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Fish processing
(From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia)

The term fish processing refers to the processes associated with fish and fish products between
the time fish are caught or harvested, and the time the final product is delivered to the customer.
Although the term refers specifically to fish, in practice it is extended to cover any aquatic
organisms harvested for commercial purposes, whether caught in wild fisheries or harvested
from aquaculture or fish farming.
Larger fish processing companies often operate their own fishing fleets or farming operations. The
products of the fish industry are usually sold to grocery chains or to intermediaries. Fish are highly
perishable. A central concern of fish processing is to prevent fish from deteriorating, and this
remains an underlying concern during other processing operations.
Fish processing can be subdivided into fish handling, which is the preliminary processing of raw fish,
and the manufacture of fish products. Another natural subdivision is into primary processing involved
in the filleting and freezing of fresh fish for onward distribution to fresh fish retail and catering outlets,
and the secondary processing that produces chilled, frozen and canned products for the retail and
catering trades.[1]
There is evidence humans have been processing fish since the early Holocene.[2] These days, fish
processing is undertaken by artisan fishermen, on board fishing or fish processing vessels, and
at fish processing plants.

Contents

 1. Overview
 2. Handling the catch
o 2.1Handling live fish
 3. Preservation
o 3.1Control of temperature
o 3.2Control of water activity
o 3.3Physical control of microbial loads
o 3.4Chemical control of microbial loads
o 3.5Control of the oxygen reduction potential
o 3.6Combined techniques
 4. Automated processes
 5. Waste management
 6. Transport
 7. Quality and safety
 8. Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points
 9. Final products
o 9.1Value addition
 10History

Overview

Fish is a highly perishable food which needs proper handling and preservation if it is to have a long
shelf life and retain a desirable quality and nutritional value. [3] The central concern of fish processing
is to prevent fish from deteriorating. The most obvious method for preserving the quality of fish is
to keep them alive until they are ready for cooking and eating. For thousands of years, China
achieved this through the aquaculture of carp. Other methods used to preserve fish and fish
products include[4]

 the control of temperature using ice, refrigeration or freezing

 the control of water activity by drying, salting, smoking or freeze-drying
 the physical control of microbial loads through microwave heating or ionizing irradiation
 the chemical control of microbial loads by adding acids
 oxygen deprivation, such as vacuum packing.
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Usually more than one of these methods is used. When chilled or frozen fish or fish products are
transported by road, rail, sea or air, the cold chain must be maintained. This requires insulated
containers or transport vehicles and adequate refrigeration. Modern shipping containerscan combine
refrigeration with a controlled atmosphere. [4]
Fish processing is also concerned with proper waste management and with adding value to fish
products. There is an increasing demand for ready to eat fish products, or products that do not need
much preparation.[4]

Handling the catch

When fish are captured or harvested for commercial purposes, they need some preprocessing so
they can be delivered to the next part of the marketing chain in a fresh and undamaged condition.
This means, for example, that fish caught by a fishing vessel need handling so they can be stored
safely until the boat lands the fish on shore. Typical handling processes are [3]

1. transferring the catch from the fishing gear (such as a trawl, net or fishing line) to the fishing

vessel
2. holding the catch before further handling
3. sorting and grading
4. bleeding, gutting and washing
5. chilling
6. storing the chilled fish
7. unloading, or landing the fish when the fishing vessel returns to port
The number and order in which these operations are undertaken varies with the fish species and the
type of fishing gear used to catch it, as well as how large the fishing vessel is and how long it is at
sea, and the nature of the market it is supplying.[3] Catch processing operations can be manual or
automated. The equipment and procedures in modern industrial fisheries are designed to reduce the
rough handling of fish, heavy manual lifting and unsuitable working positions which might result in
injuries.[3]
Handling live fish
Main article: Live fish trade
An alternative, and obvious way of keeping fish fresh is to keep them alive until they are delivered to
the buyer or ready to be eaten. This is a common practice worldwide. Typically, the fish are placed in
a container with clean water, and dead, damaged or sick fish are removed. The water temperature is
then lowered and the fish are starved to reduce their metabolic rate. This decreases fouling of water
with metabolic products (ammonia, nitrite and carbon dioxide) that become toxic and make it difficult
for the fish to extract oxygen. [3]
Fish can be kept alive in floating cages, wells and fish ponds. In aquaculture, holding basins are
used where the water is continuously filtered and its temperature and oxygen level are controlled. In
China, floating cages are constructed in rivers out of palm woven baskets, while in South America
simple fish yards are built in the backwaters of rivers. Live fish can be transported by methods which
range from simple artisanal methods where fish are placed in plastic bags with an oxygenated
atmosphere, to sophisticated systems which use trucks that filter and recycle the water, and add
oxygen and regulate temperature. [3]

Preservation
See also: Fish preservation
Preservation techniques are needed to prevent fish spoilage and lengthen shelf life. They are
designed to inhibit the activity of spoilage bacteria and the metabolic changes that result in the loss
of fish quality. Spoilage bacteria are the specific bacteria that produce the unpleasant odours and
flavours associated with spoiled fish. Fish normally host many bacteria that are not spoilage
bacteria, and most of the bacteria present on spoiled fish played no role in the spoilage. [5] To flourish,
bacteria need the right temperature, sufficient water and oxygen, and surroundings that are not too
acidic. Preservation techniques work by interrupting one or more of these needs. Preservation
techniques can be classified as follows.[6]
1. Control of temperature]

Ice preserves fish and extends shelf life by lowering the temperature

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If the temperature is decreased, the metabolic activity in the fish

from microbial or autolytic processes can be reduced or stopped. This is achieved
by refrigeration where the temperature is dropped to about 0 °C, or freezing where the temperature
is dropped below -18 °C. On fishing vessels, the fish are refrigerated mechanically by circulating cold
air or by packing the fish in boxes with ice. Forage fish, which are often caught in large numbers, are
usually chilled with refrigerated or chilled seawater. Once chilled or frozen, the fish need further
cooling to maintain the low temperature. There are key issues with fish cold store design and
management, such as how large and energy efficient they are, and the way they are insulated
and palletized.[6]
An effective method of preserving the freshness of fish is to chill with ice by distributing ice uniformly
around the fish. It is a safe cooling method that keeps the fish moist and in an easily stored form
suitable for transport. It has become widely used since the development of mechanical refrigeration,
which makes ice easy and cheap to produce. Ice is produced in various shapes; crushed ice
and Flake Ice, plates, tubes and blocks are commonly used to cool fish. [3] Particularly effective
is slurry ice, made from micro crystals of ice formed and suspended within a solution of water and
a freezing point depressant, such as common salt.[7]
A more recent development is pumpable ice technology. Pumpable ice flows like water, and
because it is homogeneous, it cools fish faster than fresh water solid ice methods and eliminates
freeze burns. It complies with HACCP and ISO food safety and public health standards, and uses
less energy than conventional fresh water solid ice technologies. [8][9]
2. Control of water activity
See also: Dried fish, Salted fish, and Smoked fish
The water activity, aw, in a fish is defined as the ratio of the water vapour pressure in the flesh of the
fish to the vapour pressure of pure water at the same temperature and pressure. It ranges between
0 and 1, and is a parameter that measures how available the water is in the flesh of the fish.
Available water is necessary for the microbial and enzymatic reactions involved in spoilage. There
are a number of techniques that have been or are used to tie up the available water or remove it by
reducing the aw. Traditionally, techniques such as drying, salting and smoking have been used, and
have been used for thousands of years. These techniques can be very simple, for example, by using
solar drying. In more recent times, freeze-drying, water binding humectants, and fully automated
equipment with temperature and humidity control have been added. Often a combination of these
techniques is used.[6]
3. Physical control of microbial loads
Microbial loads can be physically controlled by canning and then sterilizing with heat

Heat or ionizing irradiation can be used to kill the bacteria that cause decomposition. Heat is applied
by cooking, blanching or microwave heating in a manner that pasteurizes or sterilizes fish products.
Cooking or pasteurizing does not completely inactivate microorganisms and may need to be
followed with refrigeration to preserve fish products and increase their shelf life. Sterilised products
are stable at ambient temperatures up to 40 °C, but to ensure they remain sterilized they need
packaging in metal cans or retortable pouches before the heat treatment.[6]
4. Chemical control of microbial loads
See also: Biopreservation and Fermented fish
Microbial growth and proliferation can be inhibited by a technique called biopreservation.
[10]
 Biopreservation is achieved by adding antimicrobials or by increasing the acidity of the fish
muscle. Most bacteria stop multiplying when the pH is less than 4.5. Acidity is increased
by fermentation, marination or by directly adding acids (acetic, citric, lactic) to fish products. Lactic
acid bacteria produce the antimicrobial nisin which further enhances preservation. Other
preservatives include nitrites, sulphites, sorbates, benzoates and essential oils.[6]
5. Control of the oxygen reduction potential[edit]
Spoilage bacteria and lipid oxidation usually need oxygen, so reducing the oxygen around fish can
increase shelf life. This is done by controlling or modifying the atmosphere around the fish, or
by vacuum packaging. Controlled or modified atmospheres have specific combinations of oxygen,
carbon dioxide and nitrogen, and the method is often combined with refrigeration for more effective
fish preservation.[6]
6. Combined techniques[edit]
See also: Hurdle technology
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Two or more of these techniques are often combined. This can improve preservation and reduce
unwanted side effects such as the denaturation of nutrients by severe heat treatments. Common
combinations are salting/drying, salting/marinating, salting/smoking, drying/smoking,
pasteurization/refrigeration and controlled atmosphere/refrigeration. [6]Other process combinations are
currently being developed along the multiple hurdle theory.[11]

Automated processes
"The search for higher productivity and the increase of labor cost has driven the development
of computer vision technology,[12] electronic scales and automatic skinning and filleting machines."[13]

Automatic knives for filletingfish

 

Patent issued to Clarence Birdseye for the production of quick-frozen fish, 1930

 

Processing line for fish fingers

 

Fish feed production in Norway

Waste management

Waste produced during fish processing operations can be solid or liquid.

 Solid wastes: include skin, viscera, fish heads and carcasses (fish bones). Solid waste can
be recycled in fish meal plants or it can be treated as municipal waste.[14]
 Liquid wastes: include bloodwater and brine from drained storage tanks, and water
discharges from washing and cleaning. This waste may need holding temporarily, and should be
 5

disposed of without damage to the environment. How liquid waste should be disposed from fish
processing operations depends on the content levels in the waste of solid and organic matter, as
well as nitrogen and phosphorus content, and oil and grease content. It also depends on an
assessment of parameters such acidity levels, temperature, odour, and biochemical oxygen
demand and chemical oxygen demand. The magnitude of waste management issues depends
on how much waste volume there is, the nature of the pollutants it carries, the rate at which it is
discharged and the capacity of the receiving environment to assimilate the pollutants. Many
countries dispose of such liquid wastes through their municipal sewage systems or directly into a
waterway. The receiving waterbody should be able to degrade the organic and inorganic waste
components in a way that does not damage the aquatic ecosystem.[14]
Treatments can be primary and secondary.

 Primary treatments: use physical methods such as flotation, screening, and sedimentation to
remove oil and grease and other suspended solids.[14]
 Secondary treatments: use biological and physicochemical means. Biological treatments use
microorganisms to metabolise the organic polluting matter into energy and biomass. "These
microorganisms can be aerobic or anaerobic. The most used aerobic processes are activated
sludge system, aerated lagoons, trickling filters or bacterial beds and the rotating biological
contractors. In anaerobic processes, the anaerobic microorganisms digest the organic matter in
tanks to produce gases (mainly methane and CO2) and biomass. Anaerobic digesters are
sometimes heated, using part of the methane produced, to maintain a temperature of 30 to
35°C. In the physicochemical treatments, also called coagulation-flocculation, a chemical
substance is added to the effluent to reduce the surface charges responsible for particle
repulsions in a colloidal suspension, thus reducing the forces that keep its particles apart. This
reduction in charge causes flocculation (agglomeration) and particles of larger sizes are settled
and clarified effluent is obtained. The sludge produced by primary and secondary treatments is
further processed in digesting tanks through anaerobic processes or sprayed over land as a
fertilizer. In the latter case, care must be exercised to ensure that the sludge is freed of its
pathogens."[14]

Transport
Fish is transported widely in ships, and by land and air, and much fish is traded internationally. It is
traded live, fresh, frozen, cured and canned. Live, fresh and frozen fish need special care. [15]

 Live fish: When live fish are transported they need oxygen, and the carbon dioxide and
ammonia that result from respiration must not be allowed to build up. Most fish transported live
are placed in water supersaturated with oxygen (though catfish can breathe air directly through
their gills and body skin, and the climbing perch has special air-breathing organs). The fish are
often "conditioned" (starved) before they are transported to reduce their metabolism and
increase packing density, and the water can be cooled to further reduce metabolism.
Live crustaceans can be packed in wet sawdust to keep the air humid. [15]
 By air: Over five percent of the global fish production is transported by air. Air transport
needs special care in preparation and handling and careful scheduling. Airline transport
hubs often require cargo transfers under their own tight schedules. This can influence when the
product is delivered, and consequently the condition it is in when it is delivered. The air shipment
of leaking seafood packages causes corrosion damage to aircraft, and each year, in the US,
requires millions of dollars to repair the damage. Most airlines prefer fish that is packed in dry ice
or gel, and not packed in ice.[15]
 By land or sea: "The most challenging aspect of fish transportation by sea or by road is the
maintenance of the cold chain, for fresh, chilled and frozen products and the optimisation of the
packing and stowage density. Maintaining the cold chain requires the use of insulated containers
or transport vehicles and adequate quantities of coolants or mechanical refrigeration.
Continuous temperature monitors are used to provide evidence that the cold chain has not been
broken during transportation. Excellent development in food packaging and handling allow rapid
and efficient loading, transport and unloading of fish and fishery products by road or by sea.
Also, transport of fish by sea allows for the use of special containers that carry fish under
vacuum, modified or controlled atmosphere, combined with refrigeration." [15]

Quality and safety

The International Organization for Standardisation, ISO, is the worldwide federation of national
standards bodies. ISO defines quality as "the totality of features and characteristics of a product or
 6

service that bear on its ability to satisfy stated or implied needs."(ISO 8402). The quality of fish and
fish products depends on safe and hygienic practices. Outbreaks of fish-borne illnesses are reduced
if appropriate practices are followed when handling, manufacturing, refrigerating and transporting
fish and fish products. Ensuring standards of quality and safety are high also minimizes the post-
harvest losses."[16]
"The fishing industry must ensure that their fish handling, processing and transportation facilities
meet requisite standards. Adequate training of both industry and control authority staff must be
provided by support institutions, and channels for feedback from consumers established. Ensuring
high standards for quality and safety is good economics, minimizing losses that result from spoilage,
damage to trade and from illness among consumers."[16]
Fish processing highly involves very strict controls and measurements in order to ensure that all
processing stages have been carried out hygienically. Thus, all fish processing companies are highly
recommended to join a certain type of food safety system. One of the certifications that are
commonly known is the Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points (HACCP).
Although fish quality is not as determinant as fish safety, it has a direct impact on market price.
Accurate assessment and prediction of fish quality are of main importance to set prices, increase
competitiveness, resolve conflicts of interest and prevent food wastage due to conservative product
shelf-life estimations. In last years, research in food science and technology has focused on
developing new methodologies to predict fish freshness under different storage conditions [17]

Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points

HACCP is a system which identifies hazards and implements measures for their control. It was first
developed in 1960 by NASA to ensure food safety for the manned space program. The main
objectives of NASA were to prevent food safety problems and control food borne diseases. HACCP
has been widely used by food industry since the late 1970 and now it is internationally recognized as
the best system for ensuring food safety.[18]
"The Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) system of assuring food safety and
quality has now gained worldwide recognition as the most cost-effective and reliable system
available. It is based on the identification of risks, minimizing those risks through the design and
layout of the physical environment in which high standards of hygiene can be assured, sets
measurable standards and establishes monitoring systems. HACCP also establishes procedures for
verifying that the system is working effectively. HACCP is a sufficiently flexible system to be
successfully applied at all critical stages -- from harvesting of fish to reaching the consumer. For
such a system to work successfully, all stakeholders must cooperate which entails increasing the
national capacity for introducing and maintaining HACCP measures. The system's control authority
needs to design and implement the system, ensuring that monitoring and corrective measures are
put in place."[16]
HACCP is endorsed by the:

 FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization)

 Codex Alimentarius (a commission of the United Nations)
 FDA (US Food and Drug Administration) [19]
 European Union
 WHO (World Health Organization)
There are seven basic principles:

 Principle 1: Conduct a hazard analysis.

 Principle 2: After assessing all the processing steps, the Critical control point (CCP) is
controlled. CCP are points which determine and control significant hazards in a food
manufacturing process.
 Principle 3: Set up critical limits in order to ensure that the hazard identified is being
controlled effectively.
 Principle 4: Establish a system so as to monitor the CCP.
 Principle 5: Establish corrective actions where the critical limit has not been met. Appropriate
actions need to be taken which can be on a short or long-term basis. All records must be
sustained accurately.
 Principle 6: Establish authentication procedures so as to confirm if the principles imposed by
HACCP documents are being respected effectively and all records are being taken.
 Principle 7: Analyze if the HACCP plan are working effectively.
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Final products
See also: Fish products, Fish (food), and Seafood
Finfish, or parts of finfish, are typically presented physically for marketing in one of the following
forms[20]

 whole fish: the fish as it originally came from the water, with no physical processing
 drawn fish: a whole fish which has been eviscerated, that is, had its internal organs removed
 dressed fish: fish that has been scaled and eviscerated, and is ready to cook.
 pan dressed fish: a dressed fish which has had its head, tail, and fins removed, so it will fit in
a pan.
 filleted fish: the "fleshy sides of the fish, cut lengthwise from the fish along the backbone.
They are usually boneless, although in some fish small bones called “pins” may be present; skin
may be present on one side, too. Butterfly fillets may be available. This refers to two fillets held
together by the uncut flesh and skin of the belly" [20]
 fish steaks: large dressed fish can be cut into cross section slices, usually half to one inch
thick, and usually with a cross section of the backbone
 fish sticks: "are pieces of fish cut from blocks of frozen fillets into portions at least 3/8-inch
thick. Sticks are available in fried form ready to heat or frozen raw, coated with batter and
breaded, ready to be cooked"[20]
 fish cakes: are "prepared from flaked fish, potatoes, and seasonings, and shaped into cakes,
coated with batter, breaded, and then packaged and frozen, ready-to-be-cooked" [20]
 fish fingers
 fish roe

Value addition
In general value addition means “any additional activity that in one way or the other change the
nature of a product thus adding to its value at the time of sale.” Value addition is an expanding
sector in the food processing industry, especially in export markets. Value is added to fish and
fishery products depending on the requirement of different markets. Globally a transition period is
taking place where cooked products are replacing traditional raw products in consumer preference.
"In addition to preservation, fish can be industrially processed into a wide array of products to
increase their economic value and allow the fishing industry and exporting countries to reap the full
benefits of their aquatic resources. In addition, value processes generate further employment and
hard currency earnings. This is more important nowadays because of societal changes that have led
to the development of outdoor catering, convenience products and food services requiring fish
products ready to eat or requiring little preparation before serving." [13]
"However, despite the availability of technology, careful consideration should be given to the
economic feasibility aspects, including distribution, marketing, quality assurance and trade barriers,
before embarking on a value addition fish process." [13]

 Surimi: Surimi and surimi-based products are an example of value added products. Surimi is

prepared from the mechanically deboned, washed (bleached) and stabilised flesh of fish. "It is
an intermediate product used in the preparation of a variety of ready to eat seafood such
as kamaboko, fish sausage, crab legs and imitation shrimp products. Surimi-based products are
gaining more prominence worldwide, because of the emergence of Japanese restaurants and
culinary traditions in North America, Europe and elsewhere. Ideally, surimi should be made from
low-value, white fish with excellent gelling ability and which are abundant and available year-
round. At present, Alaskan pollack accounts for a large proportion of the surimi supply. Other
species, such as sardine, mackerel, barracuda, striped mullet have been successfully used for
surimi production."[13]
 Fishmeal and fish oil: "A significant proportion of the world catch (20 percent) is processed
into fishmeal and fish oil. Fishmeal is a ground solid product that is obtained by removing most
of the water and some or all of the oil from fish or fish waste. This industry was launched in the
19th century, based mainly on surplus catches of herring from seasonal coastal fisheries to
produce oil for industrial uses in leather tanning and in the production of soap, glycerol and other
non-food products. Presently, it uses small oily fish to produce fishmeal and oil. It is worthy to
mention that, only where it is uneconomic or impracticable for human consumption, should the
 8

catch be reduced to fishmeal and oil. Indeed, cycling fish through poultry or pigs is a loss
because there is a need for 3 kg of edible fish to produce approximately 1 kg of edible chicken
or pork."[13]

Quiz #2:

1. Compare Control of Temperature from Control of Water Activity

2. Compare Solid waste from Liquid waste

FINAL EXAM:
1. Create a Concept Map of the topic “Aquaculture” for 30 points.
- 1 Correct box = 1 point
- Limited for 30 boxes
2. Create a Venn diagram on the topic “Fish Processing” for 20
points.
- 1 Correct process or character – 1 point
- Limited for 20 process or characters

References[edit]
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