NCERT Notes INDIAN HISTORY Ancient History 01

CHAPTER 01

Sources of Ancient
Indian History

Sources Class VI New NCERT Chap 1 (What Books and Burials Tell Us), Class-XI Old NCERT (1) Chap 2 (The Importance of
Ancient Indian History), Class-XI Old NCERT (II) Chap 2 (Modern Historians of Ancient India), Class-XI Old NCERT
Chap 3 (Types of Sources and Historical Construction), Class-XII New NCERT Chap 1 (Bricks, Beads and Bones),
Chap 2 (Kings, Farmers and Towns)

The study of ancient Indian history is important as it Material Remains

tells us how, when and where people developed the
Archaeological excavations show the layout plan of
earliest cultures in our country.
the settlements in which people lived, the type of
It indicates how they started their agriculture which pottery they used, the form of houses in which
made life secure and settled. It shows how the ancient they dwelt, the kind of cereals they used as food
Indians discovered and utilised natural resources and and the type of tools and implements they
how they created the means for their livelihood. handled.
Sources that are responsible for providing information Vertical digging of sites provides us a good
about history are known as Historic Sources. chronological sequence of material culture. It also
tells us about the material culture of the ancient
Sources of Ancient Indian History period.
Buildings made of stone and bricks tell us of great
The sources responsible for the information about ancient
building activities in the past.
history can be broadly categorised as archaeological and
literary sources. Ring wells are rows of pots or ceramics rings
arranged one on top of other. They have been found
Sources in many cities and seem to have been used as toilets
as drains and garbage dumps. These were usually
Archaeological Sources Literary Sources found in individual houses.
In South India, megaliths provide us information
about the life of people of post iron age. Some of the
Material Pottery Religious Foreign largest collection of iron tools and weapons were
Coins Inscriptions Secular
Remains Accounts
found in the megalithic burials.
Archaeological Sources The use of iron began in the Indian sub-continent
around 3000 years ago. Around 2500 years ago,
These sources include material remains, pottery, there are evidences of ample use of iron tools, which
inscriptions and coins. The one who studies archaeological include iron axes for clearing forests and the iron
sources is known as archaeologist. ploughshare.
 NCERT Notes INDIAN HISTORY
02

Major Archaeological Sites and their Findings The coins were not inscribed, but were stamped
with symbols using dies or punches. Hence, they are
Site Findings
called punch-marked coins. These coins are found
Narmada Valley Early hunting and gathering communities. over most parts of the sub-continent and remained
North of Vindhyas In India, rice was first grown here. in circulation till the early centuries AD.
Magadha The first kingdom of India established here. The largest numbers of coins were found in
post-Mauryan times. These were made of lead,
Sulaiman and First crops such as wheat and barley about
Kirthar hills to the 8000 years ago began to grow here.
potin, copper, bronze, silver and gold.
North-West
Importance of Coins
Garo hills Early agriculture in India. The following points highlight importance of coins :
Indus and its The first cities in Indian sub-continent. The areas of their findings indicate the region of
tributaries
coinage circulation. This enables to reconstruct the
Ganga Valley Cities developed about 2500 years ago. history of several ruling dynasties, especially of the
Indo-Greeks.
Dating in Archaeology Coins also throw significant light on the economic
The dates of material remains are fixed according to the history. The coins issued by the guilds of merchants
radio-carbon method (Carbon-14 dating). The history of and goldsmiths show that craft and commerce had
climate and vegetation is known through an become important.
examination of plant residue and especially through The Guptas issued the largest number of gold coins.
pollen-analysis. It indicates that trade and commerce flourished,
Carbon dating has suggested that agriculture was especially in the post-Mauryan and Gupta times.
practiced in Rajasthan and Kashmir as far back as Only a few coins belonging to post-Gupta period
6000 BC. have been found. It indicates the decline of trade and
An examination of the animal bones enables us to find commerce at that time.
out whether the animals were domesticated and for Coins also contain religious symbols and legends,
finding out their use. which throw light on the art and religion of the time.
Beginning of Eras They also give information about natural resources
Vikram Samvat 58 BC available in various regions. Satavahanas, who
ruled in Andhra and Maharashtra in the first two
Saka Samvat 78 AD
centuries AD, issued a large number of lead coins
Gupta Era 319 AD since, the Andhra region possessed rich sources of
lead.
Pottery
Various kinds of pottery have been discovered during
Inscriptions
excavations. The study of inscriptions is called Epigraphy.
Red and Black pottery was used by the people of Indus The study of old writings used in inscriptions and
Valley Civilisation. While the Painted Grey Ware (PGW) old record is called Palaeography.
pottery was in use during Vedic Age. Inscriptions were carved out on seals, stone pillars,
rocks, copper plates, temple walls and bricks or
Coins images.
The study of coins is called Numismatics. In early centuries of the Christian era, copper plate
Ancient coins were made of various metals like copper, began to be used along with stone inscriptions.
silver, gold or lead. The earliest inscriptions are found on the seals of
Coin moulds, made of burnt clay have been discovered Harappa belonging to about 2500 BC, but they have
in large numbers belong to Kushana period. Such not been deciphered so far.
moulds disappeared in the Post-Gupta period. The oldest inscription deciphered so far is Brahmi
The earliest coins, called the Punch-Marked Coins, script that was issued by Ashoka in the third
were largely made up of silver. They contain a few century BC.
symbols but the later coins mention the names of kings, The Ashokan epigraphs were first deciphered in 1837
gods or dates of issuance. They were generally by James Princep, a civil servant in the employment
rectangular or sometimes square or round in shape. of the East India Company.
 NCERT Notes INDIAN HISTORY
03

Two Ashokan pillars were found by Firoz Shah (iii) The third types of inscriptions throw light on attributes
Tughlaq and re-established by him at Firoz Shah and achievements of kings and conquerors. Allahabad
Kotla Fort and in ridge area in Delhi. pillar inscription of Samudragupta belongs to this
category.
Language Used in Inscriptions
(iv) Finally, there are donation records which refer
The earliest inscriptions were written in the
specially to gifts of money, cattle, land etc, mainly for
Prakrit language in the third century BC. Sanskrit
religious purposes, made not only by kings and princes
was adopted as an epigraphic medium in the
but also by artisans and merchants.
second century AD. In the ninth and tenth
centuries AD, the inscriptions began to be Inscriptions recording land grants, made mainly by
composed in regional languages. chiefs and princes, are very important for the study of the
land system and administration in ancient India. These
Ashokan inscriptions were engraved in the Brahmi
were mostly engraved on copper plates. They contain the
script, which was written from left to right. Some
grants of lands revenues and villages made to monks,
inscriptions were written in Kharosthi script
priests, temples, monasteries, vassals and officials.
which was written from right to left.
Brahmi script was prevailed in the whole country, Important Ancient Inscriptions
except for the North-Western part. It continued to Inscriptions Location Significance
be the main script till the end of Gupta era.
Uttaramerur Chengalpattu ●
It is noted for its temple
Greek and Aramaic scripts were used in writing Inscription (now inscriptions that describe a
Ashokan inscriptions in Afghanistan. Kanchipuram) self-governance system existing
district South of around seventh to ninth century
The Boghaz-Koi inscription found in Asia Minor Chennai AD.
mentions Vedic Gods Mitra, Varuna, Indra and
Eran Sagar district, ●
It is an earliest evidence of Sati
Nasatya. Inscription Madhya Pradesh found in India here.
on the bank of
Bina river
Besnagar/ Vidisha in ●
This pillar inscription was
Vidisha present Madhya constructed by Heliodorus, a
Inscription Pradesh Greek ambassador and belongs
to Sunga period (second century
BC).
●
It is written in Prakrit language
(with a few Sanskritic spellings)
and Brahmi script.
●
This pillar inscription is devoted
to Lord Vasudeva.
Junagarh Junagarh ●
It is first pure Sanskrit
Inscription district, Gujarat inscription, by king Rudraman of
Saka dynasty in around 150 AD.
Ancient Inscription ●
It says that Pushyagupta, the
Governor of Chandragupta
Maurya, built a dam on
Types of Inscriptions Sudarshan lake.
The following four types of inscriptions help us in Mehrauli Originally at ●
It is probably erected by
understanding history of ancient India : Inscription/ Vishnupada Chandragupta Vikramaditya.
Garuda pillar (Udayagiri), ●
It mentions Chandragupta II
(i) Some inscriptions convey royal orders and Madhya Pradesh conquest over Vanga countries
decisions regarding social, religious and but was and Vatakas. The pillar bears a
administrative matters to officials and public in transported to Sanskrit inscription in Brahmi
Delhi later script.
general. Ashokan inscriptions are of this
category. Aihole Bagalkot, ●
It is a eulogy of Chalukya king
Inscription Karnataka Pulakeshin II and mentions his
(ii) Other inscriptions are votive records of the victory over Harshavardhan.
followers of Buddhism, Jainism, Vaishnavism, ●
It is written in Sanskrit,
etc, who put up pillars, tablets, temples or images composed by Ravikirti, the court
as marks of devotion. poet of Pulakeshin II.
 NCERT Notes INDIAN HISTORY
04

Inscriptions Location Significance Mahabharata and Ramayana

Allahabad Allahabad , ●
It is issued by Samudragupta and
The two epics Mahabharata and Ramayana seem
Pillar Uttar Pradesh composed by Harisena.
Inscription to have been finally compiled by 400 AD. Of this,
●
It is written in refined Sanskrit
(Prayag language in Champu Kavya style. the Mahabharata is older and possibly reflects the
Prasasti) ●
It mentions the conquest of state of affairs from the 10th century BC, to the
Samudragupta both in North and fourth century AD.
South and described the Originally, it consisted of 8800 verses and was
boundaries of Gupta Empire and
his diplomatic relations.
called Jaya Samhita or the collection dealing with
victory. These were raised to 24000 and came to
Hathigumpha Udayagiri, near ●
It was erected by Kharavela, the
Inscription Bhubaneshwar, ruler of Kalinga during second be known as Bharata, named after one of the
Odisha century BC. oldest Vedic tribes.
●
It mentions the military The final compilation brought the verses to
expeditions carried by Kharavela. 100,000 which came to be known as the
Lumbini Located in Nepal ●
It is a royal commemorative Mahabharata or the Satasahasri Samhita. It
Pillar inscription recording Ashoka’s contains narrative, descriptive and didactic
Inscription visit to Buddha’s birth place.
material.
Mandasor Mandsor district, ●
It mentioned about the
Inscription Madhya Pradesh construction of Sun temple. Ramayana originally consisted of 12000 verses,
●
It is composed by Vattasbhatta. which were later raised to 24000. It seems to have
been composed later than the Mahabharata.

Literary Sources Jaina and Buddhist Literature

The religious books of Jainas and Buddhists refer
Literary sources are the most authentic sources for the to historical personalities and incidents.
reconstruction of history.
The earliest Buddhist texts were written in Pali
The most ancient manuscripts, hand written material, in
language, which was common man’s language in
India are not older than the fourth century AD and have
Magadha or South Bihar.
been found in Central Asia.
They were finally compiled in the second century
In India, they were written on birch bark and palm BC in Sri Lanka, but the canonical portions reflect
leaves, but in Central Asia manuscripts were written on the state of affairs in the age of Buddha in India.
sheep leather and wooden tablets.
They tell us not only about the life of Buddha but
The literature can be classified into religious and secular some of the Buddhist kings who ruled over
literature. Magadha, Northern Bihar and Eastern Uttar
Pradesh.
Religious Literature Jatakas are the birth stories of Buddha’s previous
The Vedic, Buddhist, Jain and other contemporary years. These were probably composed by ordinary
literature are the religious literary sources of Ancient people and then written down and preserved by
Indian History. Buddhist monks. They throw light on social and
They throw light on the social and cultural conditions of economic conditions between fifth to second
ancient times but it is difficult to make use of them in the century BC. They also make incidental references
context of time and place. to political events in the age of Buddha.
Vedic Literature The Jaina texts were written in Prakrit and were
finally compiled in sixth century AD at Vallabhi in
The Vedic literature gives us a clear picture of the
Gujarat. They contain many passages which help
political, social and economic life of the Aryans and of the
us to reconstruct political history of Eastern Uttar
conflict between the Aryans and the non-Aryans.
Pradesh and Bihar in the age of Mahavira. The
Puranas Jaina texts refer repeatedly about trade and
traders.
The Puranas contain mythological information.
There exists total 18 Puranas. They give the genealogical Secular Literature
records (Vanshavali) of the ancient rulers of Kali Yuga.
Secular class of literature refers to the law-books
They are very much useful for studying history. Important called the dharamsutras, smritis, biographies,
Puranas are Vayu Purana, Skanda Purana, Matsya plays, dramas and the literature of South India
Purana, Vishnu Purana, etc. called Sangam literature.
NCERT Notes INDIAN HISTORY
05

The Dharamsutras were compiled in 500-200 BC, Foreign Accounts

and the principal Smritis were codified in the
first six centuries of Christian era. They laid The Greek, Roman, Chinese and Arab visitors came to
down the duties or different varnas as well about India, either as sailors, travellers or religious missionaries.
the kings and their officials. They left behind accounts of details that they saw in India.
They prescribed the rules according to which Greek and Roman Sources
property is to be held, sold and inherited. They The accounts of Greek and Roman authors, such as
also prescribe punishments for person guilty of Megasthenes, Arrian, Curtius, Plutarch, Diodorus,
theft, assault, murder, adultery etc. Dionysius, etc, gave valuable information of India’s
An important law book is the Arthashastra of contemporary situation.
Kautilya. It is divided into 15 books, of which The Greek writer, Herodotus, had never been to India and
Book II and III may be regarded of an earliest yet his book has reference to the conquests of
date. The book was put in its final form in the North-Western India by the Persian emperors. It constituted
beginning of Christian era. Its earliest portions the twentieth province of the empire of Darius, the Persian
reflect the state of society and economy in the age emperor.
of Mauryas. It provides rich material for the study
The Greek visitors mention Sandrokottas, who is
of ancient Indian polity and economy.
identified with Chandragupta Maurya, whose date of
The secular literature also includes the work of accession is fixed at 322 BC.
Bhasa, Kalidasa and Banabhatta. They throw
The Indica of Megasthenes, who came to the court of
light on the conditions of the time to which these
Chandragupta Maurya, has been lost and preserved only in
writings belonged. They also throw light on the
fragments quoted by subsequent classical writers. Indica
social and cultural life of Northern and Central
furnishes valuable information not only about Mauryan
India in the age of Guptas.
administration but also about social classes and economic
The works of Kalidasa comprise kavyas activities in that period.
and dramas, the most famous of which is
Greek and Roman accounts of the first and second
Abhijyana Shakuntalam.
centuries AD mentioned many Indian ports and various
Harshacharita, by Banabhatta in the seventh items of trade between India and Roman Empire.
century AD, is a semi-biographical work written
The ‘Periplus of The Erythrean Sea’ by unknown author
in Sanskrit language and in fancy style.
and Ptolemy’s Geography (150 AD), both written in Greek,
It describes the early career of Harshavardhana.
provide valuable data for the study of ancient geography
It gives excellent idea of the court life under
and commerce.
Harsha and the social and religious life in his age.
An account of a Greek sailor provides detailed account of
Sandhyakara Nandi’s Ramcharita narrates the
port of Barygaza (the Greek name of Bharuch).
story of conflict between the Kaivarta peasants
and the Pala prince Rampala. Chinese Sources
Bilhana’s Vikramankadevacharita recounts the Fa-Hien (fifth century AD) and Hiuen Tsang (seventh
achievements of his patron, Vikramaditya VI century AD), were Buddhist travellers from China, who
(1076-1127), the Chalukyan king of Kalyan. came to visit the Buddhist shrines and to study Buddhism.
The Rajatarangini or The Stream of Kings written Fa-Hien describes the social, religious and economic
by Kalhana in 12th century AD is a string of conditions of India in the age of Guptas and Hiuen Tsang
biographies of the kings of Kashmir. presents a similar account of India in the age of Harsha.
I-Tsing visited India in seventh century after the death of
Sangam Literature Harsha.
■ It comprises the earliest Tamil texts, composed
around 2300 years ago in assemblies (known as Arab Sources
Sangama) of poets that were held in city of Some earlier Arab writers were Sulaiman
Madurai. (Silsilat-ut-Tawarikh) and Al Masudi (Muruj-ul-Zahab).
■ It is a major source of information regarding Al-Biruni gave important information about India in his
social, economic and political life of the people
books ‘Tahqiq-i-Hind’ and Kitab-ul-Hind. He was Arab
living in the Delta.
scholar and contemporary of Mahmud of Ghazni.
 NCERT Notes INDIAN HISTORY
06

Al-Biruni studied Sanskrit and acquired knowledge British historian and noted Indologist AL Basham had
of Indian literature. He did not give any political written the book The Wonder that Was India in 1951,
information of his times but gave details insights of where he attempted to correct the negative stereotypes
contemporary society and culture. of India.
DD Koshambi in his book ‘An Introduction to the
Modern Historians of Ancient India Study of Indian History’ published in 1956
The first book, which was translated by the East India revolutionised Indian Historiography with his realistic
Company in India was Manusmriti, that was and scientific approach.
published as ‘A Code of Gentoo Laws’ in English by
Nathaniel Brassey Halhed in 1776 AD. Important Books and Their Authors
The Asiatic Society of Bengal was established in 1784 Books Authors
AD by Sir William Jones in Calcutta. He later
Mudrarakshasa Vishakdatta
translated Abhijyana Shakuntalam into English in
1789 AD. Rajtarangini Kalhana

William Jones was the first scholar to propogate the Kathasaritsagar Somdeva
deep relationship between the Indo-European Kamasutra Vatsayana
languages with Sanskrit as well as Persian.
Prashnottarmalika Amoghavarsha
In the year 1785, Sir Charles Wilkins translated the
Bhagavad Gita into English as Bhagavad Swapanvasdattam Bhasa
Gita-Dialogues of Krishna. Buddha Charita Asvaghosa
German scholar, Max Muller contributed immensely Natyashastra Bharata
on Indology. He translated Vedas, Upanishads,
Hitopadesha etc and published as Sacred Books of the Abhigyan Shakuntalam, Vikramorvashi and Kalidasa
Raghuvansam
East in total 50 part series.
The Early History of India, written by Vincent Arthur Amarkosha Amarsimha
Smith (1843-1920) in 1904, is considered as the first Panchasidhantika and Brihat Samhita Varharmihara
systematic work in Ancient Indian History.
Surya Sidhanta Aryabhatta
An eminent scholar RG Bhandarkar, reconstructed
Panchtantra Vishnu Sharma
Satavahana dynasty in Deccan as well Vaishnavism
and other religious sects. Nitisara Kamandaka
Social Activist Pandurang Vaman Kane (1880-1972) Aihole Prasasti Ravi Kriti
wrote the History of Dharmashastras, which is
Indica Megasthenes
considered as Encyclopedia of social code and Ethics.
Arthasastra Kautilya
Raja Rajendralal Mitra was among the first Indian
cultural researcher and historian who published Charaka Samhita Charaka
various manuscripts of Vedic literature. He also Lilawati Bhaskaracharya
wrote the Sanskrit Buddhist Literature of Nepal
in 1882. Harshacharita, Kadambari Nagananda Harshavardhana
and Ratnavali
Eminent historian RC Majumdar (1888-1980) had
presented History and Culture of Indian people, Gathasaptashati Hala
where he propounded Indian Renaissance in Astadhyayi Panini
descriptive manner.
Mahabhasya Patanjali
Another scholar Nilakantha Shastri has vividly
Naishadhacharitra Sri Harsha
described about the history of South India in his
work History of South India. Mrichhakatika Shudraka
Historian KP Jayaswal in his work ‘Hindu Polity’ in Gitagovinda Jayadev
1924 had proved the existence of Mahajanapadas and
Navratna Virsena
other republic states in Ancient period.