Hypoxanthine for freshwater fish.

13
 OXIDATION

„ Fats & oils react

with oxygen

„ Taste

„ Smell

„ Colour change

Fish contain fats and oils known as lipids. Some fish have relatively high levels of
lipids. After death the fats and oils in fish will react with oxygen in the air. This
process is termed autoxidation. Enzymes will also breakdown fats. Both these
processes result in the production of off flavours, odours and colour changes
which affect the quality of the fish and the acceptance of it by the consumer.

Polyunsaturated fatty acids are broken down producing hydroperoxides which are
then broken down further producing secondary products such as aldehydes,
ketones, alcohols, carboxylic acids and alkanes which are responsible for rancid
odours and yellowish colour change.

14
 RIGOR MORTIS

„ Lactic acid reduces pH muscle

„ Gaping

„ Species, size, harvesting method,

temperature, physical condition

Finfish will undergo rigor-mortis, which is the stiffening and contraction of muscle
tissue caused by the post-mortem depletion of adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
Post-mortem conversion of glycogen in fish muscle to lactic acid lowers the pH of
muscle which in turn effects the physical properties of the muscle. For example
the water holding capacity can be reduced and the lower the pH of the muscle
the tougher the texture.
Rigor-mortis can effect the quality of fish fillets produced from frozen fish. It can
result in “gaping” (separation of muscle blocks) in fillets. This is caused by the
action of collagenase enzymes which breakdown the connective tissue between
muscle blocks. Fish fillets that have gaped are less desirable than those which
have not gaped. A reduction in pH of fish muscle after death due to the formation
of lactic acid increases the likelihood of “gaping”.
Various factors can effect the development, duration and resolution of rigor
mortis. These are species, size, harvesting method, temperature and physical
condition of the fish.

15
 PRINCIPLES OF
PRESERVATION
„ Physical separation
„ Temperature
control
„ Remove water
„ Additives
„ Control pH
„ Prevent oil contact
with air

The basic principles of preservation of fish and shellfish are focused on preventing or slowing the
autolytic, bacterial and rancidity changes. These changes take place under certain optimum
conditions and altering these conditions prevents or reduces the rate at which the changes occur.
Bacteria require water, are sensitive to heat, salt concentration and pH. Autolytic enzymes require
a moist environment and are sensitive to temperature. By altering these influencing factors can
kill or reduce the rate at which bacteria will multiply and feed and the action of autolytic enzymes.
The principles of preservation are therefore based on the:
physical separation of bacteria and enzymes from fish flesh e.g. by washing the fish and shellfish
and removal of stomach and other organs
temperature control (chilling, freezing, heat processing to kill bacteria and enzymes)
removal of water (drying)
addition of salt
control of pH (marinades)
reducing the contact fish fats and oils have with oxygen in the air e.g. by using appropriate
packaging
use of additives

Use of Additives
Various chemicals known as additives can be used to extend the shelf life or preserve products,
improve the colour, enhance flavour, enhance texture, improve water retention properties and
improve nutritional value. A number of additives are permitted for use in fish and shellfish
products. The Codex Alimentarius Commission standards for food provide guidance on the
additives permitted for use in fish and fishery products. Codex Alimentarius (1995) provides an
insight into some of the permitted additives used for water retention, regulating acidity, thickening,
flavour enhancing and coloring. More information on additives can be obtained from the Joint
FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JEFCA).

16
 PHYSICAL SEPARATION

Remove bacteria & enzymes

„ Washing & Hygiene

„ Evisceration

„ Heading

Physical Separation
There are a number of basic processing operations that are used on fresh fish and shellfish soon
after they are harvested. These are concerned with the physical removal of bacteria and enzymes
and therefore they aid preservation. These operations include washing, evisceration, and heading.
Since micro-organisms from both intestines and surfaces with which the fish come in contact, play
a major part in fish spoilage, high standards of cleanliness at all stages of handling, processing,
storage and distribution are essential. This means that strict attention must be given to the
efficient cleaning of the fish, the regular cleaning of all surfaces with which the fish come in
contact, the provision of an uncontaminated water supply and the hygiene of workers. These
factors are all important in order to provide the consumer with good quality wholesome food.
Washing, using clean or potable water is used to remove slime, surface bacteria, blood and other
unwanted material. This reduces the level of bacteria and hence reduces the risk of spoilage.
Various types of mechanical washers can be used to aid the process. Chlorinated water can aid
the removal of bacteria, but water must not contain more than the recommended chlorine levels.
Another type of cleaning is the depuration of shellfish such as oysters and mussels. The live
animals are held in tanks of clean water for a specific period of time to remove potentially harmful
bacteria picked up from the environment in which they grew. This renders the animals safe for
human consumption.
Evisceration is the removal of the entrails (internal organs) from fish or shellfish, removing
bacteria present in the digestive system and many enzymes. This is normally followed by a
washing process. Shrimp are eviscerated by cutting off the muscular tail from the rest of the body.
Some internal organs removed by evisceration can be useful by-products e.g. roe and livers. The
heads of some finfish species such as catfish and salmon are also removed. This is known as
“heading”. Heads have little usable meat. Removing the head reduces overall weight which can
be important in terms of transport costs.

17
 CHILLING & USE OF ICE

„ IMPORTANT PRESERVATION METHOD

„ PRINCIPLES

„ BEST PRACTICE

„ CONTROL OF HAZARDS

Ice is used extensively in the Lake Victoria and marine export supply chains to
chill whole fish and prawns after capture during transport to processing
establishments and in the processing establishments. Fresh chilled products
produced for export include skin off and skin on fillets of Nile perch; fresh headed
and gutted Nile perch; high value marine fish and shrimps. Fresh chilled whole
fish and fillets are also traded domestically and regionally. Both block ice and
flake ice is used. Various types of insulated container are used to store ice and
for transporting iced fish by boat and road. Iced fish and shrimps are stored in
insulated containers at markets for domestic sale.

18
 ICING PRINCIPLES

„ 0oC 4oC

„ SLOWS SPOILAGE & CHEMICAL CHANGES

„ REDUCES GAPING

„ HEAT ENERGY REMOVED FROM FISH

In general, the closer the temperature is to that of melting ice, 0°C (32°F), the
slower the rate of chemical and microbiological spoilage and the growth of
pathogens. For this reason, ice in one form or another is used throughout the
world to prolong the storage life of fish.
Chilling is an important way of preserving fish. Chilling fish to temperatures as
low as -1oC reduces the growth of bacteria and hence the rate of spoilage.
Keeping fish chilled also reduces the contractions during rigor-mortis and the
likelihood that fish muscle will tear causing gaping.
Below 4oC bacterial growth is significantly retarded.

A given amount of ice always requires the same amount of heat to melt it; 1 kg of
ice needs 80 kcal to change it into water, thus the latent heat of fusion of ice is 80
kcal/kg. In chilling fish, heat energy is removed from the fish, lowering the fish
temperature.

19
 BENEFITS OF ICE
„ HARMLESS

„ CHEAP

„ PORTABLE

Ice is good for chilling as it has a large cooling capacity for a given weight or
volume, it is harmless, portable and relatively cheap.

20
 Species Shelf Life
(days in ice)
Temperate/marine Demersal 11-18
Pelagic (high 2-4
fat)
Pelagic (low 12
fat)
Temperate/freshwater 9-12
Tropical/marine Pelagic 2-5
Demersal Up to 28
Tropical/freshwater Tilapia 14-28
Cat fish 20
(Bagrus spp)

Table 1 provides an understanding of the different periods of time different species of fish can be
chilled using ice until they are inedible or spoilt. Times for individual species will vary according to
how quickly fish are iced, whether or not ice is used properly or whether the fish are eviscerated
and washed in clean water. Table 1 shows how ice can greatly extend the shelf life of tropical
freshwater fish species.

A general principle is that fish that have a storage life of 15 days at 0oC, will have a storage life of
approximately 6 days at 5oC and only about 2 days at 15oC. Ice and mechanical refrigeration
systems are the two most common methods of chilling fish.

Ice is good for chilling as it has a large cooling capacity for a given weight or volume, it is
harmless, portable and relatively cheap. A given amount of ice always requires the same amount
of heat to melt it; 1 kg of ice needs 80 kcal to change it into water, thus the latent heat of fusion of
ice is 80 kcal/kg. In chilling fish, heat energy is removed from the fish, lowering the fish
temperature.
Table 1 Shelf Life of Fresh Fish Chilled Using Ice
Water Origin TypeSpeciesShelf Life (days in ice)Temperate/marineWhite fleshed lean (cod,
haddock, hake)11-13Flatfish (sole, plaice)15-18Herring (high fat content)2-4Herring (low fat
content)12Temperate/freshwaterTrout9-10 Channel catfish (Ictalurus
spp)12Tropical/marineSardine2-5GrouperUp to 28Tropical/freshwaterTilapia14-28Mrigal
carp35Cat fish (Bagrus spp)20

21
 BLOCK ICE

„ MELTS SLOWLY

„ TRANSPORTED EASILY

„ MUST BE CRUSHED

„ SLOW PRODUCTION

„ MAINTENANCE EASY

FLAKE AND BLOCK 2 MOST COMMON TYPES

Block ice is made in different sizes and shapes and a single block can weigh from
12 to 150 kg. Block ice is popular in many tropical countries as it melts slowly and
can be easily transported with the need for sophisticated transport and
containers. The ice making equipment can be maintained and repaired easily.
Before block ice can be used to chill fish, it must be crushed or broken in to small
lumps. As the crushed ice has a larger surface area than the blocks, it melts
more rapidly.
Flake ice is produced by spraying water onto the surface of a refrigerated drum.
The frozen ice sheet is then scraped off to form dry, sub-cooled flakes. In the
tropics, it is often necessary to transport ice over long distances from its place of
manufacture. Under these circumstances, flake ice is less popular than block ice
as it takes up more space and melts more rapidly. In order to overcome these
disadvantages, flake ice manufacturers have begun to produce block ice presses
which compress the ice into blocks.

Flake ice is commonly used in temperate climate fisheries, it is mixed directly

with fish or it is used to chill seawater (CSW), in which fish is chilled after capture.
Other types of ice include tube and plate ice.

22
 FLAKE ICE

„ MADE QUICKLY

„ MELTS QUICKLY

„ LARGE VOLUME

„ READY TO USE

Flake ice is produced by spraying water onto the surface of a refrigerated drum.
The frozen ice sheet is then scraped off to form dry, sub-cooled flakes. In the
tropics, it is often necessary to transport ice over long distances from its place of
manufacture. Under these circumstances, flake ice is less popular than block ice
as it takes up more space and melts more rapidly. In order to overcome these
disadvantages, flake ice manufacturers have begun to produce block ice presses
which compress the ice into blocks.

Flake ice is commonly used in temperate climate fisheries, it is mixed directly

with fish or it is used to chill seawater (CSW), in which fish is chilled after capture.
Other types of ice include tube and plate ice.

23
 GOOD ICING PRACTICE
„ QUICKLY
„ 1:1
„ MIX
„ NO OVERLOADING
„ SMALL PIECES
„ DRAIN MELT WATER
„ STACKING
„ POTABLE WATER
„ KEEP CLEAN

Insp manual p 27, Codex Fishery product p46

Calculating the quantity of ice to use, takes into consideration the ambient air
temperature, the type of container in which icing is done, the thickness of the fish,
and the need for re-icing. A rule of thumb weight ratio is 1:1 (ice to fish) in tropical
temperatures and 1:2 for temperate climates.

The principles for good icing practice include:

Ice as soon as possible after harvesting or death
Use the correct quantity or ratio of ice to fish
Ice and fish must be well mixed so there is ice all around the fish
If icing in boxes these should not be overloaded to avoid crushing fish
Ice must be in small pieces so it does not damage the fish
Melt water must be allowed to drain away
If stacking boxes of fish and ice, the boxes must be able to support each other
and should not rest of fish
Ice should be made from potable fresh water or clean sea water
Facilities should be provided to protect the ice from contamination and excessive
meltage.

24
 CHILLING & HAZARDS

„ PATHOGENS

„ HISTAMINE

„ PHYSICAL HAZARDS

Chilling and Food Safety Hazards

Temperature control e.g. the lowering of temperature is an important means of controlling the
growth and presence of pathogenic bacteria. The proper use of clean ice (see good icing practice)
will retard the growth of pathogenic bacteria in fresh fish as well as slow down the growth of
spoilage bacteria and autolytic spoilage processes, hence slowing down quality changes. Annex 1
provides information on the temperatures at which the growth of various pathogenic bacteria are
limited.
Scombroid intoxication, sometimes referred to as histamine poisoning, results from eating certain
fish species (scombroids such as tuna, mackerel, and bonito, and Clupeidae e.g. sardines) that
have been incorrectly chilled after harvesting. Scombrotoxin is attributed mainly to the action of
Enterobacteriaceae bacteria which can produce high levels of histamine and other biogenic
amines in fish muscle when products are not immediately chilled after catching. Fish may contain
toxic levels of histamine without exhibiting any of the usual sensory parameters characteristic of
spoilage. Histamine poisoning is rarely fatal, but symptoms include a metallic or peppery taste in
the mouth, nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps, diarrhoea, swelling and flushing of face,
headache, dizziness, heart palpitations, hives, rapid and weak pulse, thirst, and difficulty
swallowing.
The toxin is not inactivated by normal heat processing, but rapid refrigeration or chilling in ice after
catching and a high standard of handling during processing will prevent its development. The EU
and the US have strict limits on the amount of histamine allowed in imported fish.
Care should be taken to ensure that ice used to chill fish or fishery products does not contaminate
them. Dust, flakes of paint, bits of wood or sawdust, straw and rust, are the most frequent
impurities transferable by ice into the final product.

25
 FREEZING

„ 75-80% water

„ Controls spoilage
& autolysis

„ Long term
storage

„ Long distance
transport

Freezing is used to preserve and store for long periods of time fish and
processed products that are destined for both export as well as domestic
markets. Typical frozen products include whole and gutted fish; headed and
gutted Nile perch; skin off and skin on fillets; and shrimp. Both plate freezers and
blast freezers are used. Frozen products are stored in cold stores; transported in
insulated boxes and in refrigerated containers.

Where as chilling can keep fish and shellfish in good condition for days or weeks,
there are circumstances when fish need to be kept for longer periods e.g. to even
out supplies to markets and stock pile product for lean seasons or for long
distance transport and export (FAO 1985) (Clucas & Ward 1996). As 75 – 80% of
the weight of fresh fish is water, one method of extending the storage life of fish
is to freeze that water to reduce bacterial spoilage and slow down autolysis (FAO
1985).

26
 PRINCIPLES OF
FREEZING
„ -1oC to -2oC

„ Specific heat

„ Latent heat

„ Freezing time

„ -18oC or lower

At normal atmospheric pressure pure water will change from liquid to solid (ice) at 0oC. However,
the water in fish flesh contains dissolved salts and chemicals which have the effect of lowering the
temperature at which water begins to freeze. The temperature of freezing is therefore between -
1oC and - 2oC.
To freeze water requires the removal of energy or latent heat. To lower the temperature of 1g of
water by 1oC at a temperature above 0oC requires the removal of 4.2J of heat. This is known as
the specific heat. To change liquid water at 0oC to solid ice at 0oC requires removal of 334.7J.
This is known as latent heat. To lower temperature of 1g of frozen water by 1oC requires the
removal of 2.1J.

The freezing time is the time taken to reduce the temperature to a given temperature (-18oC or -
20oC) at its thickest part. The final temperature of the thickest portion must be close to final
storage temperature of a recommended -30oC.

Inspectors need to check that product is frozen to -18oC at least incl during transport. (p28 SFP
manual). Freezing is not regarded as complete unless and until the product temperature has
reached -18°C (0°F) or lower at the thermal centre after thermal stabilization

27
There are three stages to freezing. Stage 1 the temperature falls quickly to 0oC.
During stage 2, if heat is removed from fish at a constant rate then there will be a
period while the fish is freezing when the temperature will not drop. This is while
the latent heat is being removed and water is changing from liquid to solid. The
temperature at this stage, known as the thermal arrest period, is between -1oC
and -5oC. This lasts until approximately 75% of water has been frozen and then
the temperature will begin to fall quickly again, which is stage 3 of the freezing
process.

28
 FREEZERS

„ BLAST

„ CONTACT

„ IMMERSION

There are three common types of freezer used:

Air blast freezers where a stream of cold air passes over the product and absorbs
heat energy from it;
Contact freezers e.g. plate freezers, where product is placed in contact with
refrigerated surfaces which in turn remove heat energy;
Immersion freezers which remove heat energy rapidly from a product using a
cold liquid or spray.
Batch or continuous air blast freezers can freeze different sizes and shapes of
fish and fish product. However, these freezers tend to occupy a large volume of
space and use a lot of energy compared to other types of freezer. Contact or
plate freezers are used to freeze blocks of fish, fillets and shrimp.

29
 GOOD FREEZING
PRACTICE
„ Quick
„ Raw material good
quality
„ Chill
„ Not overload
„ Glaze
„ Minimise delays
„ Cold store -30oC
„ Product -18oC

Good Freezing Practice (Section 6.3.6 p 27,28 Codex fish products p47,50 ))
Less loss of quality the faster the product passes through the thermal arrest
period.
Freeze the product quickly as slow freezing will result in autolytic spoilage and
maximum ice crystal formation which takes place mainly between -1oC and -5oC.
When freezing takes 24hrs or more the products will be of inferior quality. Long
freezing times can also result in bacterial spoilage.
Below -10oC bacterial action is prevented.
Fish and fish products for freezing must be of good quality and have been
handled in a hygienic manner.
Chill before freezing using ice or chilled water (2 parts ice to 1 part water) to
reduce freezing time.
Do not overload freezer as this will result in over long freezing times and possible
physical damage.
If no packing or wrapping is to be used glaze fish by dipping in iced water to
prevent dehydration and oxidation during cold storage. Renew glazed coat if
need be during cold storage.
Keep frozen products in cold store. Recommended temperature is -30oC.
Minimise delays in transferring frozen product to cold store.

Even if fish are frozen properly immediately after capture and stored at -30oC
they will not keep indefinitely. Although bacterial activity is insignificant at such a
low temperature, slow autolytic changes and auto oxidation of lipids will still occur
in frozen fish. Frozen fish and shellfish will dehydrate during cold storage and this
loss of water affects the quality of the thawed product. Some protection from
30
these problems can be given by dipping or spraying the frozen product with
 COLD STORAGE
„ Maintain low temperature

„ Uniform temperature

„ Steady temperature

„ Good air distribution

„ Minimum air circulation

„ Air ingress minimized

Cold Storage
Once fish have been frozen they need to be kept under suitable storage conditions to maintain quality. At -
30oC protein changes and denaturation by enzymes are minimized and bacterial action stopped. However,
other changes can occur such as oxidation of fat, dehydration and colour changes.
Cold stores should:
Maintain a low temperature
Ensure a uniform temperature
Ensure a steady temperature (minimal fluctuation)
Have good air distribution
Have minimum air circulation
Air ingress from outside minimized (minimize temperature fluctuation)

Dehydration of product is a major problem and occurs as a result of cold air and warm air being able to hold
different amounts of water vapour. Cold air leaves the evaporator and circulates through the cold store and
passes over the product. As it does this it becomes warmer. As it becomes warmer it becomes less
saturated and is able to pick up and hold more water vapour. It therefore absorbs moisture from the
surroundings and as a result moisture is removed from the product. The air then travels back to the
evaporator, cools down and becomes over-saturated. Water then precipitates out of the air to form frost on
the coils.
Frozen fish must be thawed before it can be cooked or further processed. Frozen fish and fishery products
can be thawed using air, water, vacuum systems or by using electrical resistance, dielectric or microwaves
(Wheaton & Lawson 1985).
Even if fish are frozen properly immediately after capture and stored at -30oC they will not keep indefinitely.
Although bacterial activity is insignificant at such a low temperature, slow autolytic changes and auto
oxidation of lipids will still occur in frozen fish. Frozen fish and shellfish will dehydrate during cold storage
and this loss of water affects the quality of the thawed product. Some protection from these problems can be
given by dipping or spraying the frozen product with chilled water to form a protective glaze over the entire
surface. Suitable packaging will also help prevent these problems (Clucas & Ward 1996).

31
 FREEZING & HAZARDS

„ PATHOGENS

„ PARASITES

Freezing and Food Safety Hazards

Freezing is primarily a means of maintaining quality and enabling the long term
storage and distribution of fish. It because of the low temperatures involved it
does however retard and prevent the growth of pathogenic as well as spoilage
bacteria. It is also used to control food borne illness caused by parasitic infections
of fish.
There are many different parasites found in fish and shellfish but more than 50
species are known to cause disease in humans. These parasites are known as
helminths or parasitic worms of which there are three distinct types: Nematodes,
Cestodes and Trematodes. All these parasitic helminthes have complicated life
cycles and they are not spread directly from fish to fish, but pass through a
number of intermediate hosts in their development.

Section 7.6 SFP manual p40.

The consumption of raw, minimally processed or inadequately cooked fish and

fish products that contain the parasite infectious stage, is the cause of food borne
parasitic disease. Parasite infections of fish can be eradicated by freezing and
proper cooking. Freezing fish intended for consumption raw will kill parasites. For
example freezing at -20°C or below for 7 days or at -35°C for about 24 hours will
kill parasites.

32
 HOT SMOKING

„ Cooking & drying

process
„ Domestic & export
markets
„ Focus on improved
technology

Hot smoking is an important processing method used in the region, particularly to

preserve freshwater fish such as Nile perch, tilapia and various catfish. Nile perch
frames or skeletons are also smoked for domestic consumption. Hot smoking can
be used to process bumper or glut catches and fish can be stored for long
periods of time. Hot smoking also enhances flavor and makes fish easier to
transport and market. Small fish are smoked in whole form, larger fish are split or
cut into steaks or chunks before smoking. Most hot smoked products are
destined for the domestic and regional markets. However, some products are
exported to the EU.
Smoking is a preservation process that combines drying and the deposition of the
chemical constituents produced by the thermal decomposition of organic material
e.g. wood.

Fish are hot smoked using traditional smoking kilns and fire wood. This process
is a heat drying process and is used in the absence of other means of
preservation such as refrigeration. The fish are cooked and dried by the high
temperatures achieved during processing. Temperatures reach at least 70oC to
80oC. The processing time varies according to the size of fish and the type of
product. The longer the process the drier the final product and the longer it can
be stored. Less dry products may achieve a higher price in certain markets.
Smoking is a preservation process that combines drying and the deposition of the
chemical constituents produced by the thermal decomposition of organic material
e.g. wood.
Fish are hot smoked using traditional smoking kilns and fire wood. This process
is a heat drying process and is used in the absence of other means of
preservation such as refrigeration. The fish are cooked and dried by the high
temperatures achieved during processing. Temperatures reach at least 70oC to 33
80oC The processing time varies according to the size of fish and the type of
 HOT SMOKING &
HAZARDS

PATHOGENS

PARASITES

Hot Smoking and Hazards

The high temperatures attained during the smoking process will eliminate the
presence of pathogenic bacteria and destroy toxins. Annex 1 shows the
temperatures at which various pathogenic bacteria are destroyed. It will also
eradicate spoilage bacteria.
Parasite infections of fish will be eradicated by the high temperatures attained
during the smoking process.
The hot smoking process not only cooks but dries the fish. The removal of
moisture creates an environment which inhibits the growth of pathogenic
bacteria. See Annex. Although the final moisture content varies according to the
length of the smoking process.
Brining fish before smoking is not traditionally used in the region, but this process
can leave a salt concentration in the flesh of the smoked product that is high
enough to inhibit the growth of any food poisoning organisms present e.g.
Clostridium botulinum.
Unfortunately smoked products can be associated with potential food safety
hazards which must be controlled. The most significant of these is the use of
agricultural pesticides to control insect infestation during storage, particularly
during the rainy season. These chemicals are not permitted for use on food and
pose a risk to the consumer.

34
 SALTING & DRYING

„ Reduce Aw

„ Reduce post-
mortem changes

„ 35-45% water

„ Osmosis

Salting and drying is a common method of fish preservation used in the region.
Nile perch, tilapia and other freshwater fish are salted and dried for domestic and
regional markets. The trimmings of Nile perch from filleting operations are also
salted and dried. Marine fish are also salted and dried. Some freshwater species
such as Rastrineobola argentea (mukene, dagaa) and tilapia are sun dried
without salt for domestic and regional markets.

Salting and drying removes water from fish reducing the water activity (Aw) and
hence bacterial action. Salting is probably one of the earliest preservation
techniques and is still important in many parts of the world where it is used an
important preservation technique. It is often used in combination with drying and
smoking. If fish are salted before drying then less water needs to be removed to
achieve preservation. A water content of 35-45%, depending on the amount of
salt present, will often prevent or significantly reduce the action of bacteria. (See
Annex in notes)

Water is essential for bacterial and enzymic activity and hence its removal will
slow down this activity and spoilage. Water Activity (Aw) is the ratio of the vapor
pressure in the product to that above pure water. It is the best measure of the
availability of water to support biological activity. Pure water has an Aw of 1.00.
Fresh fish have an Aw of 0.95. In general most spoilage bacteria will not grow at
an Aw of 0.90 or below. Molds are inhibited below an Aw of 0.8.

The removal of water limits the growth of pathogenic and spoilage bacteria and
enzyme activity, thus preserving fish as well as controlling a food safety hazard.
The high salt content in salted fish flesh also prevents the growth of normal
spoilage micro flora, which cannot survive for long in salt concentrations above 6 35
t 8% H b t i lt t l t d f t fi h fl h
 FACTORS EFFECTING
SALTING
„ High fat slow uptake
„ Thick fish slow
„ Fresh fish slow uptake
„ High temp fast uptake
„ Pure salt fast uptake
„ Fine grain for brine
„ Mix large & small
grains dry salting
„ Salt composition
effects colour

Factors affecting the rate of uptake of salt and quality of final products include:
Higher fat content, slower the rate of salt uptake
Thicker the fish the slower the diffusion of salt to the centre
Fresher the fish the slower the uptake of salt
Higher the temperature the faster the uptake of salt
Purer the salt the faster salt penetration

Fine grain salt dissolves quickly in water and is preferred for making brine but if
applied directly on fish can cause rapid removal of water from surface and lead to
salt burn, preventing penetration of salt into inside of fish. A mixture of large and
small salt grains is recommended for dry salting.

Impurities in salt such as Calcium and Magnesium Chlorides and sulfates reduce
the rate of salt penetration

Salt composition effects the colour of the final products (fish salted in pure NaCl
may be soft and yellow, Calcium and Magnesium salts produce whit colour and
bitter taste, also causes brittleness)

36
 SALTING METHODS

„ DRY (KENCH)

„ WET (PICKLE)

„ 3KG SALT:10KG
FISH

Dry salting is also known as kench salting. In this method, the fresh fish are piled
in layers, separated with layers of salt. The fish and salt layers are built up to
form a pile. Large fish are usually split open to increase the salting and drying
process. The water that exudes from the fish is left to drain away. Dry salting is
recommended for lean fish due to oxidation problems of fatty fish. A
recommended salt to fish ratio by weight is 3kg salt :10kg fish.
Wet salting refers to either brining or pickle curing. In brining the fish are placed
in a solution of salt and water (brine) until the fish have absorbed the required
level of salt. Brining is normally done prior to drying, smoking or canning. In pickle
salting the fish are layered with salt in a sealed container, but the brine solution
which forms is not drained away. This is a popular method for preserving fatty
fish. The fish must be covered with brine solution as quickly as possible and can
be weighted down to keep them submerged in the brine. The ratio of fish to salt
used is 3kg salt : 10kg fish.

There are also several rapid salting techniques including boiling fish in brine. All
have their advantages and disadvantages. Many fermented fish products, such
as fish sauce, are produced by using the action of salt to control the action of
enzymes and bacteria.

37
 DRYING
„ CONSTANT RATE
– AIR SPEED & TEMP
– SURFACE AREA
– HUMIDITY
– SALT CONTENT

„ FALLING RATE

Drying refers to the removal of water from fish. Water is removed by evaporation, the action of salt and the
application of pressure. In countries where drying has evolved as a traditional method of preserving fish, the
action of the sun and wind has been used to effect evaporative drying. Drying can also be achieved using
mechanical or artificial means.

During sun drying water is initially evaporated from the surface of the fish. This period is called “constant
rate” drying because drying continues at a constant rate and is a function of air velocity, humidity,
temperature and product surface area and the amount of heat transferred from air to product per unit of
time:

Larger the surface exposed to drying air the faster evaporation of moisture;
Humidity of air influences drying rate and amount of water air can absorb;
Warm air holds more moisture than cold – if air temperature is raised without addition of water the relative
humidity drops. Low relative humidities favour rapid evaporation and faster drying rates;
Thicker the fish the slower the drying rate;
Lower salt content the faster the drying rate. Heavily salted fish will form a crust at the surface that will
reduce the diffusion rate of water and hence drying rate.

As water is evaporated from the surface, it moves from the interior of the fish to the surface. This is achieved
by diffusion, which is slower than the rate at which water is evaporated from the surface. This is called the
“falling rate” drying period as water diffuses at a slower and slower rate the drier the fish becomes.

Traditionally fish is often dried on the ground, however, it is better practice to dry fish on raised drying racks
because:
At ground level air movement is usually slow, at one meter or above ground air currents are stronger;
Drying racks allow air to circulate around the product and increase the drying rate;
Less product is lost to domestic animals, rodents and insects;
Fish are kept cleaner by not allowing them to come into contact with dirt on the ground;
Sloping racks allow excess water to drain away from gut and gill cavities;
Fish can be easily protected from rain as they can be covered with plastic or waterproof material.

38
 SALTING / DRYING &
HAZARDS

PATHOGENS

Salting and Drying and Food Safety Hazards

Salting and drying removes water from fish which lowers the water activity (Aw)
of the product. Lowering the water activity prevents the growth of pathogenic and
spoilage bacteria. Annex 1 provides information on the moisture and salt content
levels which limit the growth of pathogenic bacteria. Most bacteria cease to grow
below 25% moisture (wet-basis). If salt is used then growth is inhibited at higher
moisture content levels e.g. 35-45%.

39
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF FISH PROCESSING AND
PRESERVATION
These notes have been produced for the Fisheries Hygiene Inspection Management
Professional Development Course for Fish Inspectors from the East Africa Region. The
notes are designed to supplement the SFP ACP Manual for Sanitary Inspection of Fish
as Raw Material and Fish Products as Food for Human Consumption.

Why is Fish Processed?

Fish is processed for the following reasons:

• Prevent spoilage and preserve;

• Create usable and desirable forms;
• Maintain quality;
• Assure the consumer of a safe product;
• Fully utilize the raw material;
• Add value.

Preservation
By preserving fish and shellfish we increase the potential for transporting, storing and
marketing. If preservation was not used then the autolytic and bacterial changes that
occur after death would cause spoilage and deterioration, rendering most fish and
shellfish inedible within a short period of time.

Usable and desirable forms

Some fish and shellfish require some processing in order to turn them into usable or
desirable products. Filleting, skinning, removing bones, and mincing flesh all make fish
an easy product for consumers to prepare, cook and eat. These basic processes also
make fish easier to process in to other products such as breaded and battered products
and ready-meals.

Maintenance of quality
Processing maintains the quality of fish and shellfish as it enables a product to be stored
without the development of off-odours, bad flavours or other losses in quality.

Safety
Processing can also ensure a safer product for the consumer. For example adequate
preservation processes will prevent the development of harmful pathogenic bacteria and
toxins. Shellfish are often purified before being processed further or sold to the
consumer.

Utilization
Processing can also lead to more complete utilization of raw fish and shellfish. More
complete usage can lead to a wider range of products, savings in cost and reductions in
waste disposal problems. Examples include the removal of flesh from fish frames after
filleting to make other products. The shells of shrimp are a by-product from processing
which can be used to make chitosan. Many processing operations, such as filleting,

1
produce fish offal (heads and internal organs) which can be used to produce fish meal
and fish oil.

Add value
It can be argued that the above reasons for processing all add-value to fish and shellfish.
But processing can also be used as a means in itself to increase the financial returns
from fish and shellfish. Processing is also used to produce fish and shellfish which are
promoted as having additional health benefits for consumers.

Post Mortem Changes

Soon after fish are dead, they begin to spoil, hence fresh caught fish pass through
various stages of decay until they become putrid and unfit for human consumption.

In order to understand the basic principles of fish processing it is important to have an

understanding of the key post-mortem changes which occur in fish and shellfish. These
are:

§ autolytic changes
§ changes caused by bacterial activity
§ changes caused by the rancidity of oils and fats
§ changes caused by the effects of rigor-mortis.
It is important to note that the chemical composition of fish flesh varies from species to
species and even within species according to season, maturity, fishing ground, feed, etc.
The rate of spoilage can therefore vary, and the spoilage pattern can be influenced by
these factors.

Autolytic change
Proteolytic enzymes are natural chemicals present in the flesh and various organs of
living organisms such as fish and shellfish. Enzymes help digest food in the stomach
and assist with other biological functions. After death enzymes are still active and
continue to breakdown muscle and other tissue. This breakdown process is called
autolysis. Autolysis is a cause of fish spoilage and the production of off-odours, flavours
and softening of flesh. The most noticeable short-term result of autolysis is “belly burst”
which is when digestive enzymes in the gut of fish breakdown the stomach walls and
surrounding tissue. Autolysis in shellfish such as shrimp and lobster can occur extremely
quickly and is one reason why most shellfish need to be processed very quickly.

Physical damage can accelerate autolytic changes in chilled fish as many enzymes have
been show to be concentrated in discreet membrane bound packages in the muscle.
Physical abuse such as crushing will break these packages releasing or spreading the
enzymes and mixing them with muscle tissue. Avoiding crushing and physical damage
reduces the rate of autolytic spoilage e.g. boxes of iced fish should not nest on top of
fish and careful handling must be practiced at all times.

Bacterial changes
The growth and feeding of bacteria is also responsible for the deterioration or spoilage of
fish. Key indicators of bacterial spoilage include off odours and flavours, a build up of
slime on the fish surface and a softening of the texture. Various different types of

2
bacteria are found on the surface of fish and shellfish, on the gills and in the animals’
stomach. The number of bacteria varies and reflects the environment from where the
fish or shellfish is harvested. Low numbers of bacteria can be found on fish from cold
clean waters whereas high numbers can be found on and in fish and shellfish from warm
tropical polluted waters. When fish or shellfish die, bacteria present multiply and feed on
and digest using enzymes the flesh of fish and shellfish flesh, which provides an ideal
medium for bacterial growth and multiplication. The rate of bacterial growth and
subsequent spoilage of fresh fish is determined by the number of bacteria present and
the temperature at which the fish is held. The spread of bacteria into the flesh can be
much more rapid if the fish have been damaged in any way.

The chemicals produced by this enzymatic action are responsible for the characteristic
off-odours and flavours associated with spoiled fish. Table 1 provides and overview of
the original compounds and the chemicals produced by bacterial action.

Table 1 Products of bacterial spoilage

Substrate Compounds produced by bacterial

action
Trimethylamine Oxide (TMAO) Trimethylamine (TMA)
Cysteine Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S)
Methionine Methylmercaptan (CH3SH)
Dimethylsulphide (CH3)2S
Carbohydrates and lactate Acetate, CO2, H2O
Inosine, IMP Hypoxanthine
Amino-acids (glycine, serine, leucine) Esters, ketones, aldehydes
Amino-acids, urea NH3
Amino-acid histidine Histamine

Some bacteria digest the flesh and organs of fish and shellfish and cause spoilage and
certain types of bacteria have the potential to cause food poisoning or illness in the
consumer. These bacteria are called pathogenic bacteria.

Oxidative Rancidity
Fish contain fats and oils known as lipids. Some fish have relatively high levels of lipids.
After death the fats and oils in fish will react with oxygen in the air. This process is
termed autoxidation. Enzymes will also breakdown fats. Both these processes result in
the production of off flavours, odours and colour changes which affect the quality of the
fish and the acceptance of it by the consumer.

Polyunsaturated fatty acids are broken down producing hydroperoxides which are then
broken down further producing secondary products such as aldehydes, ketones,
alcohols, carboxylic acids and alkanes which are responsible for rancid odours and
yellowish colour change.

Rigor-mortis
Finfish will undergo rigor-mortis, which is the stiffening and contraction of muscle tissue
caused by the post-mortem depletion of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Post-mortem
conversion of glycogen in fish muscle to lactic acid lowers the pH of muscle which in turn

3
effects the physical properties of the muscle. For example the water holding capacity
can be reduced and the lower the pH of the muscle the tougher the texture.

Rigor-mortis can effect the quality of fish fillets produced from frozen fish. It can result in
“gaping” (separation of muscle blocks) in fillets. This is caused by the action of
collagenase enzymes which breakdown the connective tissue between muscle blocks.
Fish fillets that have gaped are less desirable than those which have not gaped. A
reduction in pH of fish muscle after death due to the formation of lactic acid increases
the likelihood of “gaping”.

Various factors can effect the development, duration and resolution of rigor mortis.
These are species, size, harvesting method, temperature and physical condition of the
fish.

Principles of Preservation
The basic principles of preservation of fish and shellfish are focused on preventing or
slowing autolytic, bacterial and rancidity changes which effect the quality of fish and fish
products and the control of food safety hazards either by eliminating the hazard or
preventing the occurrence of the hazard.

Spoilage changes and the growth of pathogens takes place under certain optimum
conditions and altering these conditions prevents or reduces the rate at which the
changes occur. Pathogenic and spoilage bacteria require water, are sensitive to heat,
salt concentration and pH. Autolytic enzymes require a moist environment and are
sensitive to temperature. By altering these influencing factors can kill or reduce the rate
at which bacteria multiply and feed and the action of autolytic enzymes.

The principles of preservation are based on the:

§ physical separation of bacteria and enzymes from fish flesh e.g. by washing the fish
and shellfish and removal of stomach and other organs
§ temperature control (chilling, freezing, heat processing to kill bacteria and enzymes)
§ removal of water (drying)
§ addition of salt
§ control of pH (marinades)
§ reducing the contact fish fats and oils have with oxygen in the air e.g. by using
appropriate packaging

Physical Separation
There are a number of basic processing operations that are used on fresh fish and
shellfish soon after they are harvested. These are concerned with the physical removal
of bacteria and enzymes and therefore they aid preservation and reduce the risk from
pathogenic organisms which are found naturally on fish. These operations include
washing, evisceration, and heading.

4
Bacteria are found naturally on the fish and poor handling and hygiene can lead to
further contamination. Good Hygienic Practice (GHP) associated with high standards of
cleanliness at all stages of handling, processing, storage and distribution are essential in
controlling spoilage and food safety risks. This means that strict attention must be given
to the efficient cleaning of the fish, the regular cleaning of all surfaces with which the fish
come in contact, the provision of an uncontaminated water supply and the hygiene of
workers. These factors are all important in order to provide the consumer with safe and
good quality wholesome food.

Washing, using clean or potable water is used to remove slime, surface bacteria, blood
and other unwanted material. This reduces the level of bacteria and hence reduces the
risk of spoilage and the presence of pathogenic bacteria. Various types of mechanical
washers can be used to aid the process. Chlorinated water can aid the removal of
bacteria, but water must not contain more than the recommended chlorine levels.
Another type of cleaning is the depuration of shellfish such as oysters and mussels. The
live animals are held in tanks of clean water for a specific period of time to remove
potentially harmful bacteria and viruses picked up from the environment in which they
grew. This renders the animals safe for human consumption.

Evisceration is the removal of the entrails (internal organs) from fish or shellfish,
removing sources of spoilage and pathogenic bacteria present in the digestive system
and many enzymes. This is normally followed by a washing process. Shrimp are
eviscerated by cutting off the muscular tail from the rest of the body. Some internal
organs removed by evisceration can be useful by-products e.g. roe and livers. The
heads of some finfish species such as catfish and salmon are also removed. This is
known as “heading”. Heads have little usable meat. Removing the head reduces overall
weight which can be important in terms of transport costs.

Use of Additives
Various chemicals known as additives can be used to extend the shelf life or preserve
products, reduce the risk or eliminate pathogenic bacteria, improve the colour, enhance
flavour, enhance texture, improve water retention properties and improve nutritional
value. A number of additives are permitted for use in fish and shellfish products. The
Codex Alimentarius Commission standards for food provide guidance on the additives
permitted for use in fish and fishery products. Codex Alimentarius (1995) provides an
insight into some of the permitted additives used for water retention, regulating acidity,
thickening, flavour enhancing and coloring. More information on additives can be
obtained from the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JEFCA).

5
OVERVIEW OF KEY FISH PROCESSING METHODS
USED IN THE REGION
These notes have been produced for the Fisheries Hygiene Inspection Management
Professional Development Course for Fish Inspectors from the East Africa Region. The
notes are designed to supplement the SFP ACP Manual for Sanitary Inspection of Fish
as Raw Material and Fish Products as Food for Human Consumption.

Chilling and Use of Ice

Ice is used extensively in the Lake Victoria and marine export supply chains to chill
whole fish and prawns after capture during transport to processing establishments and in
the processing establishments. Fresh chilled products produced for export include skin
off and skin on fillets of Nile perch; fresh headed and gutted Nile perch; high value
marine fish and shrimps. Fresh chilled whole fish and fillets are also traded domestically
and regionally. Both block ice and flake ice is used. Various types of insulated container
are used to store ice and for transporting iced fish by boat and road. Iced fish and
shrimps are stored in insulated containers at markets for domestic sale.

Principles of Icing
In general, the closer the temperature is to that of melting ice, 0°C (32°F), the slower the
rate of chemical and microbiological spoilage and the growth of pathogens. For this
reason, ice in one form or another is used throughout the world to prolong the storage
life of fish.

Chilling is an important way of preserving fish. Chilling fish to temperatures as low as -

1oC reduces the growth of bacteria and hence the rate of spoilage. Keeping fish chilled
also reduces the contractions during rigor-mortis and the likelihood that fish muscle will
tear causing gaping.

Below 4oC bacterial growth is significantly retarded. Table 2 provides an understanding

of the different periods of time different species of fish can be chilled using ice until they
are inedible or spoilt. Times for individual species will vary according to how quickly fish
are iced, whether or not ice is used properly or whether the fish are eviscerated and
washed in clean water. Table 1 shows how ice can greatly extend the shelf life of tropical
freshwater fish species. A general principle is that fish that have a storage life of 15
days at 0oC, will have a storage life of approximately 6 days at 5oC and only about 2
days at 15oC. Ice and mechanical refrigeration systems are the two most common
methods of chilling fish.

Ice is good for chilling as it has a large cooling capacity for a given weight or volume, it is
harmless, portable and relatively cheap. A given amount of ice always requires the same
amount of heat to melt it; 1 kg of ice needs 80 kcal to change it into water, thus the latent
heat of fusion of ice is 80 kcal/kg. In chilling fish, heat energy is removed from the fish,
lowering the fish temperature.

6
Table 2 Shelf Life of Fresh Fish Chilled Using Ice

Water Origin Type Species Shelf Life (days in

ice)
Temperate/marine White fleshed lean (cod, haddock, 11-13
hake)
Flatfish (sole, plaice) 15-18
Herring (high fat content) 2-4
Herring (low fat content) 12
Temperate/freshwater Trout 9-10
Channel catfish (Ictalurus spp) 12
Tropical/marine Sardine 2-5
Grouper Up to 28
Tropical/freshwater Tilapia 14-28
Mrigal carp 35
Cat fish (Bagrus spp) 20

Source: Graham J., Johnston W.A., Nicholson F.J. 1992. Ice in fisheries. FAO Fisheries
Technical Paper No. 331, FAO, Rome.

Block ice is made in different sizes and shapes and a single block can weigh from 12 to
150 kg. Block ice is popular in many tropical countries as it melts slowly and can be
easily transported with the need for sophisticated transport and containers. The ice
making equipment can be maintained and repaired easily. Before block ice can be used
to chill fish, it must be crushed or broken in to small lumps. As the crushed ice has a
larger surface area than the blocks, it melts more rapidly. Block ice plants take up a lot of
space, make ice slowly (12 to 24 hrs), are easy to operate and maintain.

Flake ice is produced by spraying water onto the surface of a refrigerated drum. The
frozen ice sheet is then scraped off to form dry, sub-cooled flakes. Flake ice cen be
produced quickly. In the tropics, it is often necessary to transport ice over long distances
from its place of manufacture. Under these circumstances, flake ice is less popular than
block ice as it takes up more space and melts more rapidly. In order to overcome these
disadvantages, flake ice manufacturers have begun to produce block ice presses which
compress the ice into blocks.

Flake ice is commonly used in temperate climate fisheries, it is mixed directly with fish or
it is used to chill seawater (CSW), in which fish is chilled after capture. Other types of
ice include tube and plate ice.

For transporting fish by air, sea or road, insulated boxes can reduce the melting times of
ice, save costs in the long run and keep fish chilled for longer.

Good Icing Practice

Calculating the quantity of ice to use, takes into consideration the ambient air
temperature, the type of container in which icing is done, the thickness of the fish, and
the need for re-icing. A rule of thumb weight ratio is 1:1 (ice to fish) in tropical
temperatures and 1:2 for temperate climates.

7
The principles for good icing practice include:

• Ice as soon as possible after harvesting or death

• Use the correct quantity or ratio of ice to fish
• Ice and fish must be well mixed so there is ice all around the fish
• If icing in boxes these should not be overloaded to avoid crushing fish
• Ice must be in small pieces so it does not damage the fish
• Melt water must be allowed to drain away
• If stacking boxes of fish and ice, the boxes must be able to support each other
and should not rest of fish
• Ice should be made from potable fresh water or clean sea water
• Facilities should be provided to protect the ice from contamination and excessive
meltage.

Chilling and Food Safety Hazards

Temperature control e.g. the lowering of temperature is an important means of
controlling the growth and presence of pathogenic bacteria. The proper use of clean ice
(see good icing practice) will retard the growth of pathogenic bacteria in fresh fish as well
as slow down the growth of spoilage bacteria and autolytic spoilage processes, hence
slowing down quality changes. Annex 1 provides information on the temperatures at
which the growth of various pathogenic bacteria are limited.

Scombroid intoxication, sometimes referred to as histamine poisoning, results from

eating certain fish species (scombroids such as tuna, mackerel, and bonito, and
Clupeidae e.g. sardines) that have been incorrectly chilled after harvesting.
Scombrotoxin is attributed mainly to the action of Enterobacteriaceae bacteria which can
produce high levels of histamine and other biogenic amines in fish muscle when
products are not immediately chilled after catching. Fish may contain toxic levels of
histamine without exhibiting any of the usual sensory parameters characteristic of
spoilage. Histamine poisoning is rarely fatal, but symptoms include a metallic or peppery
taste in the mouth, nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps, diarrhoea, swelling and
flushing of face, headache, dizziness, heart palpitations, hives, rapid and weak pulse,
thirst, and difficulty swallowing.

The toxin is not inactivated by normal heat processing, but rapid refrigeration or chilling
in ice after catching and a high standard of handling during processing will prevent its
development. The EU and the US have strict limits on the amount of histamine allowed
in imported fish.

Care should be taken to ensure that ice used to chill fish or fishery products does not
contaminate them. Dust, flakes of paint, bits of wood or sawdust, straw and rust, are the
most frequent impurities transferable by ice into the final product.

8
Freezing
Freezing is used to preserve and store for long periods of time fish and processed
products that are destined for both export as well as domestic markets. Typical frozen
products include whole and gutted fish; headed and gutted Nile perch; skin off and skin
on fillets; and shrimp. Both plate freezers and blast freezers are used. Frozen products
are stored in cold stores; transported in insulated boxes and in refrigerated containers.

Principles of Freezing
Where as chilling can keep fish and shellfish in good condition for days or weeks, there
are circumstances when fish need to be kept for longer periods e.g. to even out supplies
to markets and stock pile product for lean seasons or for long distance transport and
export (FAO 1985) (Clucas & Ward 1996). As 75 – 80% of the weight of fresh fish is
water, one method of extending the storage life of fish is to freeze that water to reduce
bacterial spoilage and slow down autolysis (FAO 1985). Freezing is not regarded as
complete unless and until the product temperature has reached -18°C (0°F) or lower at
the thermal centre after thermal stabilization (Codex Alimentarius 1978).

At normal atmospheric pressure pure water will change from liquid to solid (ice) at 0oC.
However, the water in fish flesh contains dissolved salts and chemicals which have the
effect of lowering the temperature at which water begins to freeze. The temperature of
freezing is therefore between -1oC and - 2oC.

To freeze water requires the removal of energy or latent heat. To lower the temperature
of 1g of water by 1oC at a temperature above 0oC requires the removal of 4.2J of heat.
This is known as the specific heat. To change liquid water at 0oC to solid ice at 0oC
requires removal of 334.7J. This is known as latent heat. To lower temperature of 1g of
frozen water by 1oC requires the removal of 2.1J.

There are three stages to freezing as shown in Figure 1. Stage 1 the temperature falls
quickly to 0oC. During stage 2, if heat is removed from fish at a constant rate then there
will be a period while the fish is freezing when the temperature will not drop. This is while
the latent heat is being removed and water is changing from liquid to solid. The
temperature at this stage, known as the thermal arrest period, is between -1oC and -5oC.
This lasts until approximately 75% of water has been frozen and then the temperature
will begin to fall quickly again, which is stage 3 of the freezing process.

9
Figure 1 Freezing Process Stages

Source: FAO. 1985. Freezing in fisheries. Fisheries Technical Paper 167, FAO, Rome.

The freezing time is the time taken to reduce the temperature to a given temperature (-
18oC or -20oC) at its thickest part. The final temperature of the thickest portion must be
close to final storage temperature of a recommended -30oC.

Table 3 summarises different storage lives for different species of frozen fish at different
cold storage temperatures.

Table 3 Storage Life of Frozen Fish and Shellfish

Storage Life in months at different temperatures

o
Type of fish -18 C -25oC -30oC
Fatty fish – sardine, 4 8 12
salmon
Lean fish 8 18 24
Lobster, crab 6 12 15
Shrimp 6 12 12

From: Clucas & Ward 1996

There are three common types of freezer used:

• Air blast freezers where a stream of cold air passes over the product and
absorbs heat energy from it;

• Contact freezers e.g. plate freezers, where product is placed in contact with
refrigerated surfaces which in turn remove heat energy;

• Immersion freezers which remove heat energy rapidly from a product using a
cold liquid or spray.

10
Batch or continuous air blast freezers can freeze different sizes and shapes of fish and
fish product. However, these freezers tend to occupy a large volume of space and use a
lot of energy compared to other types of freezer. Contact or plate freezers are used to
freeze blocks of fish, fillets and shrimp.

Cold Storage
Once fish have been frozen they need to be kept under suitable storage conditions to
maintain quality. At -30oC protein changes and denaturation by enzymes are minimized
and bacterial action stopped. However, other changes can occur such as oxidation of
fat, dehydration and colour changes.

Cold stores should:

• Maintain a low temperature

• Ensure a uniform temperature
• Ensure a steady temperature (minimal fluctuation)
• Have good air distribution
• Have minimum air circulation
• Air ingress from outside minimized (minimize temperature fluctuation)
Dehydration of product is a major problem and occurs as a result of cold air and warm
air being able to hold different amounts of water vapour. Cold air leaves the evaporator
and circulates through the cold store and passes over the product. As it does this it
becomes warmer. As it becomes warmer it becomes less saturated and is able to pick
up and hold more water vapour. It therefore absorbs moisture from the surroundings and
as a result moisture is removed from the product. The air then travels back to the
evaporator, cools down and becomes over-saturated. Water then precipitates out of the
air to form frost on the coils.

Even if fish are frozen properly immediately after capture and stored at -30oC they will
not keep indefinitely. Although bacterial activity is insignificant at such a low
temperature, slow autolytic changes and auto oxidation of lipids will still occur in frozen
fish. Frozen fish and shellfish will dehydrate during cold storage and this loss of water
affects the quality of the thawed product. Some protection from these problems can be
given by dipping or spraying the frozen product with chilled water to form a protective
glaze over the entire surface. Suitable packaging will also help prevent these problems.

Frozen fish must be thawed before it can be cooked or further processed. Frozen fish
and fishery products can be thawed using air, water, vacuum systems or by using
electrical resistance, dielectric or microwaves.

Good Freezing Practice

The following summarises good freezing practice:

§ Less loss of quality the faster the product passes through the thermal arrest period.

11
§ Freeze the product quickly as slow freezing will result in autolytic spoilage and
maximum ice crystal formation which takes place mainly between -1oC and -5oC.
When freezing takes 24hrs or more the products will be of inferior quality. Long
freezing times can also result in bacterial spoilage.

§ Below -10oC bacterial action is prevented.

§ Fish and fish products for freezing must be of good quality and have been handled in
a hygienic manner.

§ Chill before freezing using ice or chilled water (2 parts ice to 1 part water) to reduce
freezing time.

§ Do not overload freezer as this will result in over long freezing times and possible
physical damage.

§ If no packing or wrapping is to be used glaze fish by dipping in iced water to prevent

dehydration and oxidation during cold storage. Renew glazed coat if need be during
cold storage.

§ Keep frozen products in cold store. Recommended temperature is -30oC.

§ Minimise delays in transferring frozen product to cold store.

Freezing and Food Safety Hazards

Freezing is primarily a means of maintaining quality and enabling the long term storage
and distribution of fish. It because of the low temperatures involved it does however
retard and prevent the growth of pathogenic as well as spoilage bacteria. It is also used
to control food borne illness caused by parasitic infections of fish.

There are many different parasites found in fish and shellfish but more than 50 species
are known to cause disease in humans. These parasites are known as helminths or
parasitic worms of which there are three distinct types: Nematodes, Cestodes and
Trematodes. All these parasitic helminthes have complicated life cycles and they are
not spread directly from fish to fish, but pass through a number of intermediate hosts in
their development.

The consumption of raw, minimally processed or inadequately cooked fish and fish
products that contain the parasite infectious stage, is the cause of food borne parasitic
disease. Parasite infections of fish can be eradicated by freezing and proper cooking.
Freezing fish intended for consumption raw will kill parasites. For example freezing at -
20°C or below for 7 days or at -35°C for about 24 hours will kill parasites.

Hot Smoking
Hot smoking is an important processing method used in the region, particularly to
preserve freshwater fish such as Nile perch, tilapia and various catfish. Nile perch
frames or skeletons are also smoked for domestic consumption. Hot smoking can be
used to process bumper or glut catches and fish can be stored for long periods of time.
Hot smoking also enhances flavor and makes fish easier to transport and market. Small
fish are smoked in whole form, larger fish are split or cut into steaks or chunks before

12
smoking. Most hot smoked products are destined for the domestic and regional
markets. However, some products are exported to the EU.

Smoking is a preservation process that combines drying and the deposition of the
chemical constituents produced by the thermal decomposition of organic material e.g.
wood.

Fish are hot smoked using traditional smoking kilns and fire wood. This process is a heat
drying process and is used in the absence of other means of preservation such as
refrigeration. The fish are cooked and dried by the high temperatures achieved during
processing. Temperatures reach at least 70oC to 80oC. The processing time varies
according to the size of fish and the type of product. The longer the process the drier the
final product and the longer it can be stored. Less dry products may achieve a higher
price in certain markets.

Hot smoked products can be stored at ambient temperatures for long periods of time
depending on the moisture content of the final product, which is dependent on the length
of time of the smoking process.

Various types of traditional smoking kiln or “cover” are used in the region to smoke fish.
The fuel used is firewood. These are made from locally available materials and can be
fuel inefficient, produce products of varying quality, can be effected by averse weather
conditions, have a low capacity and are labour intensive. To overcome some of these
problems, improved kilns have been introduced and adopted by some small-scale
processors. The most successful of these have been based on the Chorkor and Altona
designs of oven. More sophisticated mechanical kilns which are powered by electricity
and used wood waste such as sawdust can also be used to produce hot smoked
products.

Hot smoked products can be vacuum packed, chilled or frozen to extend the shelf life.
They require no further cooking. A general rule of thumb is that lean or white fish will
keep better for longer than hot smoked fatty fish.

During a cold smoking process the temperature of the fish does not rise to a point where
the flesh of the fish begins to cook e.g. between 30oC and 40oC depending on the
species. Cold smoking is primarily used in temperate countries where refrigeration and
vacuum packaging are used to extend the shelf life of these products. Mechanical
smoking kilns which utilize wood waste and are powered by electricity are used to
produce cold smoked products.

As a consequence of the use of firewood, hot smoking in the region is associated with
the problem of deforestation.

Hot Smoking Good Practice (to be developed during session)

Smoke good quality fish to reduce breakage of final product

Cool fish adequately before storage to reduce growth of mould

Re-dry fish periodically during storage

13
Handle and pack carefully to avoid breakage during distribution

Hot Smoking and Hazards

The high temperatures attained during the smoking process will eliminate the presence
of pathogenic bacteria and destroy toxins. Annex 1 shows the temperatures at which
various pathogenic bacteria are destroyed. It will also eradicate spoilage bacteria.
Parasite infections of fish will be eradicated by the high temperatures attained during the
smoking process.

The hot smoking process not only cooks but dries the fish. The removal of moisture
creates an environment which inhibits the growth of pathogenic bacteria. See Annex.
Although the final moisture content varies according to the length of the smoking
process.

Brining fish before smoking is not traditionally used in the region, but this process can
leave a salt concentration in the flesh of the smoked product that is high enough to
inhibit the growth of any food poisoning organisms present e.g. Clostridium botulinum.

Unfortunately smoked products can be associated with potential food safety hazards
which must be controlled. The most significant of these is the use of agricultural
pesticides to control insect infestation during storage, particularly during the rainy
season. These chemicals are not permitted for use on food and pose a risk to the
consumer.

Salting and Drying

Salting and drying is a common method of fish preservation used in the region. Nile
perch, tilapia and other freshwater fish are salted and dried for domestic and regional
markets. The trimmings of Nile perch from filleting operations are also salted and dried.
Marine fish are also salted and dried. Some freshwater species such as Rastrineobola
argentea (mukene, dagaa) and tilapia are sun dried without salt for domestic and
regional markets.

Salting and drying removes water from fish reducing the water activity (Aw) and hence
bacterial action. Salting is probably one of the earliest preservation techniques and is still
important in many parts of the world where it is used an important preservation
technique. It is often used in combination with drying and smoking. If fish are salted
before drying then less water needs to be removed to achieve preservation. A water
content of 35-45%, depending on the amount of salt present, will often prevent or
significantly reduce the action of bacteria. See Annex for further details.

Water is essential for bacterial and enzymic activity and hence its removal will slow
down this activity and spoilage. Water Activity (Aw) is the ratio of the vapor pressure in
the product to that above pure water. It is the best measure of the availability of water to
support biological activity. Pure water has an Aw of 1.00. Fresh fish have an Aw of 0.95.
In general most spoilage bacteria will not grow at an Aw of 0.90 or below. Molds are
inhibited below an Aw of 0.8.

If fish is placed in a solution of salt (brine) and the brine solution has a higher
concentration of salts than fish flesh, then water will move from the flesh into the solution
and salt will move from the solution into the fish flesh until the concentrations of both

14
solutions are equal. This process is known as osmosis. The removal of water limits the
growth of pathogenic and spoilage bacteria and enzyme activity, thus preserving fish as
well as controlling a food safety hazard. The high salt content in salted fish flesh
prevents the growth of normal spoilage micro flora, which cannot survive for long in salt
concentrations above 6 to 8 %. However some bacteria are salt tolerant and prefer to
grow on fish flesh with high concentrations of salt.

Factors affecting the rate of uptake of salt and quality of final products include:

• Higher fat content, slower the rate of salt uptake

• Thicker the fish the slower the diffusion of salt to the centre

• Fresher the fish the slower the uptake of salt

• Higher the temperature the faster the uptake of salt

• Purer the salt the faster salt penetration

• Fine grain salt dissolves quickly in water and is preferred for making brine but if
applied directly on fish can cause rapid removal of water from surface and lead to
salt burn, preventing penetration of salt into inside of fish. A mixture of large and
small salt grains is recommended for dry salting.

• Impurities in salt such as Calcium and Magnesium Chlorides and sulfates reduce
the rate of salt penetration

• Salt composition effects the colour of the final products (fish salted in pure NaCl
may be soft and yellow, Calcium and Magnesium salts produce whit colour and
bitter taste, also causes brittleness)

The basic salting processes are: dry salting and wet salting.

Dry salting is also known as kench salting. In this method, the fresh fish are piled in
layers, separated with layers of salt. The fish and salt layers are built up to form a pile.
Large fish are usually split open to increase the salting and drying process. The water
that exudes from the fish is left to drain away. Dry salting is recommended for lean fish
due to oxidation problems of fatty fish. A recommended salt to fish ratio by weight is 3kg
salt :10kg fish.

Wet salting refers to either brining or pickle curing. In brining the fish are placed in a
solution of salt and water (brine) until the fish have absorbed the required level of salt.
Brining is normally done prior to drying, smoking or canning. In pickle salting the fish are
layered with salt in a sealed container, but the brine solution which forms is not drained
away. This is a popular method for preserving fatty fish. The fish must be covered with
brine solution as quickly as possible and can be weighted down to keep them
submerged in the brine. The ratio of fish to salt used is 3kg salt : 10kg fish.

15
There are also several rapid salting techniques including boiling fish in brine. All have
their advantages and disadvantages. Many fermented fish products, such as fish sauce,
are produced by using the action of salt to control the action of enzymes and bacteria.

Drying refers to the removal of water from fish. Water is removed by evaporation, the
action of salt and the application of pressure. In countries where drying has evolved as a
traditional method of preserving fish, the action of the sun and wind has been used to
effect evaporative drying. Drying can also be achieved using mechanical or artificial
means.

During sun drying water is initially evaporated from the surface of the fish. This period is
called “constant rate” drying because drying continues at a constant rate and is a
function of air velocity, humidity, temperature and product surface area and the amount
of heat transferred from air to product per unit of time:

• Larger the surface exposed to drying air the faster evaporation of moisture;
• Humidity of air influences drying rate and amount of water air can absorb;
• Warm air holds more moisture than cold – if air temperature is raised without
addition of water the relative humidity drops. Low relative humidities favour rapid
evaporation and faster drying rates;
• Thicker the fish the slower the drying rate;
• Lower salt content the faster the drying rate. Heavily salted fish will form a crust
at the surface that will reduce the diffusion rate of water and hence drying rate.

As water is evaporated from the surface, it moves from the interior of the fish to the
surface. This is achieved by diffusion, which is slower than the rate at which water is
evaporated from the surface. This is called the “falling rate” drying period as water
diffuses at a slower and slower rate the drier the fish becomes.

Traditionally fish is often dried on the ground, however, it is better practice to dry fish on
raised drying racks because:

• At ground level air movement is usually slow, at one meter or above ground air
currents are stronger;
• Drying racks allow air to circulate around the product and increase the drying
rate;
• Less product is lost to domestic animals, rodents and insects;
• Fish are kept cleaner by not allowing them to come into contact with dirt on the
ground;
• Sloping racks allow excess water to drain away from gut and gill cavities;
• Fish can be easily protected from rain as they can be covered with plastic or
waterproof material.

16
Salting and Drying and Food Safety Hazards
Salting and drying removes water from fish which lowers the water activity (Aw) of the
product. Lowering the water activity prevents the growth of pathogenic and spoilage
bacteria. Annex 1 provides information on the moisture and salt content levels which
limit the growth of pathogenic bacteria. Most bacteria cease to grow below 25% moisture
(wet-basis). If salt is used then growth is inhibited at higher moisture content levels e.g.
35-45%.

17
FURTHER READING

Balachandran K. K. 2001. Post-harvest technology of fish and fish products. Daya

Publishing House, Delhi, India. 440 pp.

Bannerman A. undated. Hot smoking of fish. Torry Advisory Note No. 82. (see Onefish
web site)

Brownell B. 1983. A practical guide to improved fish smoking in west Africa. UNICEF.
New York.

Clucas I. J., Ward A. R. 1996. Post-harvest fisheries development: a guide to handling,

preservation, processing and quality. Natural Resources Institute, Chatham, UK. 443 pp.

Codex Alimentarius. 2005. Code of Practice for Fish and Fishery Products. CAC/RCP
52-2003 Rev. 2-2005. Codex Alimentarius Commission. Food and Agriculture
Organisation / World Health Organisation. Rome. Draft. 98 p.

Codex Alimentarius.1995. Standard for quick frozen fish sticks, fish portions and fish
fillets (breaded or in batter). Codex Standard 166. Codex Alimentarius Commission,
Joint FAO/WHO Food Standards Programme Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations, Rome.

Early J. C., Stroud G. D. 1982. Shellfish. In Aitken A. Mackie I. M. Merritt J. H. Windsor

M.L. eds. Fish Handling and Processing. Torry Research Station. Edinburgh, UK.
HMSO.

Espejo-Hermes J. 1998. Fish processing technology in the tropics. Taid Publications.

Quezon City, Philippines. 336p.

FAO. 1985. Freezing in fisheries. Fisheries Technical Paper 167, FAO, Rome.

FDA. 2001. Fish and Fishery Products Hazards and Controls Guidance. 3RD Edition.
U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Office of Seafood, Washington. 326 p.
http://www.fda.gov

Graham J., Johnston W.A., Nicholson F.J. 1992. Ice in fisheries. FAO Fisheries
Technical Paper No. 331, FAO, Rome. 75pp.

Gopakumar K. (1997) Tropical fishery products. Oxford and IBH Publishing, New Delhi.

Hobbs G. 1982. Changes in fish after catching. In Aitken A. Mackie I. M. Merritt J. H.

Windsor M.L. eds. Fish Handling and Processing. Torry Research Station. Edinburgh,
UK. HMSO.

Huss H. H. 1988. Fresh fish: quality and quality changes. A training manual prepared for
the FAO/DANIDA training programme on fish technology and quality control. FAO
Fisheries Series No. 29. FAO, Rome. 132 pp.

Huss H.H. 1995. Quality and quality changes in fresh fish. FAO Fisheries Technical
Paper. No 348. FAO, Rome. 195 p.

18
James D., (ed) 1983. The production and storage of dried fish. Proceedings of the
Workshop on the Production and Storage of Dried fish. Universiti Pertanian Malaysia,
Serdang (Malaysia), 2-5 November 1982. FAO Fisheries Report 279. FAO Rome.

Johnson, S. E., Clucas, I. J. 1996. Maintaining fish quality: an illustrated guide. Natural
Resources Institute, Chatham, UK.

Love M. R. 1988. The food fishes: their intrinsic variation and practical implications.
Farrand Press, London, UK. 276 pp.

Nicolaides L., Coker R., Wareing P., Nagler M. 1998. Food safety and the developing
world. Natural Resources Institute, Chatham, UK. 32 pp.

Reilly A., Barile L.E (eds) 1986. Cured fish production in the tropics. Proceedings of a
Workshop on the Production of Cured Fish. University of the Philippines in the Visayas,
Diliman, Quezon City, Philipines, 14-25 April 1986. College of Fisheries, University of
Philippines in the Visayas and GTZ.

Wheaton F. W., Lawson T. B. 1985. Processing aquatic food products. John Wiley and
Sons, New York, US, 518 pp.

Windsor M., Barlow S. 1981. Introduction to fishery by-products. Fishing News Books,
England.

19
USEFUL WEBSITES

Organization / Information Web Site Address

Codex Alimentarius - all standards, www.codexalimentarius.net
codes of practice, guidelines

EU food safety and access to EU http://europa.eu.int/pol/food/index_en.htm

regulations http://europa.eu.int/scadplus/leg/en/s84000.htm
EU guidance of food exports from http://europa.eu.int/comm/food/fvo/pdf/guide_thir
third countries dcountries_en.pdf

EU White Paper on food safety europa.eu.int/comm/dgs/health_consumer/librar

y/pub/pub06_en.pdf
European Food Safety Authority www.efsa.eu.int
website
FAO Fisheries Department http://www.fao.org/fi/default.asp
Information on world trade in fish and
fish products
Globefish: Information on http://www.globefish.org
international fish trade and marketing
Onefish. Information of fish utilization http://www.onefish.org/
and processing methods.
US Food and Drug Administration http://www.fda.gov

20
ANNEX – Factors Limiting the Growth of Pathogenic Bacteria

Max.
min.
%
aw min. max. min. max. oxygen
Pathogen water
(using pH pH temp. temp. requirement
phase
salt)
salt

39.2°F 131°F****
Bacillus Cereus .92 4.3 9.3 10 aerobe
4°C 55°C

Campylobacter 86°F 113°F micro-

.987 4.9 9.5 1.5
jejuni 30°C 45°C aerophilic *

Clostridium
botulinum,
50°F 118.4°F
type A, and .935 4.6 9 10 anaerobe **
10°C 48°C
proteolytic B and
F

Clostridium
botulinum,
37.9°F 113°F
type E, and .97 5 9 5 anaerobe **
3.3°C 45°C
nonproteolytic B
and F

Clostridium 50°F 125.6°F

.93 5 9 7 anaerobe **
perfringens 10°C 52°C

pathogenic strains
43.7°F 120.9°F facultative
of .95 4 9 6.5
6.5°C 49.4°C anaerobe ***
Escherichia coli

Listeria 31.3°F 113°F facultative

.92 4.4 9.4 10
monocytogenes -0.4°C 45°C anaerobe ***

41.4°F 115.2°F facultative

Salmonella spp. .94 3.7 9.5 8
5.2°C 46.2°C anaerobe ***

43°F 116.8°F facultative

Shigella spp. .96 4.8 9.3 5.2
6.1°C 47.1°C anaerobe ***

Staphylococcus 44.6°F 122°F

.83 4 10 20
aureus- growth 7°C 50°C facultative
anaerobe ***
Staphylococcus 50°F 118°F
.85 4 9.8 10
aureus- toxin 10°C 48°C

Vibrio cholerae .97 5 10 6 50°F 109.4°F facultative

21
 10°C 43°C anaerobe ***

Vibrio 41°F 113.5°F facultative

.94 4.8 11 10
parahaemolyticus 5°C 45.3°C anaerobe ***

46.4°F 109.4°F facultative

Vibrio vulnificus .96 5 10 5
8°C 43°C anaerobe ***

Yersinia 29.7°F 107.6°F facultative

.945 4.2 10 7
enterocolitica -1.3°C 42°C anaerobe ***
*
requires limited levels of oxygen ** requires the absence of oxygen ***
grows either with or without
oxygen. **** growth significantly delayed (>24 hr.) at 131°F (55°C)

Source: FDA. 2001. Fish and Fishery Products Hazards and Controls Guidance. 3RD
Edition. U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Office of Seafood, Washington

22