Ministry of higher Education and Scientific Research

Middle Technical University

College of Electrical Engineering Techniques
Department of Control and Automation Techniques Engineering

MECHANICS

Lecture: 9

SIMPLE STRESS AND STRAIN

For
Students of First Stage
 Lecturer: Omran Ahmed
SIMPLE STRESS AND STRAIN

1. Load (P) (N)

In any engineering structure or mechanism the individual components will be
subjected to external forces arising from the service conditions or environment in
which the component works.

∑ 𝐏𝐱 = 0 , ∑ 𝐏𝐲 = 0 , ∑ 𝐌𝐨 = 𝟎

If a cylindrical bar is subjected to a direct pull or push along its axis as shown in
Figure (1), then it is said to be subjected to tension or compression.

Figure (1) Types of direct stress (Tension or Compression)

In the SI system of units load is measured in newtons, loads appear in SI multiples,

i.e. kilonewtons (kN) or meganewtons (MN). There are a number of different ways
in which load can be applied to a member. Typical loading types are:

(a) Static or dead loads, i.e. non-fluctuating loads, generally caused by gravity
effects.
(b) Live loads, as produced by, for example, lorries crossing a bridge.
(c) Impact or shock loads caused by sudden blows.
(d) Fatigue, fluctuating or alternating loads.

2. Direct or normal stress (𝝈), (N/𝒎𝟐 )

A bar is subjected to a uniform tension or compression, i.e. a direct force, which is
uniformly or equally applied across the cross section, then the internal forces set up
are also distributed uniformly and the bar is said to be subjected to a uniform
direct or normal stress, the stress being defined as

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 Lecturer: Omran Ahmed
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑝
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = =
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴

Stress (s) may thus be (i) compressive stress or (ii) tensile stress depending on the
nature of the load and will be measured in units of (N/𝑚2).

3. Direct strain (𝜺)

Figure (2) show a bar is subjected to a direct load, and hence a stress, the bar will
change in length. If the bar has an original length L and changes in length by an
amount 𝜹L, the strain produced is defined as follows:

Change in length δL
Strain (ε) = =
orignal length L

Strain is thus a measure of the deformation of the material and is non-dimensional,

Alternatively, strain can be expressed as a percentage strain

𝛅𝐋
𝐒𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐢𝐧 (𝛆) = ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝐋

4. Sign convention for direct stress and strain

Tensile stresses and strains are considered POSITIVE in sense producing an
increase in length. Compressive stresses and strains are considered NEGATIVE in
sense producing a decrease in length.

5. Elastic materials - Hooke’s law (E), (N/𝒎𝟐 )

A material is said to be elastic if it returns to its original, unloaded dimensions
when load is removed. A particular form of elasticity which applies to a large
range of engineering materials, at least over part of their load range, produces
deformations which are proportional to the loads producing them. stress is
proportional to strain. Hooke’s law, in its simplest form, therefore states that
Stress (𝛅) ∝ Strain (𝛅)

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 Lecturer: Omran Ahmed
𝐒𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬
= 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
𝐒𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐢𝐧

Other classifications of materials with which the reader should be acquainted are
as follows:

A material which has a uniform structure throughout without any flaws or

discontinuities is termed a homogeneous material. Non-homogeneous or
inhomogeneous materials such as concrete and poor-quality cast iron will thus
have a structure which varies from point to point depending on its constituents and
the presence of casting flaws or impurities.

If a material exhibits uniform properties throughout in all directions it is said to

be isotropic; conversely one which does not exhibit this uniform behavior is said to
be non isotropic or anisotropic.
An orthotropic material is one which has different properties in different planes. A
typical example of such a material is wood, although some composites which
contain systematically orientated “inhomogeneities” may also be considered to fall
into this category.

6. Modulus of elasticity - Young’s modulus (E), (N/𝒎𝟐 )

Within the elastic limits of materials, i.e. within the limits in which Hooke’s law
applies, it has been shown that:
This constant is given the symbol E and termed the modulus of elasticity or
Young’s modulus, Thus

𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜎
𝐸= = … . . (1)
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝜀
𝑃.𝐿
𝐸= … . . (2)
𝐴.𝛿𝐿

Young’s modulus E is generally assumed to be the same in tension or compression

and for most engineering materials has a high numerical value. Typically, E = 200
x 109 N/𝑚2 for steel.
In most common engineering applications strains do not often exceed 0.003 or 0.3
% so that the assumption used later in the text that deformations are small in
relation to original dimensions is generally well founded.
𝜎
𝜀= … . . (3)
𝐸

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7. Tensile test
The standard tensile test in which a circular bar of uniform cross-section is
subjected to a gradually increasing tensile load until failure occurs. Measurements
of the change in length of a selected gauge length of the bar are recorded
throughout the loading operation by means of extensometers and a graph of load.

Figure (3)

For the first part of the test it will be observed that Hooke’s law is obeyed, the
material behaves elastically and stress is proportional to strain, giving the straight-
line graph indicated. Some point A is eventually reached, however, when the linear
nature of the graph ceases and this point is termed the limit of proportionality.
C, termed the upper yield point D, the lower yield point

Figure (4) Tensile test curves for various metals.

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Figure (5) Typical stress - strain curves for hard drawn wire
material

Figure (6) typical tension test results for various types of nylon and polycarbonate.

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8. Ductile materials

It has been observed above that the partially plastic range covers a much wider part
of the strain axis than does the elastic range. Thus the extension of the material
over this range is considerably in excess of that associated with elastic loading.
The capacity of a material to allow these large extensions, i.e. the ability to be
drawn out plastically, is termed its ductility. Materials with high ductility are
termed ductile materials, members with low ductility are termed brittle materials.
A quantitative value of the ductility is obtained by measurements of the percentage
elongation or percentage reduction in area, both being defined below.

Figure (7) typical tensile test curve for a ductile material

𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒈𝒂𝒖𝒈𝒆 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒕𝒐 𝒇𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆

𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒏𝒈𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒈𝒂𝒖𝒈𝒆 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉

𝒓𝒆𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒏 𝒄𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒔 − 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 𝒏𝒆𝒄𝒌𝒆𝒅 𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒏 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 =
𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂

9. Brittle materials
A brittle material is one which exhibits relatively
small extensions to fracture so that the partially
plastic region of the tensile test graph There is
little or no necking at fracture for brittle materials.

Figure (8) typical tensile test curve for

a brittle material
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10. Poisson’s ratio

Consider the rectangular bar of Figure (9) subjected to a tensile load. Under the
action of this load the bar will increase in length by an amount 𝜹L giving a
longitudinal strain in the bar.

Figure (9)

The bar will also exhibit, however, a reduction in dimensions laterally, i.e. its
breadth and depth will both reduce. The associated lateral strains will both be
equal, will be of opposite sense to the longitudinal strain, and will be given by

𝛿𝑏 𝛿𝑑
𝜀𝑙𝑎𝑡 = − =−
𝑏 𝑑

Provided the load on the material is retained within the elastic range the ratio of the
lateral and longitudinal strains will always be constant. This ratio is termed
Poisson’s ratio.

𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 (− 𝛿𝑑 ⁄𝑑)

𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑛′ 𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 (𝜐) = =
𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝛿𝐿 ⁄𝐿
The negative sign of the lateral strain is normally ignored to leave Poisson’s ratio
simply as a ratio of strain magnitudes. It must be remembered, however, that the
longitudinal strain induces a lateral strain of opposite sign. For most engineering
materials the value of v lies between 0.25 and 0.33.
Since
𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 =
𝑌𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑔′ 𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠
𝜎
𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝜐
𝐸
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 Lecturer: Omran Ahmed

11. Shear stress (𝝉), (N/𝒎𝟐 )

Consider a block or portion of material as shown in Figure (9) subjected to a set of
equal and opposite forces Q. (Such a system could be realised in a bicycle brake
block when contacted with the wheel.) then a shear stress t is set up, defined as
follows:
𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑄
𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 (𝜏) = =
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝐴

This shear stress will always be tangential to the area on which it acts; direct
stresses, however, are always normal to the area on which they act.

Figure (10) Shear force and resulting shear stress system showing typical
form of failure by relative sliding of planes.

12. Shear strain (𝜸)

If one again considers the block of Figure (10 a) to be a bicycle brake block it is
clear that the rectangular shape of the block will not be retained as the brake is
applied and the shear forces introduced. The block will in fact change shape or
“strain” into the form shown in Figure (11) The angle of deformation y is then
termed the shear strain.
Shear strain is measured in radians and hence is non-dimensional, i.e. it has no
units.

Figure (11) Deformation (shear strain) produced by shear stresses.

13. Modulus of rigidity (G), (N/𝒎𝟐 )

For materials within the elastic range the shear strain is proportional to the
shear stress producing it, The constant G is termed the modulus of rigidity or
shear modulus and is directly comparable to the modulus of elasticity used in the
direct stress application.
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𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜏
= = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 𝐺
𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝛾

14. Double shear

Consider the simple riveted lap joint shown in Figure (12a) When load is applied
to the plates the rivet is subjected to shear forces tending to shear it on one plane as
indicated. In the butt joint with two cover plates of Figure (12b), however, each
rivet is subjected to possible shearing on two faces, i.e. double shear. In such cases
twice the area of metal is resisting the applied forces so that the shear stress set up
is given by
𝑃
𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜏 (𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑜𝑢𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟) =
2𝐴

Figure (12) (a) Single shear. (b) Double shear.

15. Allowable working stress-factor of safety

The most suitable strength or stiffness criterion for any structural element or
component is normally some maximum stress or deformation which must not be
exceeded. In the case of stresses the value is generally known as the maximum
allowable working stress.
Because of uncertainties of loading conditions, design procedures, production
methods, etc., designers generally introduce a factor of safety into their designs,
defined as follows:

𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦 =
𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠

𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 (𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠)

𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦 =
𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠

𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑎 𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑

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16. Temperature stresses

When the temperature of a component is increased or decreased the material

respectively expands or contracts. If this expansion or contraction is not resisted in
any way then the processes take place free of stress. If, however, the changes in
dimensions are restricted then stresses termed temperature stresses will be set up
within the material.
Consider a bar of material with a linear coefficient of expansion a. Let the original
length of the bar be L and let the temperature increase be t. If the bar is free to expand
the change in length would be given by

∆𝐿 = 𝐿𝛼𝑡
And the new length
𝐿 ́ = 𝐿 + 𝐿 𝛼 𝑡 = 𝐿(1 + 𝛼𝑡)

∆𝐿 𝐿𝛼𝑡
𝜀= =
𝐿 𝐿(1 + 𝛼𝑡)

𝐿𝛼𝑡
𝜀= = 𝛼𝑡
𝐿
𝜎
But =𝐸
𝜖
∴ 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜎 = 𝐸 𝜖 = 𝐸𝛼𝑡
Example 1
Determine the stress in each section of the bar shown in Figure (13) when subjected to
an axial tensile load of 20 kN. The central section is 30 mm square cross-section; the
other portions are of circular section, their diameters being indicated. What will be the
total extension of the bar? For the bar material E = 210GN/𝑚2 .

Solution:
𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑃
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = =
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴

20 ∗ 103 80 ∗ 103
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (1) = = = 63.66 𝑀𝑁 ⁄𝑚2
𝜋(20 ∗ 10−3)2 𝜋 ∗ 400 ∗ 10 −6
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3
20 ∗ 10
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (2) = −6
= 22.2 𝑀𝑁 ⁄𝑚2
30 ∗ 30 ∗ 10
20 ∗ 103 80 ∗ 103
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (3) = −3 2 = = 113.2 𝑀𝑁 ⁄𝑚2
(
𝜋 15 ∗ 10 ) 𝜋 ∗ 225 ∗ 10 −6
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Now the extension of a bar can always be written in terms of the stress in the bar
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜎
since 𝐸= = ⁄
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝛿 𝐿

𝜎𝐿
i.e. 𝛿=
𝐸
250 ∗ 10−3
∴ 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (1) = 63.66 ∗ 106 ∗ = 75.8 ∗ 10−6 𝑚
210∗ 109

100 ∗ 10−3
6
𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (2) = 22.2 ∗ 10 ∗ 9
= 10.6 ∗ 10−6 𝑚
210 ∗ 10
400 ∗ 10−3
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𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (3) = 113.2 ∗ 10 ∗ 9 = 215.6 ∗ 10−6 𝑚
210 ∗ 10
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = (75.8 + 10.6 + 215.6)10−6
= 302 ∗ 10−6 𝑚 = 0.302 𝑚𝑚

Example 2:

(a) A 25 mm diameter bar is subjected to an axial tensile load of 100 kN. Under the
action of this load a 200mm gauge length is found to extend 0.19 x 10-3mm.
Determine the modulus of elasticity for the bar material.
(b) If, in order to reduce weight whilst keeping the external diameter constant, the bar
is bored axially to produce a cylinder of uniform thickness, what is the maximum
diameter of bore possible given that the maximum allowable stress is 240MN/m 2?
The load can be assumed to remain constant at 100 kN.14
(c) What will be the change in the outside diameter of the bar under the limiting stress
quoted in (b)? (E = 210GN/m2 and v = 0.3).
Solution:
𝑃𝐿
(a) Young's modulus E =
𝐴𝛿𝐿
100∗ 103 ∗200∗ 10−3
= 2 = 214 𝐺𝑁⁄𝑚2
𝜋 (25∗10−3 )
4
∗0.19∗ 10−3
(b) Let the required bore diameter be d mm; the cross-sectional area of the bar will
then be reduced to
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 Lecturer: Omran Ahmed
2 2
𝜋 ∗ 25 𝜋𝑑 −6 𝜋
𝐴=[ − ] 10 = (252 − 𝑑 2)10−6𝑚2
4 4 4
𝑃 4∗100∗ 103
∴ 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑏𝑎𝑟 = =
𝐴 𝜋(252 −𝑑 2)10−6

But this stress is restricted to a maximum allowable value of 240 𝑀𝑁⁄𝑚2

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4 ∗ 100 ∗ 103
240 ∗ 10 = 2 2
𝜋 (25 − 𝑑 ) 10−6
2 2
4 ∗ 100 ∗ 103
25 − 𝑑 = = 530.5
240 ∗ 106 ∗ 𝜋 ∗ 10−6

𝑑2 = 94.48 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑 = 9.72 𝑚𝑚

The maximum bore possible is thus 9.72 mm

(c) The change in the outside diameter of the bar will be obtained from the lateral
strain,
𝛿𝑑
i.e. 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 =
𝑑

𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
But 𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑛′ 𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝜐 =
𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
And
𝜎 240 ∗ 106
𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = =
𝐸 210 ∗ 109

𝛿𝑑 𝜎 0.3 ∗ 240 ∗ 106

∴ = −𝜐 =−
𝑑 𝐸 210 ∗ 109

0.3 ∗ 240 ∗ 106

∴ 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 = − ∗ 25 ∗ 10−3
210 ∗ 109

= −8.57 ∗ 10−6 𝑚 ( 𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)

Example 3:

The coupling shown in Figure (14) is constructed from steel of rectangular cross-
section and is designed to transmit a tensile force of 50 kN. If the bolt is of 15 mm
diameter calculate:
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 Lecturer: Omran Ahmed
(a) The shear stress in the bolt;
(b) The direct stress in the plate;
(c) The direct stress in the forked end of the coupling.

Solution:

(a) The bolt is subjected to double shear, tending to shear it as shown in fig. There
is thus twice the area of the bolt resisting the shear and from equ.
𝑃 50 ∗ 103 ∗ 4
𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡 = =
2𝐴 2 ∗ 𝜋(15 ∗ 10−3 )2
100 ∗ 103
= −3 2
= 141.5 𝑀𝑁⁄𝑚2
𝜋(15 ∗ 10 )
(b) The plate will be subjected to a direct tensile stress given by

𝑃 50 ∗ 103
𝜎= = = 166.7 𝑀𝑁⁄𝑚2
𝐴 50 ∗ 6 ∗ 10−6

(c) The force in the coupling is shared by the forked and pieces, each being
subjected to a direct stress
𝑃 25 ∗ 103
𝜎= = = 83.3 𝑀𝑁⁄𝑚2
𝐴 50 ∗ 6 ∗ 10−6

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 Lecturer: Omran Ahmed

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