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in

GOVERNMENT OF TAMILNADU

HIGHER SECONDARY
SECOND YEAR

HISTORY

A publication under Free Textbook Programme of Government of Tamil Nadu

Department of School Education

Untouchability is Inhuman and a Crime

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 www.tntextbooks.in

Government of Tamil Nadu

First Edition - 2019

Revised Edition - 2020, 2022

(Published under new syllabus)

NOT FOR SALE

Content Creation

The wise
possess all

State Council of Educational

Research and Training
© SCERT 2019

Printing & Publishing

Tamil NaduTextbook and Educational

Services Corporation
www.textbooksonline.tn.nic.in

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The scope of the lesson is presented

Learning Objectives

Introduction The subject to be discussed in the lesson is introduced

Leads the students to animated audio, video aids for getting

experiential learning

Provides additional information related to the subject in boxes

to stir up the curiosity of students

Infographs Visual representations intended to make the complex simple

and make the students grasp difficult concepts easily

Activities Activities for ‘learning by doing’ individually or in groups

HOW TO USE
THE BOOK
Describe the main points briefly in bullets for recapitulation
Summary

Exercise For self-study and self evaluation

Glossary Key words and technical terms explained at the end of the
lesson for clarity

References List of books and net sources for further reading

Using technology for learning activities, which enables the

ICT Corner students to access digital sources relevant to their lessons.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Unit Content Month
No
1 Rise of Nationalism in India 1 June
2 Rise of Extremism and Swadeshi Movement 16 June
3 Impact of World War I on Indian Freedom Movement 31 June
4 Advent of Gandhi and Mass Mobilisation 42 July
5 Period of Radicalism in Anti-imperialist Struggles 61 July
6 Communalism in Nationalist Politics 73 July
7 Last Phase of Indian National Movement 84 August
8 Reconstruction of Post-colonial India 100 August
August &
9 Envisioning a New Socio-Economic Order 115
September
10 Modern World: The Age of Reason 130 October
11 The Age of Revolutions 151 October
October &
12 Europe in Turmoil 176
November
13 Imperialism and its Onslaught 195 November
14 Outbreak of World War II and its Impact in Colonies 219 November
15 The World after World War II 244 December
Timeline 265

E-book Assessment

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UNIT Modern World:

10 The Age of Reason

Learning Objectives
To acquaint ourselves with
„„Renaissance in Italy and its spread to western Europe
„„The discovery of new land and sea routes
„„Commercial revolution and its Impact
„„Protestant Reformation and Catholic Counter-Reformation
„„Rise of new monarchies and the emergence of Nation-States in Western Europe

   Introduction of development, however, the Renaissance

became more than a mere revival of classical
Three great events of the fifteenth and
learning. It included an impressive record of
sixteenth centuries – the Renaissance, the
new achievements in art, literature, science,
geographical discoveries and the Reformation
philosophy, education, religion, and politics.
– mark a transition from the Middle Ages to
Renaissance incorporated a number of
the Modern. The essence of Renaissance was
ideas. Notable among them were humanism,
the centrality given to the human and the
scepticism, individualism, and secularism.
natural, with religion relegated to subordinate
A unique aspect of the Renaissance was the
place. Renaissance had a profound impact on
the making of the modern world. It stimulated contribution made not by monks and nobles,
the geographical imagination of Europe. The but by laypersons.
success of Columbus encouraged overseas Causes of Renaissance
enterprise enormously. Reformation, a revolt
against the Catholic Church, transformed the (i) 
New experiences during the Crusades
religious map and marked a major turning point [religious wars aimed at recovering the
in attitudes to religion. Attempts to consolidate Holy Land from Muslim rule], the rise
a monarchy and to make it absolute resulted in of independent trading cities like Venice,
Spain, France, and England evolving as nation Florence, Genoa, Lisbon, Paris, London,
states. Antwerp, Hamburg and Nuremberg,
with many visiting travellers, and the
10.1  Renaissance in Italy establishment of universities at Paris
and its Spread in (France), Oxford (England), and Bologno
Western Europe (Italy) provided the necessary preliminary
conditions for the birth of renaissance.
Significance of Renaissance
The word Renaissance, of Latin origin, (ii) 
Philosophical discussion, which had
means rebirth or revival. It signifies the begun as early as the eleventh century,
sudden revival of interest in the classical continued to produce great minds. The
learning of Greece and Rome. In the course most prominent among them in the
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thirteenth century Italy as the birthplace of

was Roger Bacon Renaissance
(1214–1294). An
English philosopher Renaissance began in Italian cities and later
spread to western Europe. Italians preserved the
who lived in
belief that they were descendants of the ancient
Oxford, Bacon is
Romans. They looked back upon their ancestry
considered the
with pride. Italy had a more secular culture than
father of modern Roger Bacon most other parts of Latin Christendom. The
experimental
old cathedrals and paintings seemed to them
science. He wanted human kind to be
gloomy and the old traditions irksome. So in
ruled not by dogma and authority but
their search for something more to their liking,
rather by reason.
they discovered books written in Latin. They
(iii) 
I n 1393, a famous scholar of learnt to write Latin as the ancient Romans did.
Constantinople, Manuel Chrysaloras, They also learnt Greek and thereby discovered
arrived in Venice on a mission from the wonderful works of the Athenians of the time of
Byzantine emperor to seek the help of Pericles and facilitated a rebirth of the ancient
the West in the war against the Turks. and the bygone era of Greek and Roman culture.
Chrysaloras was eventually persuaded to Italian universities were established primarily
accept a professorship of Greek classics for the study of law and philosophy.
at the University of Florence. About the
beginning of the fifteenth century several The Medici Family: Florence is one of the
other Byzantine scholars migrated to city states in Italy which was influenced by
Italy. The influence of these scholars a powerful merchant family called Medici.
inspired Italian scholars to make trips Cosimo de Medici who was engaged in
to Constantinople and other Byzantine banking with many branches across Italy
cities in search of manuscripts. Between had indirect control over the functioning
1413 and 1423 one Giovanni Aurispa of the government between 1434 and 1464.
brought back nearly 250 manuscript After his death, his grandson Lorenzo took
books, including the works of Sophocles, over and controlled the government. He was
Euripides, and Thucydides. After the known as Lorenzo, the Magnificent. During
fall of Constantinople in 1453 there was this period, the Medici family patronised
a great exodus of classical scholars to many artists including Michelangelo and
Western Europe which gave a fillip to Leonardo da Vinci.
classical learning.
(iv) 
T he Byzantine world not only gave Italy was situated in the centre of
Christendom the stimulus of its scholars Mediterranean Sea and hence the Italian cities
and philosophers, it also gave it paper. were the main beneficiaries of the revival of
Though paper originated in China in trade with the East. By the fourteenth century
second century BC (BCE)., it reached Italian cities engaged in sea-borne trade had
Germany only by the fourteenth century. become fabulously rich. The Renaissance
Thereupon, the invention of moveable movement was accelerated by two prosperous
type and the printing press by Johannes families, the Medici family in Florence and the
Gutenberg followed. With printing, the Sforza family in Milan.
intellectual life of the world entered a Popes such as NicholasV, Pius II, Julius II
far more vigorous phase. Knowledge and Leo X bestowed their patronage upon the
spread swiftly. most brilliant artists of the Italian Renaissance.
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Florence as Home of Renaissance obligation of the ruler

was to maintain the
Renaissance in Literature
power and safety of the
country over which he
ruled. No consideration
of justice or mercy or
the sanctity of treaties
should be allowed
Machiavelli
to stand in his way.
Machiavelli maintained that all men are
Dante Petrarch prompted exclusively by motives of self-interest
and the head of the state should therefore take
Even in the thirteenth and fourteenth nothing for granted as to the loyalty or affection
centuries Florence had produced Dante (1265- of his subjects.
1321) and Petrarch, the two great poets of the ‘A Prince’ says Machiavelli, ‘must know
Italian language. Dante’s Divine Comedy is a how to play at once man and beast, lion and fox.
summation of medieval culture. Its dominant He neither should nor can keep his word when
theme is the salvation of mankind through to do so will turn against him…. I venture to
reason and divine grace. But it abounds with maintain that it is very disadvantageous always
many other themes such as human love, love of to be honest; useful on the other hand, to appear
country, interest in natural phenomena and even pious and faithful, humane and devout. Nothing
the desire for a free and united Italian nation. is more useful than the appearance of virtue.’
Petrarch (1304-1374) produced works both Renaissance in Art
in Latin and Italian. An early humanist, he is
considered to be the father of Italian Renaissance Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519)
literature. Petrarch’s inquiring mind and love of In Florence there
classical authors led him to travel, visiting men was an artist who
of learning and searching in monastic libraries wanted to have a perfect
for classical manuscripts. It is believed that his understanding of all the
rediscovery of Cicero’s letters was a key moment things he painted and
in the 14th century Italian Renaissance. how they related to each
Giovanni Boccaccio other. This was Leonardo
(1313–1375), also a da Vinci, the son of a farm
Leonardo da Vinci
Florentine, produced servant-girl. So he was a
Decameron, a collection self-taught man in Latin and Mathematics. He
of 100 stories, as told was also a sculptor, a great thinker and scientist.
by seven young women He got corpses from graveyards to dissect and
and three young men, understand human anatomy so that he could
during their stay at a depict human bodies realistically. He was the
villa outside of Florence Boccaccio first to discover that blood circulated through
to escape the ravages of the body. Given his multifaceted talents da
the Black Death. Vinci is considered to be a great example of the
Renaissance Man.
Niccolò Machiavelli (1469–1527) Leonardo da Vinci’s masterpieces include
Niccolò Machiavelli’s The Prince became Virgin of the Rocks, Last Supper and Mona Lisa.
famous because of its relevance as a political In Virgin of the Rocks, the Virgin Mary, emerging
guide for the rulers. In his view, the supreme from darkness, presents the young John the
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Raphael (1483–1520)
Raphael’s famous
work is Madonna and
Child, where Virgin
Mary and child Jesus
are portrayed. Raphael
painted the library walls
of Pope Julius II with
various religious themes.
Raphael
One such theme was
Last Supper School of Athens that highlighted the classical
influence on the renaissance art. He painted
Baptist to the Christ Child. He painted Last
himself along with the paintings of Leonardo
Supper (Jesus’s final meal
and Michelangelo.
with the apostles before
his crucifixon) for the Science and Technology
Dominican monastery During the fifteenth
in Milan. Mona Lisa, his to the seventeenth
most famous portrait, is centuries, science also
believed to be the image developed rapidly
of Lisa Gherardini, wife leading to a Scientific
of a wealthy merchant Mona Lisa
Revolution. Scientists
from Florence, Francesco of this period had to
del Giocondo, who commissioned it. antagonise the Church,
Nicolas Copernicus
for the Church did not like
Michelangelo (1475–1564) people to think and experiment, and question
god.
Donatello was
one of the earlier Nicolas Copernicus (1473–1543), a Polish
artists to create a very scientist, propounded the theory that the Sun
realistic and majestic was at the centre of the solar system and all the
painting of David, the planets including the earth revolved around the
Biblical hero in the sun (heliocentric). This was the opposite view of
1460s. He influenced the Church which propagated the earth-centric
Michelangelo di (geocentric) view. Any views that opposed
Michelangelo the Church’s ideas were considered heresy.
Lodovico Buonarroti
Simoni who is considered to be the greatest Copernicus postponed the publication of his
Renaissance sculptor. The Cathedral of St. work on the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres
Peters in Rome, built by the Popes, was almost till the end of his life. Giordano Bruno,
fashioned by Michelangelo. His dome of St. an Italian, was burned in Rome by the Church
Peters, the realistic statue of David, and the in 1600 for insisting that the earth went round
magnificent paintings on the ceilings of the the sun.
Sistine Chapel are outstanding examples of The most important astronomical
Renaissance art. He also sculpted the famous evidence for the heliocentric theory was
Pieta, a statue of the Virgin Mary, grieving furnished by the great of astronomer Galileo
over the body of dead Christ. It was carved Galilei (1564–1642). With a telescope, he
out of a single marble stone from Carrera in discovered the satellites of Jupiter, the rings
Central Italy. of Saturn and the spots on the sun. He was

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made the professor of include As You Like It, The Taming of the Shrew,
Medicine and Maths by and A Midsummer Night’s Dream while Othello,
the Medici family at the Hamlet, King Lear and Romeo and Juliet are
University of Padua examples of tragedies. His plays, performed in
(Republic of Venice). the Globe theatre in London were popular. The
He made efforts to plays had a profound impact on the English
make science stay language, and when Britain became an empire
detached from religion. Galileo Galilei after the industrial revolution his plays spread
He accepted the views of across the world.
Copernicus who propounded the heliocentric Francis Bacon is considered the father
theory. He was tried for heresy by the Church of empiricism. He argued that inductive
and was kept under house arrest. reasoning (an approach to logical thinking that
Among the involves making generalisations based on
prominent men of specific details and is the opposite of deductive
science in the sixteenth reasoning) is the base for scientific knowledge.
century William Harvey His most important work is Novum Organum,
(1578-1657) was one a philosophical work written in Latin. It deals
who finally proved the with methodical observation of facts as a
circulation of the blood means of studying and interpreting natural
in the human body. phenomena.
William Harvey

Spread of Renaissance in Western 10.2  Discovery of New Sea

Europe Routes to the East
Renaissance in England The Turkish conquests and the fall of
The renaissance had Constantinople provided
its impact not only in stimulus to the European
Italy but in many parts maritime nations to find a sea
of Europe including route to the East so that they
France and Germany. did not have to depend on the
It left a deep imprint old land routes controlled by
on England. The rule the Ottomans. These efforts eventually resulted
of Elizabeth I (1558– in the great geographical discoveries which
Elizabeth I revealed to Europeans the existence of a New
1603) came to be called
the Elizabethan Age. The Elizabethan Age World on the other side of the Atlantic Ocean.
produced many scholars during the English Multiple factors lead to the
Renaissance. Notable among them were William exploration of sea
Shakespeare, Christopher Marlowe, and Francis
(a) 
D uring the Crusades, the knights
Bacon. Christopher Marlowe was an English
(warriors) returned with many types
playwright, whose important works include
of goods from the East. The Europeans
Dido, The Queen of Carthage, and Tamburlaine
liked the eastern products, mainly
the Great.
the spices, which were used as food
The greatest writer in English was William preservatives in the West. Till that time
Shakespeare. Born at Stratford upon Avon, Arabs controlled the land-bound and
he wrote 38 plays and many poems involving maritime trade with the Asian countries
various human emotions namely love, anger, including India and further east.
tragedy, jealousy, and deceit. His comedy plays They exchanged the goods from various
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parts of Asia with the Italians, who then (h) 

S ailors were no
traded on them in Europe. The European longer left to the
powers, particularly Portugal and Spain, mercy of a calm
wanted to have direct trade with the Asian night and the bright
countries. They therefore encouraged the stars to determine
exploration of new routes, so that they the direction in
could profit more. This was the decisive which they were
economic factor that provided the urge to sailing, since the
discover new trade routes. Mariner’s compass Mariner’s compass
was now available in
(b) 
As the demands for the products
Europe.
from the East increased, the European
states wanted to earn more profits and
Initiatives of Portugal
control sea-borne trade. Hence they
Located on the
were interested in investing in the sea
south-western part
exploration.
of Europe, the small
(c) The spirit of the age that ‘let fools contest country of Portugal
elections and the adventurous go and led the way first in
explore’ prompted many to opt for the exploration, discovering
latter course that promised both money the Canaries, Madeira
and fame. and the Azores. In 1442 Henry, the Navigator
(d) 
T he eagerness to spread religion sailors sent out by Prince
(Christianity) also acted as an impetus Henry, the Navigator reached Guinea Coast
to the exploration of new lands, though of Africa and later in 1488 Bartholomew Diaz
this was not a primary factor in the initial rounded the Cape of Good Hope.
period. During the time of the Counter
Reformation spreading the word of god Henry, the Navigator was a Portuguese
gained prominence. prince. Though he never ventured into the
sea, he started a school of navigation at
(e) Due to Renaissance there was development Sagres, Portugal. He hired cartographers,
of technology in many fields. One such shipbuilders and instrument makers to help
field was cartography (map-making). sailors undertake planned voyages.
Ptolemy’s map of the first century CE
was redrawn using new advances in
Christopher Columbus
techniques. A Renaissance geographer,
(1451–1506)
Gerardus Mercator used the concepts of
latitude and longitude to draw maps that Christopher
were useful for the navigators. Columbus, an Italian
from Genoa, fought
(f) A new improved design of ships played a many difficulties before
crucial role in the long, risky sea voyages. he secured the patronage
The building of caravel, a lighter ship that of the Spanish rulers
could easily sail in shallow water, was an Ferdinand and Isabella.
important technological innovation. On 3 August 1492 Columbus
(g) The hazards of sea voyages was mitigated Columbus sailed from the
by the availability of firearms and harbour of Palos near Cadiz, with three small
cannons. ships (the Santa Maria, the Pinta and the Nina).
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After a voyage of two months and nine days in Portuguese Navigator Pedro
1492 he came to a land which he believed to be Cabral
India. But it was really a new continent, America. In 1500 Pedro Cabral
He returned to Spain with gold, cotton, strange sailed westward and
beasts and two wild-eyed painted “Indians” to discovered Brazil. Pedro
be baptised. They were called Indians because, Cabral named the island
to the end of his days, he believed that the land as “Island of the True
he had discovered was India. Cross”. Brazil became
Portugal’s colony and
Vasco da Gama
its subsequent history is Pedro Cabral
The success of dealt with in Unit XI.
Columbus prompted
Cabral sailed to India, following the route
Vasco da Gama to start
of Vasco da Gama, and reached Kozhikode.
his historic voyage
Initially the zamorin ruler was well disposed
(1497) to the eastern
towards the Portuguese and allowed Cabral
part. He set sail with
to build a fort and carry on trade. However,
four ships from Lisbon
disputes soon arose with the Arab traders and
and reached the island
Vasco da Gama a large Arab force attacked the trading post
of Mozambique. Later he
and killed many Portuguese soldiers. Cabral
travelled further south and reached Kapad, a
retaliated with reinforcements from Portugal.
beach near Kozhikode, Kerala. By reaching a
He captured 10 Arab vessels and executed their
part of India, he opened avenues for direct trade
crews. He then left for Cochin (now Kochi),
with India. This voyage led to the colonisation
further south, where he was warmly received
of a few regions in India. One such region was
and permitted to trade. After establishing a port
Goa.
at Cannanore (now Kannur) Cabral returned
Papal Bull (1493) on January 16, 1501, with six shiploads of spices
The Spanish kings were apprehensive to Portugal. On his way, however, two ships
about the Portuguese venture into sea voyages. failed, and Cabral finally reached Portugal with
They requested Pope Alexander VI to find four ships on June 23, 1501.
a solution. In 1493, the Pope issued a Papal
Bull (proclamation). The proclamation drew Voyage of Magellan
a north–south line from pole to pole, passing Ferdinand Magellan,
around 320 miles west of the Cape Verde a Portuguese sailor
islands. It declared that any new discoveries got Spanish support to
west of the line belonged to Spain. Portugal explore the world. With
was not happy with the arrangement. The five ships he sailed out
following year (1494) it struck an agreement of Seville westward in
with Spain, signing the Treaty of Tordesillas. 1519. He found a strait at
This arrangement respected the concept of a the tip of South America Magellan
north–south line of demarcation, but shifted it and named it the Strait
to 1,185 miles west of the Cape Verde islands, of Magellan. From there the crew reached the
and acknowledged that everything discovered Great South Sea. As the sea remained calm, he
east of it would belong to Portugal. Six years called it Pacific Ocean (Pacifico means peaceful
later, in April 1500, this turned out to Portugal’s in Spanish). In the voyage, Magellan lost two of
advantage, when Pedro Álvares Cabral landed his ships and many of the crew due to disease.
on the east coast of Brazil, and was able to claim Magellan himself was killed in the Philippie
it for Portugal. Isles. Finally, a single ship, the Vittoria (or

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ARCTIC OCEAN S

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GREENLAND

ENGLAND
CANADA nd ASIA
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NORTH Lisbon N
AMERICA AI
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INDIA

IC
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Cape Verde
AFRICA
Islands Goa
Kozhikode Philippines
Islands
Malindi
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SOUTH OCEAN
AMERICA Mozambique

AUSTRALIA

Cape of Good Hope

Magellan’s
strait Columbus
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Vasco da Gama
Magellan
Not to Scale
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Victoria) with 18 sailors returned to Seville Due to the rising competition from
in 1522. Vittoria was the first ship that ever England, there was conflict between Spain and
circumnavigated the world. England. Francis Drake annexed California
Turks, French, English, and Germans region for the English, despite protests from
had not yet realised the significance of the Spain. This led to war between the two nations.
new sea routes to Asia. They were yet to In 1588 King Philip II of Spain sent an armada or
understand the political importance of the Spanish fleet of 130 vessels and 31,000 soldiers
European discovery of America. Hernan to invade England. However, the English with
Cortes, a Spanish Conquistador, with a their easily manoeuvrable fleet easily destroyed
mere handful of men conquered the Empire
the Spanish Armada. This marked the rise of
of Mexico for Spain. Pizarro crossed the
the British as an important power in modern
Isthmus of Panama (1530) and subjugated
world.
another country Peru, destroying the Inca
Empire in south America.
10.3  Commercial
Other Important European Revolution
Expeditions
The Renaissance and the Reformation
Following in the footsteps of the
were accompanied by fundamental economic
Portuguese and the Spanish seafarers, other
changes. The series of economic changes,
European countries started exploring the
making the transition from the semi-static,
world. John Cabot, an Italian explorer, was
commissioned by England to find new lands localised, non-profit economy of the late
across the globe. On his voyage he saw Canada Middle Ages to the dynamic, world-wide,
and made it an English colony. Giovanni capitalistic regime of the fourteenth and
da Verrazano, another Italian, explored the succeeding centuries is known as the
lands for the French. He annexed provinces Commercial Revolution. This Revolution was
for the French in eastern Canada. An English gradual.
explorer named Henry Hudson wanted to find The causes of the beginning of
the passage from North America to the Pacific the Revolution were (a) the capture of
Ocean. Though he failed in his initiative, he Mediterranean trade by the Italian cities; (b)
explored the region which now bears his name
the development of a flourishing trade between
– Hudson River.
Italian cities and the merchants of Hanseatic
Catastrophic Impact of Spanish Arms: League (a merchant guild) in northern
Although the Aztecs had superior numbers, Europe; (c) introduction of coins such as
with firearms and steel blades at his disposal, the duca of Venice and the florin of Florence;
just one Spaniard could annihilate dozens or (d) the accumulation of surplus earned out
even hundreds of opponents: “On a sudden, of trading, shipping and mining enterprises;
they speared and thrust people into shreds,” (e) the demand for war materials and the
wrote one indigenous chronicler, a witness to encouragement given by the new monarchs
the terrifying impact of European arms. “Others to the development of commerce in order to
were beheaded in one swipe... Others tried to create more taxable wealth. The combination
run in vain from the butchery, their innards of these factors along with the stimulus given
falling from them and entangling their very
by the voyages resulting in Spanish and
feet.” A smallpox epidemic outbreak weakened
Portuguese merchants to discover a new route
the Aztec while giving Cortes time to regroup,
to the Orient, independent of Italian control,
resume fighting and finally emerge victorious.
paved the way for Commercial Revolution.
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Important Results of Commercial Other significant results of the Commercial

Revolution Revolution were the rise of the middle class
An important element of the Commercial to economic power. The middle class ranks
Revolution was the growth of banking. Because included merchants, bankers, ship owners,
principal investors and industrial entrepreneurs.
of the strong religious disapproval of usury,
Their rise to power was the result of increasing
banking was not a respectable business in the
wealth and their support to the king against the
Middle Ages. But by the fourteenth century
feudal aristocracy.
lending money for profit became an established
business practice. The real founders of banking The most negative result of the Commercial
institutions were the great commercial houses of Revolution was the revival of slavery. Slavery had
virtually disappeared from European society
Italian cities. By the fifteenth century, the banking
by the end of the first millennium. But the
business had spread to southern Germany and
development of mining and plantation farming
France. The rise of private financial houses was
in the Spanish, Portuguese and English colonies
followed by the establishment of government
led to the recruitment of slaves as unskilled
banks. The first was the Bank of Sweden (1657).
labourers. The attempt to enslave native
The Bank of England was founded in 1694.
Americans ended in failure, as they proved
New industries like mining and smelting too tough to manage. The problem was solved
had sprung up and these enterprises were by importing Africans. This transatalantic
stimulated by technical advances. There was slave trade that exported more than 11 million
also change in business organisation. Regulated Africans to the Americas is a sordid story that
companies came to be formed. The regulated is a shame on the making of the modern world.
company was an association of merchants for a Finally, the Commercial Revolution
common venture. A leading example of this type prepared the way for the Industrial Revolution.
was an English company known as the Merchant By creating a class of capitalists and pursuing
Adventurers established for the purpose of trade the mercantilist policy, stimulus was provided
with the Netherlands and Germany. to the growth of manufactures. The outstanding
The system of manufacture developed example of factory production was the
by the craft guilds in the later Middle Ages manufacture of cotton textiles.
became defunct. In the seventeenth century
the regulated company was superseded by a 10.4  Protestant Reformation
new type of organisation called the joint-stock and Catholic Counter
company. Joint stock company with limited Reformation
liability was a Dutch innovation that made
The people of
large scale investment possible by spreading out
medieval Europe were
the risks (and profits) across large numbers of
mainly Christians who
people.
believed in the power
In later stages, the Commercial Revolution of god. God-fearing
was accompanied by the adoption of a new set of Catholics accepted the
doctrines and practices known as mercantilism. role of the Church that
Mercantilism is a system of government acted as the medium
intervention to promote national prosperity between them and god. Pope Leo X
and increase the power of the state. The purpose The church became the
of intervention was not merely to expand the focal point for all the activities of common
volume of manufacturing and trade, but also to people from birth to death. In due course
bring more money into the treasury of the state. of time, the power wielded by the church
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authorities increased beyond measure. The appeared in any of them. The peasantry saw
kings and people of Europe were, however, the Church as an oppressive landowner. Many
beginning to feel the heavy hand of the Church. of the princes were casting their covetous eyes
There were occasional instances of defiance and on the vast properties of the Church.
disobedience of Papal authority. The Church
The People behind the Reformation
created the Inquisition to treat this new heresy
Movement
with violence. The Inquisition dubbed the
people who questioned the activities of the The reformation
Church as heretics and women as witches. movement had a few
pioneers. Erasmus was
The revolt against the absolute power of
a protester of many
the church was called Protestant because it
Church practices and
protested against the dogmas of the Roman
Catholic Church. The movement is called the teachings. His well
Reformation. It was a popular revolt against known work, The
corruption as well as the authoritarianism of the Praise of Folly (1511), John Wycliffe
Church. In response the loyal Roman Church made fun of theologians
men made some attempts to reform the Church and monks. Others like him who worked
of its abuses from within. This phase of reform towards reform two centuries before him
movement came to be known as Counter- were John Wycliffe and John Hus. They
Reformation which once again acted against the preached the gospel in the language of the
protest sternly. people, and not in Latin. John Wycliffe, an
English clergyman, was famous as the first
Causes for the Reformation translator of the Bible into English. He
Movement managed to escape the anger of Rome during
his life time, but in 1415, after thirty-one
Corruption of Church authorities years of his death, a Church Council ordered
The practice of sale of indulgence that his bones should be dug up and burnt.
(absolving one’s sin by getting papal pardon And this was faithfully carried out.
through payment of money), nepotism, and
simony (sale of church posts for money) came Though the bones of Wycliffe could
under attack. The indulgence emptied the be burnt, his views could not easily be
pockets of poor as they had to spend money suppressed. The event reached Bohemia,
to get papal pardon for their sins. Some and influenced John Huss. Huss, the head of
Popes such as Alexander VI, Julius II and the Prague University, was excommunicated
Leo X quarrelled with the rulers on the above by the Pope for his views. As he was popular
practices. There was an instance of Albert of in his town he escaped harm. Promising a
Mainz becoming the archbishop by paying safe conduct by the Emperor, he was invited
money to Pope Leo X. The Pope was said to to Constance (Konstanz) in Switzerland,
have collected it saying that half of the money where a Church Council was in session. He
would be used for St. Peter’s Basilica. was pressurised to confess his error. When
he refused, in spite of their promise for his
Members of the great merchant families
such as the Medicis became Popes in order safety, he was burnt alive.
to increase their own wealth and expected The reformation movement was
to pass the wealth on to illegitimate sons. popularised by three reformers at
Inexperienced youths were appointed to three different places. Martin Luther at
lucrative bishoprics. Clergymen received Wittenberg, Huldrych Zwingli at Zurich,
incomes from several churches but never and John Calvin at Geneva.

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Martin Luther (1483–1546) was a civil war in Germany. In the end the
Martin Luther, a Christian priest, rose northern Germany became Protestant, while
in revolt in Germany against Rome. After a the southern state remained catholic.
visit to Rome he became disgusted with the
Zwingli (1484–1531)
corruption and luxury of the Church. He wrote
ninety-five complaints against the Roman Huldrych Zwingli started a similar
Church known as ‘95 Theses’ and nailed it movement in Switzerland. He was influenced
on the door of the church at Wittenberg. He by the Dutch humanist Erasmus. He did not
made a few moderate suggestions to reform agree with some of Luther’s viewpoints. Zwingli
the church. The role of printing press was a believed that Christ lives in the heart of the
key factor in making his ideas widespread. believer and not in the bread and wine. He
He argued that Bible alone is supreme and had written sixty-seven articles outlining the
not the Pope and Bishops. He believed that reformist views against the Catholic Church.
only two main rituals, namely, baptism and Zwingli opposed the
Holy Communion are accepted by the Bible. celibacy of the monks
Salvation, he said, could be attained by one’s and construction of
belief in Lord only. In this way the Protestant monasteries, indulgence,
revolt began. Luther translated the Bible into fasting and pilgrimage.
German and Lutheran Protestants laid down Efforts made to bring
certain rules and regulations. They did not Luther and Zwingli
accept the authority of Pope. They had their together for a stronger
Zwingli
own churches, administrative set-up and they Protestant movement
believed in the supremacy of Bible alone. The failed.
rules for priests were relaxed by which they
Holy Communion (also known as
were permitted to lead a married life.
the Eucharist) is a religious ceremony
performed in church by Catholics. Catholic
Christians partake of Holy Communion
in remembrance of the sacrifices made by
Jesus. They accept bread and wine which are
believed to symbolise (transubstantiation)
the body and blood of Jesus Christ.

Martin Luther and his 95 Theses John Calvin (1509–1564)

Calvin was one of
The pope tried to hold peace talks with the later leaders of the
Luther by calling him for Diet of Worms. It Protestant movement.
failed. The Diet of Worms disavowed his books As a French Protestant
and burnt them. He was outlawed from the he opposed the activities
Holy Roman Empire by the emperor. Martin of the Church. He was
Luther’s radical views influenced many and excommunicated for
one such was Thomas Muntzer who fought for fighting the Pope. After John Calvin
a classless society. This started the Peasant’s his excommunication,
Rebellion in parts of Germany. However, he settled In Geneva, Switzerland. His book
Luther supported the feudal lords in this titled 'Institutes of the Christian Religion' in
fight and denounced the peasant movement. Latin contains his core ideas. Calvin was a great
As the Protestants became popular there organiser and for a while he controlled the
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city of Geneva. He strived hard to establish an household and in churches. Women were
organised society based on biblical teachings. encouraged to read the Bible and bring
Calvinism became popular even during his up the children in Protestant methods.
lifetime. It became widespread in other parts This led to the increase in literacy level
of Europe as Huguenots in France, Puritans in of women.
England and Presbyterians in Scotland. (d) P
 ower of Kings: The reformation
movement gave more power to some
The English Reformation
rulers such as Henry VIII, who became
The Reformation in England was started the head of both the state and the Church.
not by theologians but by the king. It was Henry
(e) R
 ace for colonies: Both the Protestants
VIII who separated the state from the Church.
and the Catholics wanted to convert
Though he was a devout catholic in the initial
people from other parts of the world to
years, due to his personal needs (a divorce
their own religious beliefs. The Spanish
from his wife Queen Catherine of Aragon for
conquest in South America was followed
a remarriage to another woman, Ann Boleyn),
by Jesuit priests (a new sect of Roman
he favoured the Protestants. He passed the Act
Catholics created to spread Catholicism).
of Supremacy, 1534, and severed England’s
The Puritans, Catholics and Anglicans set
connection with Rome. He established the
up their churches in the thirteen British
Anglican Church and ordered the confiscation
colonies of North America.
of Church property, including all the lands
of abbeys and monasteries. This Protestant (f) S
 pread of Christianity: The availability
movement led to the Puritan movement in of gold and silver from the colonies made
various parts of England and her colonies. the European nations to send explorers in
the guise of missionaries to various parts
Effects of the Reformation of the world. “First the missionary, then
(a) D
 ivisions in the European nations: the gun boat, then the land grabbing” _
The schism in the church led to the that was the sequence of events people of
division of religious practices in the the succeeding generation had to contend
same country. North Germany became with.
Lutheran while South Germany remained Catholic Counter Reformation
Catholic. England became Protestant
The Society of Jesus
while Scotland and the people of Ireland
became devout Catholics. The Catholic
religion watched the
(b) L
 iteracy: The printing press encouraged rise of the Protestant
the printing of various religious movement with caution
teachings of reformation movement and and concern. Just
also reading of the same by common about the time Martin
people. People were encouraged to read Luther was gaining in
and understand the Bible. The use of popularity, a new Church
vernacular language in preaching and the Ignatius of Loyola
order was started by a
translation of Bible in regional languages Spaniard, Ignatius of Loyola in Paris, France,
opened a new avenue to reach ordinary on 15 August 1534, when he and six university
people. students pledged to keep vows of chastity,
(c) S
 tatus of Women: Due to the opposition poverty, and obedience and to make a pilgrimage
of celibacy in churches, the pastors of the to Jerusalem. One of the students was Francis
Protestant churches became married men. Xavier, who later became a missionary to India
This strengthened the role of women in and Japan. This society aimed at training people
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for efficient and dedicated service of the Roman the Church such as sale of indulgence, nepotism
Church and the Pope. It used education as a and absenteeism of the Bishops (who did not
tool to teach the Catholic religion to the masses. visit their dioceses). It insisted on the study of
They set up various educational institutions to catechism, an instruction on the sacraments. It
promote the Catholic religion. Society of Jesus supported the image worship of Jesus and Mary
succeeded in producing efficient and faithful in all churches. Due to the Council of Trent, the
followers of the Church. These priests, known Catholic religion became better organised.
as the Jesuits, helped in raising the standard of Inquisition
the Church in Europe.
Special Church courts were established to
The measures adopted by the Roman give punishment to the heretics. They used many
Church, largely on account of the threat posed methods to make the heretics confess, which
by the Protestant revolt, included the removal ranged from recantation, flogging to burning
of abuses from the church, reiteration of the at the stake. Roman Inquisition was set up to
power of Pope, and rebuilding the faith in seven deal with the Protestants. Witch-hunt became a
sacraments (Baptism, Confirmation, Eucharist common practice. Women, usually widowed or
or Holy Communion, Reconciliation or single, were called witches and blamed for crop
Confession, Anointing of the Sick, Ordination failures, diseases etc. They were captured and
or Holy Orders, and Marriage).This movement put to death. It has been estimated that about
is known as Counter Reformation. Three major 110,000 people in Europe were put on trial and
events that mark the Counter Reformation 60,000 put to death in the Inquisition.
are: Council of Trent, the Inquisition, and the
founding of new religious schools to popularise Effects of Counter Reformation
Catholic religion. Due to the Counter Reformation, Europe
was divided along religious lines. Wars broke
Council of Trent (1545–1563)
out within the countries and with the countries
professing faith in different denomination. The
Thirty-Years’War fought between 1618 and 1648
at various provinces of Holy Roman Empire was
an example of this division. Protestant churches
were austere, while the Catholic churches
became more ornamental. Both the religious
communities used education as a tool to spread
their religious and spiritual ideas.
10.5 R
 ise of New Monarchies/
Nation-States
In the age of feudalism, the kings entered
Council of Trent into agreement with the nobility for the
provision of arms and ammunition during
Pope Paul III appointed the cardinals to war with enemies. In return the kings offered
reform the Catholic Church. The Council of them knighthood and tax free lands. The ‘fief ’
Trent met three times in eighteen years and was a land given to the nobles as tax free for
emphasised faith in the Bible and the teachings services rendered to the kings. This relationship
at Church along with adherence to the seven helped both the parties. This feudal lord–vassal
sacraments for salvation. The celibacy of the relationship began to decline leading to the
priests and the supremacy of the Pope were emergence of new powerful monarchies during
upheld. The council also removed the abuses in this period of Renaissance and Reformation.
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Causes therefore, antagonise the

church. But the Black
Decline of Feudalism
Death weakened the
Under the feudal system, the medieval position of the church
kings were at the mercy of their nobles who were as it could not explain
prepared to align with the king’s enemies at any the causes for the Black
time. The kings had no control over the vassal Death. The authority
lands, as the nobles had their own sub vassals of Pope came to be
and army to protect them. This weakened the Pope Gregory VII
increasingly challenged by
position and power of the kings. The plague many of the early dissenters.
that struck Europe in medieval time weakened
the nobility. As thousands of peasants died, the Spain as Nation-State
nobility lost their work force and their taxes Major parts of Spain were under the
too. Nobles died in large numbers during the control of the Moors, Muslim Saracens, the
course of Crusades. The decline of feudalism descendants of the Arab conquerors. There
was a decisive factor in enabling the new rising were two important kingdoms: Aragon and
monarchy to assert itself. Castile. A turning point in the history of Spain
New warfare techniques such as use of was the King Ferdinand of Aragon marrying
gunpowder also contributed to the changes. Queen Isabella of Castile. Together they worked
The weakening war strategy of the knights came hard to drive away the Moors and unite Spain.
to the forefront during the Thirty Years War. The The king and queen took power in their hands
English longbow along with gunpowder caused (1479) and controlled the nobles by eliminating
more damage than the mounted knights. them from the royal councils. Spain emerged as
a nation state.
Growing Unpopularity of the Church
Both Ferdinand and Isabella who jointly
During the medieval period, the Church ruled Spain were devout Catholics. During
was the dominant institution. It had large the rule of the Moors, the Jews who controlled
tracts of lands under its control. Church the economy of Spain enjoyed considerable
establishments such as monasteries, convents freedom. Now, the Moors and the Jews were
and buildings acquired more land, which forced to convert to Christianity. The king
were exempted from taxes. Further the church setup the Spanish Inquisition through which
imposed tithe, 10% of the total produce, as a the Jew and Moor converts were kept in strict
tax levied on the people under its jurisdiction. vigil. Many non-believers were tried, tortured
The Church became wealthier than the state. and burnt at the stake. The royal house became
Through its economic and religious power, the more powerful than the church.
Church assumed greater significance than the
The discovery of the sea route to Americas
kings. The Church had its own justice system
by Columbus and the conquest of Inca and
too. Ecclesiastical courts were set up to punish
Aztec empires by the Spaniards brought
erring church officials such as the bishops,
enormous wealth. This made Spain prosperous,
priests and nuns. The royal courts could not try
and it began to play a leading part in European
them. Ecclesiastical courts had more power than
politics.
the courts of the kings. This further undermined
the power of the kings. Excommunication England as Nation-State
was a powerful punishment exercised by There was conflict between two royal
the Pope to humiliate the king in front of his houses in England namely the House of York and
nobles and subjects. Henry IV of Germany was House of Lancaster for the throne. This led to the
excommunicated by Pope Gregory VII for not War of the Roses. (They wore badges of white
respecting his ordinances. The kings could not, rose and red rose respectively, hence the name.)
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In this civil war, Henry Tudor emerged There was what is called the Hundred Years’
victorious and he started a new line of monarchy War between England and France from early in
in England. He assumed the title Henry VII the fourteenth century to the middle of the
and entered into matrimonial alliance with fifteenth century. In this war, the French king
Elizabeth of York family. This made England to Charles VII was helped by Joan of Arc, a young
emerge as a nation-state. girl who fought courageously and won the battle
Henry VII decided to remove the threat of at Orleans. Joan of Arc was given the title Maid
the nobles to his rule. The nobles maintained of Orleans. However, she was captured by the
private armies with special insignia called livery English and tried by the court for her claim that
and maintenance. On becoming the king, Henry she was guided by heavenly voices. She was
abolished this practice. He took the support of condemned as a witch and burnt at the stakes in
the merchant class and a few minority nobles to 1430. (In 1920, the Catholic Church conferred
pass laws in the parliament. He created a special sainthood on her.)
court in the Star Chamber to put the rebellious After the death of
nobles on trial. The kingdom collected money Joan of Arc, the French
as fine from the nobles that increased the royal continued the Hundred
revenue. The parliament gave the king right to Years’ War and emerged
collect taxes too. Henry VII, who ruled between victorious. Having
1485 and 1509, established a firm control over got the English out of
the kingdom. his country, Louis XI,
son of Charles VII, Louis XI
Livery was the system of giving badges turned to Burgundy. This
or uniform to the followers of nobles. troublesome vassal was finally brought under
Maintenance was the system of protecting control and Burgundy became part of France in
the interests of the followers by the nobles. about 1483. France became a strong centralised
Star Chamber was the court of law monarchy. Louis XI strengthened and unified
created by Henry VII to try cases related to France. For the first time in the history of
the property of the nobles. It is named after France, a permanent army was created for the
the stars painted on the ceiling of a room in monarch without relying on the support from
Westminster Palace, where the proceedings the nobles. His Royal Council had more lawyers
of the court were conducted. than nobles, thus undermining the influence of
the nobles in the royal affairs.
The king strengthened his ties with Scotland
by giving his elder daughter in marriage to the
Scottish prince. He maintained matrimonial
Summary
relationship with the Spain too by making his „„Renaissance of Italy and its spread to
son marry the princess of Spain. western Europe are discussed.
France as Nation-State „„Renaissance in literature, art and science
with special reference to prominent
Burgundy, situated to the east of France,
renaissance scholars, artists and scientists
was a powerful state. Though nominally vassal
are described.
to the king of France, it was a turbulent vassal,
and the English intrigued with it against France. „„Factors responsible for geographical
A good part of western France was for long in discoveries of fifteenth and sixteenth
English possession. The Valois dynasty, which century are explored.
was ruling France, fought to retain and retrieve „„Leading role played by Portugal and
the French territories from English control. Spain are highlighted.
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„„Attempts of other European countries in 5. A

 ssertion (A): Paper originated in China in
sea exploration are also detailed. second century BC (BCE).
„„Commercial Revolution and its fallout Reason (R): Germany invented the
are elaborated. movable printing press .
„„The causes of Reformation Movement are (a) Both A and R are correct. R explains A
analysed.
(b) Both A and R are correct but R does not
„„Contribution of Martin Luther, Zwingli
explain A
and Calvin are assessed, with a focus on
the unique nature of English Reformation. (c) A is correct but R is wrong
„„The Counter-Reformation Movement of (d) A is wrong but R is correct
the Catholic Church and its impact are
elaborated. 6. Which one of the following was not an idea
developed during the age of Renaissance?
„„Circumstances leading to the rise of new
monarchies in western Europe are traced. (a) rationalism (b) scepticism
„„Emergence of Spain, England and France (c) anarchism (d) individualism
as nation-states is explained.
7. 
Who is considered the father of modern
experimental science?

EXERCISE (a) Aristotle (b) Plato

Q.R.Code
(c) Roger Bacon (d) Landsteiner
I. C
 hoose the 8. Who wanted humankind to be ruled not by
correct answer dogma and authority but rather by reason?
1. 
Which one of the following was not an
(a) Dante (b) Machiavelli
independent trading city?
(c) Roger Bacon (d) Petrarch
(a) Nuremberg (b) Antwerp
9. Who came to Italy seeking the help of the
(c) Genoa (d) St. Petersburg
West in the war against the Turks?
2. Which one of the following had relegated
religion to a subordinate place? (a) Giovanni Aurispa

(a) Renaissance (b) Manuel Chrysaloras

(b) Reformation (c) Roger Bacon

(c) Geographical Discovery (d) Columbus
(d) Commercial Revolution 10. A
 ssertion (A): Galileo Galilei was tried by
3. Of the following Popes, who was not the the Church for heresy.
patron of Italian Renaissance? Reason (R): He accepted the views of
(a) Nicholas V (b) Julius II Copernicus’ heliocentric theory.

(c) Pius II (d) Paul III (a) Both A and R are correct. R explains A
4. 
Whose success encouraged overseas (b) Both A and R are correct but R does not
enterprises enormously? explain A
(a) Marco Polo (b) Roger Bacon (c) A is correct but R is wrong
(c) Columbus (d) Bartholomew Diaz (d) A is wrong but R is correct
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11. Which of the following statement/s is/are (c) A is correct but R is wrong
correct? (d) A is wrong but R is correct
Statement I: Italians managed to preserve
the belief that they were 16. 
Which one of the following ships was
descendants of the ancient returned after the death of Magellan?
Vikings.
(a) Santa Maria (b) Pinta
Statement II: 
The hazard of sea voyages
was reduced by the use of (c) Nina (d) Vittoria
firearms and canon. 17. Who conquered Mexico for Spain?
Statement III: 
The eagerness to spread (a) Pedro Cabral (b) Columbus
religion (Christianity) also
(c) Hernan Cortes (d) James Cook
acted as an impetus to the
exploration of new lands. 18. When was the Act of Supremacy passed by
Henry VIII in England ?
Statement IV: 
Ferdinand Magellan sailed
westward and discovered (a) 1519 (b) 1532 (c) 1533 (d) 1534
Brazil 19. A
 ssertion (A): The Black Death weakened
(a) I, II & III (b) II & III the position of the church as it could not
explain the causes for the Black Death.
(c) I & III (d) All are correct
Reason (R): The authority of Pope came to
12. Which one of the following was not the work
be increasingly challenged.
of Leonardo da Vinci?
(a) Virgin of the Rocks (b) Last Supper (a) Both A and R are correct. R explains A

(c) Mona Lisa (d) Madonna and Child (b) Both A and R are correct. R does not
explain A
13. The Cathedral of St. Peters in Rome, built by
the Popes, was fashioned by (c) A is correct but R is wrong

(a) Donatello (b) Raphael (d) A is wrong but R is correct

(c) Leonardo da Vinci (d) Michelangelo 20. 

Who was the ruler of Germany
excommunicated by Gregory VII?
14. Which one of the following is not correctly
matched? (a) Henry VII (b) Henry VIII

(a) Marlowe - Dido (c ) Henry II (d) Henry IV

(b) Shakespeare - King Lear II. Write Short answers
(c) Francis Bacon - Novum Organum
1. How did Erasmus pave the way for
(d) Roger Bacon - Decameron Reformation?
15. A
 ssertion (A): The Turkish conquests and 2. Write about the Medici family in Florence.
the fall of Constantinople provided stimulus 3. What do you know of the Papal Bull of 1493?
to find a sea route to the East. 4. What was the significant outcome of Spanish
Armeda?
Reason (R): As the demands for the products
5. Point out the outcome of Diet of Worms.
from the East increased, the European states
6. What purpose did the Star Chamber serve
wanted to control sea-borne trade.
and why was it called so ?
(a) Both A and R are correct. R explains A 7. Why did feudalism fail in the later stage of the
(b) Both A and R are correct. R does not Middle Ages?
explain A 8. What did the Inquisition do in Spain?
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9. Highlight the work of the Council of Trent. 3. Let students watch the videos on Renaissance
10. Why is Joan of Arc remembered in history? art in You tube.
4. They may also watch some of the films/videos
III. Write brief answers on genocides of Europeans on indigenous
1. Why did Italy become the birthplace of peoples in America.
Renaissance?
2. Highlight the literary accomplishments of REFERENCES
England during the Renaissance.
3. What were the achievements of Italian and „„Peter Burke. The Italian Renaissance.
English explorers? Cambridge: Polity Press, 2010.
4. Bring out the negative outcome of Commercial „„Cameron Euan. Early Modern Europe.
Revolution. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001.
5. Discuss the contribution of Society of Jesus to
the counter-reformation movement in Europe. „„E. H. Gombrich. A Little History of the
6. Write about the voyage of Columbus in 1492. World. London: Yale University Press, 2008.
7. Describe the voyage of Portuguese sailor „„Stephen J.Lee Aspects of European History
Pedro Cabral in India. 1494–1789. London: Routledge, 1978.

IV. Answer the following in detail „„Edward McNall Burns, Western Civilizations,
Vol. 2, New York: W.W. Norton, 1973.
1. Analyse the contributions of Florentines to
Italian Renaissance.
INTERNET RESOURCES
2. Attempt a comprehensive account of the
evolution of England, France and Spain as
„„https://www.history.com/topics/
nation-states.
reformation/martin-luther-and-the-95-
3. Explain the initiatives of Portugal and Spain
theses
in the discovery of new sea routes to the
East and point out why it is considered as an „„http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/
important event in the economic history of entry/John_Calvin
modern world. „„http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/
4. What are the causes of Protestant tudors/english_reformation_01.shtml
Reformation? How did Martin Luther kids.britannica
organise the movement in Germany?
„„http://www.vcsd.k12.ny.us/cms/
V. Activity lib/NY24000141/Centricity/
Domain/941/Impact%20of%20the%20
1. Teachers to discuss with students the meaning
Reformation%202.ppt
and importance of Age of Reason.
2. In an outline world map, mark the routes „„https://www.coreknowledge.org/wp-
Columbus, Vasco da Gama, and Magellan content/uploads/2017/03/CKHG-G5-
passed through. U5-about-the-counter-reformation.pdf

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GLOSSARY

scepticism
doubt about the truth of something, சமய நம்பிக்கையின்மை, எதிலும்
disbelief அவநம்பிக்கையாக இருத்தல்
வெறுப்புத் தருகிற,
irksome irritating, teasing
த�ொந்தரவூட்டுகிற

antagonise act in opposition to, counteract பகைத்துக்கொள்வது,

விர�ோதமூட்டுவது
ப�ோலந்து நாட்டைய�ோ,
relating to Poland or its people or its
polish
language அதன் மக்களைய�ோ, அதன்
ம�ொழியைய�ோ குறிப்பிடுவது
a belief that rejects the orthodox
heresy
tenets of a religion மதங்களுக்கெதிரான க�ொள்கை

the doctrine that holds that the most அறிவனைத்தும் அனுபவத்தால்

empiricism reliable source of knowledge is from பெறப்படுபவையே எனும்
experience or experimentation க�ோட்பாடு
demarcation dividing line வரையறை, எல்லைப் பிரிவினை
retaliate revenge, avenge பதிலடி க�ொடு, பழிவாங்கு

supercede replace, take the place of ஒருவரிடத்தில் மற்றொருவரை

அமர்த்து, தள்ளி வை
producing a sizeable profit, money
lucrative
spinning இலாபகரமான, ஆதாயமளிக்கிற

disavow refuse to acknowledge ஒப்புக்கொள்ள மறு, ப�ொறுப்பைத்

தட்டிக்கழி
confiscation seizure of property பறிமுதல்

schism a division, split (திருச்சபை) உட்பிளவு,

பிரிவினைக் குழு
reconciliation restoring friendly relations சமரசப்படுத்துதல், ஒத்துப்போதல்
faithfully following a party or
adherence
religion பின்பற்றுதல், கடைப்பிடித்தல்
the territorial jurisdiction of a
diocese
bishop மறை மாவட்டம்

religious instruction in question and

catechism
answer form சமயத்துறை வினாவிடை ஏடு

recantation withdrawal of an early assertion திரும்பப்பெறல்

inquisition interrogation, cross-examination நீதி விசாரணை
ecclesiastical associated with church கிறித்தவ திருச்சபை சார்ந்த
turbulent characterised by unrest, troubled க�ொந்தளிப்பான, கிளர்ந்தெழுகிற

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ICT CORNER
Modern World: The Age of Reason

Through this activity you will know

about the thematic, chronological,
and geographical exploration of
world art history.

Step - 1 Open the Browser and type the URL given below (or) Scan the QR Code.

Step - 2 S elect any geographical region (ex. Europe) and select a time period
(ex.1400-1600 A.D)

Step - 3 Scroll down and click to see the gallery of Renaissance art

Step1 Step2 Step3

Web URL: https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/chronology/

*Pictures are indicative only

*If browser requires, allow Flash Player or Java Script to load the page

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UNIT
The Age of Revolutions
11
Learning Objectives
Acquainting ourselves with
„„The causes, course and effects of American War of Independence
„„French Revolution, its causes, course and its impact in Europe and across
the world Q.R.Code
„„Revolution in Latin America
„„The beginning of Industrial revolution in England and later in Germany
and the USA

   Introduction Though Spain and Portugal took the lead in

exploring the new places, establishing trade
At the beginning of the eighteenth century,
centres first and later colonies, it was Britain
political, religious, social and economic
which established colonies all over the world
conditions began to change all over the world,
and successfully controlled them over a long
due to geographical discoveries, the Renaissance,
period of time. Though the English were the
the Reformation and “the age of kings”. By the first to settle in North America, in due course of
time the eighteenth century ended, there were time, the Germans, the Swedes, the French, the
two revolutions: The American Revolution of Italians and the Dutch too went to the America
1775–83 and the French Revolution of 1789–95. and settled there. The colonisation of the
These revolutions dealt a severe blow to the New World absorbed the growing population
monarchical form of government and had a of Europe at a time of rapid economic and
lasting impact on the subsequent history of demographic growth.
humanity. The industrial revolution, beginning
in the eighteenth century, engendered many King James I sent an expedition to Virginia
changes in the lives of the people, heralding a new where a colony was established in 1607 and
era that was marked by the shift from primarily named Jamestown. Then the pilgrims from
agriculture-based economy to industry-based Britain sailed in a ship called Mayflower and
economy. This lesson will help us understand set up a colony at Plymouth in Massachusetts.
the aforesaid events of global importance. Slowly other colonies were established. The
Dutch set up a colony, in 1624, near the
11.1  he American War of
T mouth of the River Hudson and named it New
Amsterdam. Later, the English acquired it from
Independence
the Dutch and renamed it New York. In the early
During the Age of Discovery, adventurous 1700s enslaved Africans made up a growing
seafarers explored the so-called New World and percentage of the colonial population. By 1770,
discovered new trade routes with royal support. more than 2 million people lived and worked
This ensured better connectivity and profits. in Great Britain's 13 North American colonies.
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farmlands. They created mills for cutting timber,

In 1587, Sir Walter Raleigh set up the first ship-building and milling the grains. Iron and
colony at Roanoke Island in North Carolina
textiles were also manufactured. The harbours
and named it Virginia after the Virgin
promoted sea-borne trade.
Queen Elizabeth I. However, due to the stiff
resistance put up by the native Indians some THE THIRTEEN AMERICAN COLONIES
N
W E
of the early settlers returned to England. The S

Roanoke Island became a lost colony as there

was no trace of it when the British sailors
reached the island some years later.

Hampshire
New

etts
s
achu
k
Yor
New

Mass
Pennsylvania Rhode Island
Connecticut
New Jersey
Virginia Delaware
Mary Land

Mayflower ship
North Carolina
Life in the Thirteen Colonies
A T L A N T I C
The colonies varied much in character South Carolina
O C E A N
and the manner in which they had been
acquired. They were divided into south and Georgia

north. In the southern part, endowed with

fertile land, agriculture was the primary means
of subsistence. The slaves brought from Africa
Not to Scale
worked in the farm-lands which mainly grew
cotton, wheat and tobacco. The Northern states,
on the other hand, were devoid of agricultural Fed up with the unsettled living conditions
in Europe, people came to live in these colonies
The transatlantic slave trade is a blot in the mainly to lead a free life. They also wanted to
history of humanity. The Portuguese began experience religious freedom and to practice
the African slave trade at the opening of the religion of their choice (for example the
seventeenth century. The other nations of Puritans).The colonies were ruled by the British
Christian Europe followed immediately. The representatives called Governors appointed by
first slaves to be brought to America came in the British monarch. The Governors had an
a Dutch ship in 1619. The first English man assembly similar to a parliament. Women had
who realised that lots of money could be made no voting rights. Among the men, those who
by seizing “unsuspecting negroes” in Africa
paid taxes and owned land alone could vote.
and selling them to work on plantations in
Initially they built a cordial relationship with
the New World (America) was John Hawkins.
the indigenous people of America, known as
He was knighted by Queen Elizabeth for
American Indians and Native Americans. (They
“his prosperous success and much gain.” It is
estimated that more than 11 million Africans were then referred to pejoratively as ‘Red Indians’)
reached the Americas as slaves. However, in due course of time, they were
dispossessed of their land or liquidated.
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which mandated that colonial

produce should be exported
only in British ships. There
were also laws restricting or Q.R.Code
prohibiting the manufacture
of certain articles in the
colonies, such as cloth.
The Seven Years War (1756–63)
The revolt of colonies against England was
a direct consequence of England’s intervention
European encounters with natives
in the Seven Years’ War. During the War the
colonial assemblies did not co-operate with the
By the time Christopher Columbus reached
mother country in the way expected of them.
the Caribbean in 1492, there were 10 million
They voted inadequate supplies and resisted
indigenous people living in U.S. territory.
the moves of England to impose certain duties
But by 1900, the number had reduced to less
on articles used by the Americans. The English
than 300,000. Spreading disease was one of
the strategies adopted by the Europeans to conquest of Canada and removal of all danger
exterminate the native population. In 1763, a from the French made the British government
serious uprising threatened British garrisons to feel secure. This in turn made the colonies
in Pennsylvania. Worried about limited jittery and less disposed than ever to submit to
resources, and provoked by the violence of the dictates of England.
some Native Americans, Sir Jeffrey Amherst,
Taxes on Colonies
commander-in-chief of British forces in
North America, wrote to Colonel Henry Taxes on Sugar and Molasses
Bouquet at Fort Pitt, Pennsylvania:“You will In order to solve the financial crisis arising
do well to try to inoculate the Indians [with out of constant wars with other European
smallpox] by means of blankets, as well as powers, the British imposed new taxes on the
to try every other method, that can serve to colonies. The first tax imposed was on sugar
extirpate this execrable race.” Consequently, and molasses, a by-product of sugar, in 1764.
small pox was spread to the Native Americans All the colonies in North America were forced
by distributing blankets previously used by to pay this tax and the settlers protested against
infected patients. Colonists in search of gold this by raising the slogan ‘no taxation without
(1848) staged violent ambushes on tribal representation’.
villages. Several wars broke out between tribes
Stamp Act
and American settlers which led to large scale
deaths, land dispossession, oppression and In 1765, a new tax was introduced on the
blatant racism. stamps. The settlers were forced to use stamps on
all legal documents and pay the tax for the use of
stamps. The settlers refused to buy them and the
The American War of British traders forced the colonial government
Independence : Causes to repeal the act.
Colonial Governance: Navigation Acts Townshend Act
England considered the colonies as parts Though the Stamp Act was abolished in
of its country and governed them for their own 1766, in the very next year, an Act was passed that
benefit neglecting the interests of the colonies. imposed taxes on certain goods imported from
England passed laws known as Navigation Acts, Britain. Townshend, who was the Chancellor of
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Exchequer in Britain, brought this act into force in another colony or in England. The fourth
and hence came to be called Townshend Act. intolerable Act, a replica of the Quartering Act,
Boston Massacre which was abolished, permitted the requisition of
unoccupied buildings to house British troops. The
In 1770, Lord North, the new prime
Intolerable Acts (1774), also known as Coercive
minister of England, abolished taxes on
Acts, evoked a wave of outrage in colonies.
products except tea. This was retained to assert
that the British Parliament had a right to tax the Quebec Act
colonies directly as well as indirectly. When the The Quebec Act passed by the British
British forces marched on the streets of Boston, government in 1774 awarded the territory
Americans criticised the British. This angered between the Ohio and Mississippi rivers to the
the British forces who fired against the people. province of Quebec. The colonial governments
This Boston Massacre brought to light the of New York, Pennsylvania and Virginia were
aggressive and autocratic nature of the British angered by the unilateral assignment of the
government. Ohio lands to Quebec, which had been granted
Boston Tea Party (1773) to them in their royal charters. By permitting
French Civil Law and the Roman Catholic
In the wake of the Boston Massacre, around
religion in the newly carved out area, Britain
100 activists dressed like Native Americans,
also provoked the protestant colonies.
boarded the three ships carrying tea and threw
342 boxes into sea at Boston. This incident came The Intolerable Acts of 1774 became the
to be called the Boston Tea Party. justification for convening the First Continental
The British Parliament retaliated with Congress at Philadelphia. The representatives
severity. General Gage was appointed Governor of all the colonies, except that of Georgia,
of Massachusetts and troops were dispatched demanded the repeal of the Intolerable Acts.
with instructions to bring the colony to heel. The Congress decided to boycott the British
goods until then. They sent a representation
with an olive branch (peace proposal) to the
British King George III. This was known as
the Olive Branch Petition. The king however
refused to buy peace.

Outbreak of War
In the meantime,
in 1775, at Lexington
in Massachusetts,
the farmers fought
Boston Tea Party
the British and then
Intolerable Acts (1774) marched on Boston
Angered by the Boston Tea Party, the British to besiege the British
parliament passed the Boston Port Bill. The Boston garrison at Bunker Hill.
harbour was closed until the colonists paid for all On 4 July 1776, all the Thomas Jefferson
the tea thrown into sea. Then the Parliament passed thirteen colonies declared
the Massachusetts Government Act, replacing the independence from Britain. The declaration
elective local council, and enhancing the powers of independence was essentially the work of
of the military governor Gage. The third measure, Thomas Jefferson which marked the beginning
the Administration of Justice Act allowed British of the history of an independent country called
officials charged with capital offenses to be tried the United States of America.

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The French, followed by the Spanish and

The Declaration of Independence (1776) the Dutch, helped the American colonies in this
It was Richard Lee who proposed that the war of independence. France lent support to
colonies should be independent states. A the Americans as vengeance against the loss of
draft committee was formed to draft the Canada. The French volunteers who crossed the
declaration of independence whose members Atlantic to fight for the colonists returned with
included Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin ideas of individual liberty which made them
Franklin, and John Adams. intolerant of the restrictions of the Bourbon
monarchy.
The British army was led by William
Howe while the American forces were led by
Thomas (Tom) Paine and Common Sense
George Washington. Though in the initial
phases Howe made a few successful attempts Thomas Paine, an Englishman, wrote the
by defeating Washington at Brooklyn, New pamphlet titled Common Sense (1776). In this
York and New Jersey, Washington, through his pamphlet Paine sought to provide arguments
planned military tactics inflicted defeat on the to justify the demands of the colonists. He
British army. In 1777, at the Battle of Saratoga, picked up libertarian ideas from Hobbes,
the British General Burgoyne was forced to Locke, Voltaire and Rousseau and presented
surrender. Finally, the British forces surrendered them in ways the common people could
to the American forces in 1781 at York Town. understand. The pamphlet sold over 150,000
With this victory the northern colonies became copies and had an astounding impact of
free. However, Howe retained New York almost people.
till the end of the war.
Many of the wealthy merchants and large
landowners remained loyal to the British
monarchy and influenced a large section of
the population especially in New York and
Pennsylvania. The colonists split into two
divisions: the Patriots who wanted freedom and
the Loyalists who wanted to remain loyal to
the British crown. The Loyalists, called Tories,
wanted the British to rule as they belonged to
the Anglican Church. So a civil war in the midst
of the revolution became inevitable.

American war of independence Treaty of Paris

In 1783, the British
Solidarity of European Powers with
Parliament decided
Colonists that it was pointless to
During the American war of independence, carry on the war. Lord
the European powers that were not on friendly North resigned as Prime
terms with the British decided to support the Minister. King George
American colonies. The countries in Northern lost control over the
Europe including Prussia, Sweden and Denmark House of Commons. The
George
formed the ‘Armed neutrality’ against Great new Prime Minister Lord
Washington
Britain. Britain was in turmoil as it had to face Rockingham started the
hostility from its enemies as well as neutral peace talks. A peace treaty was signed between
powers. the Great Britain and America in 1783 at Paris.

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„„The American Revolution was a setback

for colonialism. The demand of the
colonies for independence against their
colonial masters became widespread in
many parts of the world.
„„It paved the way for a free society where
every individual was given the freedom
of speech, freedom of religion and equal
opportunities.

Signing of Treaty of Paris 11.2  The French Revolution

George Washington (1732–1799) became the In the 18th century, Europe was ruled by
first president of the United States of America. monarchs of various dynasties, and they wielded
One of the founding fathers of America, he absolute powers. Along with the nobility and
played a significant role in the American clergy they enjoyed hereditary privileges. In
Revolution first as a military officer and later as France the clergy and nobility did not pay taxes
an astute politician. like the common people. It was in this context
that the French Revolution occurred and stood
Important Provisions of the Treaty for liberty, equality, and fraternity.
„„Britain recognised the freedom of 13
France in Eighteenth Century
colonies and the formation of a new country
called the United States of America. The political and
social system of France
„„The area bordered by Mississippi River on
prior to the French
the west and the 31st parallel in the south
Revolution was called
went to USA.
ancien regime, meaning
„„France gained certain British territories old order. Under the
in West Indies, India and Africa. regime, everyone was a
„„Spain obtained Florida from Great Britain member of an estate. All
Louis XVI and
rights and status flowed
„„Holland and England maintained the Marie Antoinette
from three orders namely
status quo that prevailed before the war.
clergy, nobility and others, belonging to the
Significance of American Revolution Third Estate. France was ruled by Louis XVI,
a young king of the Bourbon dynasty. He was
„„The American Revolution opened up married to Mary Antoinette, the princess of
many avenues in the history of the world. Austria. The king had absolute power and he led
„„The concepts of democracy and republic a lavish lifestyle. The government taxed the poor
became widespread. and not the rich.
„„The political and social changes were on On 14 July 1789, the Paris mob, hungry due
the lines of democracy and equality. to a lack of food from poor harvests, upset at
the conditions of their lives and annoyed with
„„USA became a land of opportunities and
their king and government, stormed the Bastille
freedom for all settlers.
fortress (a prison). The storming of the Bastille
„„Education gained prominence. symbolised the beginning of a new age in the
„„The principle of federalism became history of the world. There were many reasons
widespread. for the outbreak of this revolution.

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have a voice in government. So the bourgeoisie

took the lead and were instrumental in
bringing about the French Revolution.

The Bourgeoisie comprised the educated

middle class. Writers, doctors, teachers,
lawyers, judges, and civil servants formed
this class.

Storming of Bastille Prison

Financial Bankruptcy
Conditions of Peasantry
France was in constant war with
The peasantry made up the bulk of neighbouring British Empire that proved to
French society. The peasants were serfs. They be too costly for the exchequer. It had spent
had to work certain days in the week for their enormous sums on the Seven Years’ War with
lords without any remuneration. They could Britain and Prussia, and more again during
not marry or dispose of their lands without the American war with Britain. The valuable
the lord’s permission. Lords claimed certain assistance which the French gave to the
feudal dues such as the right to levy fees even American colonists was such as it could not
for using ovens to bake bread, and a toll on really afford. The government had to pay high
sheep and cattle possessed by the peasants. interests on the loan. In order to settles the
It has been estimated that the peasant paid dues, the government imposed more taxes on
eighty percent of his earnings to various tax the common people. The nobles and higher
collectors. Carlyle wrote that ‘one third of clergy hesitated to come forward and save the
them had nothing but third-rate potatoes to state by voluntarily giving up their claims to
eat for one-third of the year.’ exemption from taxes. Matters were further
complicated by the extravagance of the court
Three Estates
and the incompetence of the Louis XVI.
French society had three main divisions
or estates: Clergy (the priestly class), Nobility Role of Intellectuals
(the landed and aristocratic class), and the
rest, the commoners, formed the unprivileged Long before the revolution of 1789 there
class. The clergy and the nobility enjoyed was a revolution in the realm of ideas. Public
special privileges and they were exempted intellectuals (who were called philosophes in
from various taxes imposed by the monarchy. the French language) who were inspired by
Out of the three divisions, only the third the Enlightenment ideal of applying reason
estate bore the brunt of taxation, as other two to all spheres of knowledge played a key role
estates were exempted from tax payment due in preparing the soil for the outbreak of the
to the special privileges. The important taxes French Revolution. The writings of Voltaire
were tithe, a tax exclusively collected by the and Rousseau acted as an impetus to the
church on the laity, Taille, a tax paid by the revolution. Montesquieu (1689–1755), in his
peasants, gabelle salt tax, and tax on tobacco. The Spirit of Laws, argued for the division of
power among the legislative, executive and
The peasants could not fight feudal judiciary and opposed the concentration
regulations on their own. They looked for of power in a single hand. Voltaire (1694–
outside help and leadership. The rising 1778), in his The Age of Louis XIV, opposed
bourgeoisie wanted their political power to the religious superstitions of the French
match their economic status. They wanted to and criticised the French administration
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under the rule of the monarchs. Rousseau Tennis Court Oath

(1712–1778), in his Social Contract, argued
that the relationship between the rulers and
ruled should be bound by a contract. If the
ruler ruled the country in a just manner,
he would be respected by his subjects. If he
ruled in an unjust manner, in violation of the
contract, he should be punished. The English
philosopher, John Locke, in ‘Two Treatises of
Government’, opposed the divine right and Mirabeau Abbe Sieyes
absolute monarchy. These ideas were also
When this demand by the third estate
expressed in the writings of Diderot and the
was not accepted, the representatives formed
Encyclopaedists.
the National Assembly on 17 June 1789. Then
they left the Estates General and assembled at
Rousseau is known for his famous beginning the tennis court on 20 June 1789. They took
lines of The Social Contract, 'Man is born free the ‘tennis court oath’ by which they wanted to
but everywhere he is in chains'. limit the power of the monarch and introduce
a new constitution. In this protest, they were
led by a noble named Mirabeau and a clergy,
Abbé Sieyès.

Rousseau Voltaire Montesquieu

The French Revolution

The Beginning
The French Revolution began with the
meeting of the Estates-General in May 1789.
Tennis Court Oath
The summoning of the Estates-General
became necessary because of the financial The Storming of the Bastille
problems faced by the government. The first When the representatives of the third
two estates, namely, the clergy and nobility estate were busy with the formation of the
had sent 300 representatives each to the national assembly, the common people were
meeting held at the palace of Versailles, suffering due to the high price of essential
while the 600 delegates of the third estate, commodities, even as the rich merchants
mainly the business people and educated started hoarding the grains. The agitated
members, were made to stand behind them. women started storming into the market area.
The question that was taken up at the Estates Seeing the unrest, the king ordered the army
General was how they would vote. According to move into the streets of Paris. Angered by
to the norm each estate had one vote and this move, the people stormed the Bastille,
Louis XVI wanted the same arrangement to the great prison of the city of Paris, and after
continue. However, the third estate wanted destroying the fort released the prisoners on
one vote for each member. 14 July 1789.

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in those cases established by the law (clause 7);

14 July is still celebrated as Bastille Day or the and insisted that taxation could only be raised by
French National Day in France. common consent (clause 14). Thomas Jefferson’s
influence is clearly discernible in clause 1, which
National Assembly declares that, ‘Men are born and remain free and
The fall of Bastille emboldened the National equal in rights’.
Assembly to abolish feudalism in the country. Women played a significant role in the
Shaken by the turn of events, the king also French revolution. Women from the poorer
accepted the formation of a national assembly. areas of Paris marched on Versailles supported
The Church was asked to forego its privileges and by 20,000 armed men. They broke into the palace
abolish the tithe. In 1791, the National Assembly and forced the king to return with them to Paris,
drafted the constitution by which the powers of where he was kept under public surveillance.
the king were limited. It also proposed to have Many women were politically active. Olympe de
three different organs: executive, legislative Gouges was dissatisfied with the Declaration of
and judiciary. The members of the National Rights of Man and of the Citizen, as it excluded
Assembly were indirectly elected by a group of women. She wrote the Declaration of the Rights
electors. The electors were voted by the male of Woman and of the Citizen, arguing for
citizens, who were above 25 years of age and equality for women.
who paid taxes. Thus the majority of the citizens
did not get voting rights.

Constitution Making
The National Constituent Assembly
prepared the constitution. On 26 August 1789 the
Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen
was adopted. It subordinated the monarchy
to the rule of law and defined individual and
collective rights. It maintained that no person
shall be accused, arrested or imprisoned except
Women’s March on Versailles
The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of War against Austria and Prussia
the Citizen has a preamble and 17 articles.
While the king agreed to the constitutional
The first article contains the statement: “Men
monarchy on one hand, on the other he was
are born and remain free and equal in rights.”
secretly appealing for help from Austria and
The purpose of “political association,” as the
Prussia. The neighbouring kingdoms were
Declaration states, should be the preservation
watching the developments in France with
of these rights, detailed as liberty, security to
concern. They feared that the rise of common
property, and resistance to oppression. It also
people might bring to an end the rule of
declares that both sovereignty and law should
come from the “general will.” It protects monarchs and so they sent their troops to
the freedom of speech and of religion and France to contain the revolution. Meanwhile
insists on equal treatment before the law. It the National Assembly declared war against
also asserts that taxes should be paid by all Austria and Prussia. On hearing this, people
citizens in accordance with their means. The from various parts of France united to fight the
Declaration served as the preamble to the foreign forces. A group of people from the place
Constitution of 1791. of Marseilles proceeded to Paris by singing the
Marseillaise song.

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Girondins and Jacobins

A song for French troops from Marseilles
Lafayette’s constitutional monarchy
composed (1792) by Roget de Lisle came
dominated the political scene for two years. An
to be called La Marseillaise. By a degree
attempt by the king to flee Paris in June 1791 to
enacted on 14 July 1795, it was declared the
join counter-revolutionary armies congregating
national anthem of France
across the border was thwarted by the local
militia. Yet food shortages, price rises and
Formation of Clubs unemployment drove the artisans and traders
as well as the labourers to the point of despair.
The common people continued to suffer
Repression could not stop rising popular upsurge.
even after the formation of the National
The moderates who ran the government fell out
Assembly. Majority of the people saw the
among themselves. Within the Jacobin Club a
assembly as a place for rich persons as
group called the Girondins, also known as the
commoners were excluded from voting. The
Brissotins (after one of their leaders, Brissot),
new armed power in Paris was in the hands of a
were less radical than Robespierre and Danton.
National Guard recruited from the middle class.
Though there were differences of opinion among
Lafayette, who acted as an official French adviser
themselves, all of them excepting Robespierre,
in the American War of Independence, was its
believed that a war against the foreign powers
chief. There was a general feeling of liberation
would help. Robespierre, however, argued that
and exaltation when the king, ex-aristocrats, the
war would open the door to counter-revolution.
middle classes and the Parisian masses jointly
But he could not stop the Girondins from
commemorated the first anniversary of the fall
agreeing with the king to form a government
of the Bastille as a great festival. But this sense
and then declaring war on Austria and Prussia
of unity did not last long. Dissatisfied people
in April 1792.
started forming political clubs to discuss the
problems they faced. One such club which National Convention
attained popularity was the Jacobin Club in
The plan of Girondins turned out to be a
Paris. The members were from poor sections
disaster. The enraged members of the Jacobin
of the society – small scale business people,
Club stormed into the palace of Tuileries, the
artisans, servants and wage labourers. Their
official residence of Louis XVI, and ransacked
leader was Maximilian Robespierre. A majority
it. They killed the guards and took the king as
of the members of the Jacobin club wore long-
prisoner. A new assembly called Convention
striped trousers as against the trousers with
voted that the king should be imprisoned and
knee breeches usually worn by the noble class.
a new election conducted to elect a leader for
In order to differentiate from them, they called
the country. In this election, every one above
themselves ‘the people without knee breaches’
the age of 21 got the right to vote, without any
(sans-culottes). Another lawyer Danton
distinction in wealth, and status.
dominated the Cordelier Club.
September Massacres
After the overthrow of the monarchy, the
people believed that political prisoners in the
jails were planning to join a plot of the counter-
revolutionaries. So the mob descended on the
prisons and summarily executed those they believed
to be royalists. Commencing on 2 September
1792, at Abbaye prison in Paris, it continued in
Lafayette Robespierre Danton the next four days in other prisons of the city.

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In all about 1,200 prisoners were killed in what Rule of Jacobins

came to be known as the September Massacres. Robespierre did not want to lose the gains
The September Massacres were publicised abroad made in the previous four years and hence
as proof of the horrors of revolution. The Girondins commenced his dictatorial rule. The Jacobins
blamed their more radical enemies, especially sent Girondin leaders to the guillotine, a
Marat, Danton and Robespierre. beheading machine. Danton was beheaded.
The period between 1793 and 1794 was also
Work of the National Convention
a time of radical reforms. On 4 February 1794
On 20 September 1792 the revolutionary the Jacobin-dominated Convention decreed
army halted the invading forces at Valmy. the abolition of slavery in all French Lands.
The next day the new Convention abolished Robespierre imposed a maximum ceiling on the
monarchy and declared France a republic. wages of the people. Food items such as bread
King Louis XVI was brought before the and meat were rationed. Prices were fixed by
People’s tribunal and executed by guillotine on the government for farm produces. The use of
21 January 1793. The offence he committed was Sir and Madam was replaced by the use of the
his appeal to foreigners for help against his own words male citizen and female citizen. Religious
people. Soon afterwards Marie Antoinette was places such as churches were converted into
beheaded. army barracks. Angered over the radicalisation
of the government and at the base of society, his
own party members turned against Robespierre.
He was convicted and finally executed in 1794.

Dr Joseph-Ignace Guillotin was a French

physician, who in an article wrote about a
machine to quickly execute the convicts.
Though he did not invent such a machine,
it was named after him. The invention is
attributed to Antoine Louis.

The Directory
Execution of Louis XVI
The allies who had overthrown Robespierre
Against a background of growing hunger did not stay long in power. Those who hated
in the towns and countryside alike, there the revolution began to take over the streets
were demands from the Parisians to control of Paris, attacking anyone who tried to defend
prices, to maintain grain supplies to feed the revolutionary ideals. There were two risings
people and to take action against hoarders in April and May 1795. But they were crushed
and speculators. Instead of initiating steps to by forces loyal to the new political group called
meet the just demands of the Parisian masses, Thermidorians. Emigres began to return to the
the Convention used the army to attack the country and boast that the monarchy would be
agitating masses. The army suffered a series of restored soon.
defeats as its commander deserted to the enemy.
Emigres: Persons who leave their own
Disillusioned peasants in the Vendee region in
country in order to settle in another for
the west of France joined a monarchist rising. political reasons. In the present context, the
Finally moderates and royalists (29 May 1793) nobles who fled France in the years following
together seized control of Lyons, where silk the French Revolution came to be called
industry was thriving and wealthy merchants émigrés.
from Germany and Italy had settled.
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In October 1795 the royalists staged a rising judiciary became prominent, and kept
of their own in Paris. The army led by a rising a check and balance on each other. It
officer and one-time Jacobin named Napoleon removed the concentration of power
Bonaparte came to their assistance. Fearful under a single authority.
of bloodshed, the Thermidorians agreed to
concentrate power in the hands of a Directory „„All over Europe, the French Revolution
of five men. In four years, under one pretext gave the hope to the people to end the
or another, Napoleon gained power. In 1799 despotic rule and establish an egalitarian
Napoleon staged a coup which in effect gave society
him dictatorial power. In 1804 Napoleon made
the Pope crown him as the Emperor of France. 11.3  Revolution in Latin
The French revolutionaries may have been America
defeated, but much of the revolution’s heritage The regions of Latin America were
survived to shape the modern world. conquered by the Spanish in the sixteenth
century. The Portuguese and the French also
Impact of French Revolution
had their presence there. The political power
„„The French revolution created a deep of the South American cultures such as the
impact, not only in France but also all Incas and the Aztecs was destroyed by these
over Europe, and even inspired anti- colonial powers. The colonizers (conquistadores)
colonial intellectuals and movements brought to an end the local religious beliefs and
across the world in the nineteenth and introduced Catholic religion. The colonial rule
early twentieth centuries. in Latin America was brutal and was marked
by widespread genocide and decimation of the
„„The French revolution brought to an end
indigenous population. The native people were
the rule of Louis XVI in France.
made to work as slave labourers in the farm
„„It reduced social inequality. The privileges lands as well as the mines of the colonial masters
given to certain sections of the society who exported goods such as sugar, coffee, gold
based on birth were curtailed. and silver to European nations.

„„It introduced a republican form of

government with electoral rights.
„„The feudal system was abolished
„„Slavery was abolished though it took
some more years for the total abolition of
slavery
„„The Church lost it supremacy and it
became subordinate to the state. Freedom
of faith and religious tolerance had come
to stay.
„„The Declaration of Rights of Man and
Atrocities of Conquistadores
Citizens brought to light the importance
of personal and collective rights. Latin America today consists of many
nations such as Mexico, Brazil, Argentina, Peru,
„„The three organs of the government,
Chile, Venezuela, and Caribbean countries in
namely, the legislative, executive and
Central and South America.
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LATIN AMERICAN COUNTRIES owned slaves. But Haiti’s

N
M
EX W E European population
IC CENTRAL
O AMERICA
disregarded the law.
S

VENEZUELA NA E
YA AM
IN

COLOMBIA
GU R
SU FRENCH
GUYANA ATLANTIC Within two months
OCEAN
isolated fighting broke
ECUADOR
out between European
whites and mulattoes.
BRAZIL
PERU All of them expected the Vincent Ogé
BOLIVIA black slaves to continue
PA
R
working, suffering and dying as if nothing had
PACIFIC AG

changed. But they took them by surprise when

LE

UA
OCEAN Y
CHI

in August thousands of slaves rose in rebellion.

ARGENTINA
URUGUAY
The European whites attempted to appease
ATLANTIC
OCEAN
the mulattoes to quell the slave revolt. The
French National Assembly granted citizenship
to all mulattoes in April 1792. The country
was torn by rival factions, some of which were
Not to Scale playing into the hands of Spanish colonists
in Santo Domingo or of British troops from
Jamaica. In 1793, a commissioner, Léger-
The Haitian Revolution Félicité Sonthonax, was sent from France to
Haiti, earlier known as Saint-Domingue maintain order. He offered freedom to slaves
(as the French called their colony) was the who joined his army. He soon abolished slavery
richest French colony (1659–1804) in the altogether, a decision ratified subsequently by
Caribbean Sea. Its plantations produced more the French government.
sugar than all of Europe’s other Caribbean and
In the late 1790s,
American colonies put together. The island’s
Toussaint L’Ouverture,
indigenous population, forced to mine for
a military leader and
gold, was devastated by European diseases
former slave, gained
and brutal working conditions, and by the
end of the sixteenth century it had virtually control of several
vanished. Landowners in western Hispaniola areas. Napoleon sent a
imported increasing numbers of African slaves. fleet of 12,000 troops
By 1789, the estimated 556,000 population of to seize control of
Saint-Domingue from Toussaint
Saint-Domingue included 500,000 African
L’Ouverture
slaves, 32,000 European colonists (whites), Toussaint L’Ouverture’s
and 24,000 free affranchis or mulattoes (black- forces. The war which followed was prolonged
people of mixed African and European descent). and bloody. At one point the French army
News of the storming of the Bastille seemed to have won after Toussaint was misled
was followed by armed defiance of the royal into believing in the possibility of conciliating
governor. Vincent Ogé, a mulatto, who had with the enemy. But he was kidnapped and
lobbied with the Parisian assembly for colonial killed. His former lieutenant Dessalines rose
reforms, led an uprising in late 1790 but was to the occasion and organised black resistance.
captured and executed. In May 1791 the French He defeated Napoleon’s army. Saint Domingue
revolutionary government granted citizenship became the independent black state of Haiti
to the wealthier mulattoes who had even in 1804.
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Venezuela and New Granada in that year re-conquered Venezuela and most
(now Columbia) of New Granada. Yet another invasion led by
Inspired by the Haitian revolution, slaves Bolívar in 1816 failed.
in Venezuela rose in rebellion in the 1790s. The following year (1817) a larger and
Creoles (persons of mixed European and black revitalised independence movement emerged,
descent) wanted an expansion of the free trade winning the struggle in the north and taking
that was benefiting their plantation economy. it into the Andean highlands. Bolivar emerged
At the same time, however, they feared that the as a strong military and political force after the
removal of Spanish control might bring about a struggles. At this point a group of llaneros (cow
revolution that would destroy their own power. boys) of mixed ethnicity led by Jose Antonia
Therefore, they formed the strong loyalist Paez joined the struggle and contributed
faction in the Viceroyalty of New Granada. decisively to the patriots’ military victories in
In 1808 Napoleon had made his brother 1818–19. After leading his army up the face
Joseph the king of Spain after the abdication of of the eastern Andes, Bolívar dealt a crushing
the weak king Charles IV in favour of his son defeat to his enemies in the Battle of Boyaca.
Ferdinand. Napoleon had them both
imprisoned. With Charles and Ferdinand
removed from the scene, the Empire was
without a stable government for six years. The
political crisis in Spain provided the opportunity
for the assertion of its colonies. Soon the rebels
as patriots organised revolutionary
governments that introduced some social and
economic reforms in 1810.
In Venezuela the
patriots led by Simon
Bolivar openly declared Battle of Boyaca
a break with Spain Consolidating victory in the north proved
the following year. difficult. A congress that Bolívar convened in
The earthquake that Angostura in 1819 named Bolivar as president
wreaked particular of Gran Colombia, a union of what are today
destruction in patriot- Venezuela, Colombia, Panama, and Ecuador.
held areas in 1812 Simon Bolivar
But the sharp divisions prevailing in the region
provided the pretext for ultimately dashed Bolívar’s hopes of uniting
loyalist forces to crush the patriots’ army, and the former Spanish colonies into a single new
drive Bolivar and others to seek refuge in New nation as United States of Latin America.
Granada (the heart of the viceroyalty). Furthermore, loyalist supporters still held
Bolívar soon returned to Venezuela with a much of Venezuela, parts of the Colombian
new army in 1813 and waged a campaign with Andes, and all of Ecuador. Conditions became
the army’s motto, “Guerra a muerte” (“War to favourable in 1820 troops waiting in Cádiz to be
the death”). The army led by loyalist Jose Tomas sent as part of the crown’s military campaigns
Boves again succeeded in driving Bolívar out revolted. Eventually New Granada and
of his home country. By 1815 independence Venezuela were liberated in 1821. A congress
movements in Venezuela and almost all across held that year in Cúcuta, a Columbian city,
Spanish South America seemed dead. A large chose Bolívar president of a now much more
military expedition sent by Ferdinand VII centralised Gran Colombia.

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Simon Bolivar: Bolivar belonged to an old

aristocratic Creole family in Caracas. He was
of fundamental importance to the movement
as an ideologue and military leader. In his
most famous “Jamaica Letter” (written
during one of his periods of exile, 1815),
Bolívar affirmed his undying faith in the
cause of independence, even in the face of the Miguel Hidalgo Jose Maria Morelos
patriots’ repeated defeats. While critiquing
against the army of Spain and Creoles. However,
Spanish colonialism, Bolívar held the view
he was defeated and killed in 1811. Later the
that the only path for the former colonies
movement was led by Jose Maria Morelos, who
was the establishment of an autonomous and
declared independence from Spain in 1813. He
centralised republican government. The type
was also defeated in 1815.
of republic that he eventually espoused was
The Creoles or the wealthy merchants were
very much an oligarchic one. He believed
watching the developments in Spain where a
that a virtuous governing system would
movement to overthrow monarchy and to make
not be possible if the nation was divided by
a new constitution was afoot. Thinking that this
ethnicity. Bolivar was an inspiring figure to
might reduce the power of the Creoles, they
left-wing and emancipatory movements in
declared independence in 1821. It is interesting
Latin America even in the latter half of the
to note that the person who led the movement
twentieth century.
was the same officer who defeated the army
of Maria Morelos. He declared himself as the
Mexican Revolution emperor whose ruthless rule was overthrown
The independence of Mexico came late. finally. In 1824 Mexico declared itself as a
Mexico had a powerful segment of Creoles and republic.
Peninsulars, who were the colonial masters born
in Spain or Portugal. For many of the powerful in Independence of Brazil
Mexican society, a break with Spain meant a loss Brazil was a colony
of traditional status and power. Between 1808 of Portugal. When
and 1810, Peninsulars had acted aggressively to Napoleon invaded
preserve Spain’s power in the region. Rejecting Portugal in 1808, the
the notion of a congress that would address the Portuguese emperor
question of governance in the absence of the Dam Joao (John VI)
Spanish king, leading Peninsulars in Mexico City fled to Brazil. He
deposed the viceroy and persecuted Creoles. had developed the
They then welcomed weaker viceroys whom they colony in all aspects Dom Pedro
knew they could dominate. Peninsulars’ efforts by introducing land
could not, however, prevent the emergence of an reforms and establishing military, medical and
independence struggle. art schools. Even after the defeat of Napoleon,
The revolution in Mexico was led by a the Portuguese ruler continued to stay in Brazil.
catholic priest, Miguel Hidalgo. He supported But when his power was challenged he decided
the poor people of Mexico and sympathised with to go to Portugal leaving the colony of Brazil in
the poor living conditions of Native Americans. the hands of his son Dom Pedro.
His emotional speeches at the Church of The reliance of the Brazilian upper classes
Dolores called for independent Mexico. He led on African slavery favoured their continued
a revolutionary army consisting of Mestizos ties with Portugal. Plantation owners depended

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on the African slave trade, which Portugal Mexico was invaded by the US and France, in
controlled. The size of the slave population the course of the nineteenth century, Britain
– approximately half the total of Brazilian continued to exercise its dominating influence
population in 1800 – also meant that Creoles over countries like Argentina and Chile for a
shied away from political initiatives that might long time to come. In each Latin American
mean a loss of control over their social inferiors. country oligarchic cliques ran rival Liberal and
Therefore, the Portuguese authorities at home Conservative parties and preserved unequal
put an end to the reforms undertaken by Joao social structure characterised by extreme
in Brazil. They wanted Dom Pedro to return privilege to great landowners and grinding
to Portugal. However, Pedro declared Brazil’s poverty to the underprivileged.
independence and decided to stay on. In 1822, In the twentieth century, especially after
Brazil obtained independence from Portugal World War II, South America was a troubled
and it became the only constitutional monarchy continent as USA sought to control it by pliant
in South America with Pedro I becoming its dictatorial governments (often referred to as
first emperor. banana republics).
Other Revolts
11.4  Industrial Revolution
The liberator of
Argentina, San Martin In the aftermath of the French Revolution,
joined the Chilean when Napoleon was holding the entire Europe
liberator Bernardo to ransom, another revolution which was
O’Higgins and both destined to affect the history of mankind was
were able to get taking place in England. This was the Industrial
independence for Chile Revolution. Industrial Revolution refers to the
in 1818 followed by Peru adoption of a system of producing commodities
San Martin
in 1820. Bolivar and San on a large scale in huge factories. This was
Martin met at the port in Ecuador, Guayaquil, opposed to the old system of making goods in
to discuss the future course of actions in the cottages or workshops by the artisans.
Latin America and for a probable unification. The first phase of the Revolution was the
While San Martin wanted European form of appearance of certain important inventions
government with constitutional monarchy in which revolutionised the cotton industry. The
the colonies, Bolivar wanted republican form use of steam helped to abandon the old method
of government. Though they could not reach of smelting iron by means of charcoal. The
any agreement, San Martin retired and allowed coal and iron industries made rapid progress.
Bolivar to take full command. Bolivar could get Then the means of communication made great
independence for all South American colonies strides. Locomotive, the first passenger railway
by 1826. (1830), steam boat and use of electric telegraph
After the independence of all the colonies, (1835) came into existence. In a period of
Bolivar tried to unite all Latin American about a hundred years England was thoroughly
countries under one nation called Gran transformed.
Colombia. However, the rugged geographical
The second Industrial Revolution (between
features with mountains and forests along with
1870 and 1914) witnessed new innovations in
power struggles could not make it a reality.
steel production, petroleum and electricity.
Though most of the Latin American countries
The whole of Europe and North America
declared themselves as republics and were free
began to feel the impact of the first Industrial
from Spanish rule, they were still dependent Revolution during this period.
to a greater extent on foreign powers. While
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Main Features (e) Compared to other European countries,

The essential feature of Industrial Revolution Britain was more liberal. Political stability
was application of science to industry. The use of also provided objective conditions for
iron and steel, the use of new sources of energy or industrial development.
fuels such as coal, steam, and iron, the invention (f) The availability of coal and iron deposits
of new machines that increased production, a in large quantities in England was another
new method of organisation of work known as contributory factor. By 1800, Britain was
the factory system, which involved increased producing ten million tons of coal, or 90%
division of labour and specialisation of skill, and of the world’s output
developments in transport and communication (g) 
Before the industrial revolution, Britain
made possible the mass production of registered rapid agricultural growth. More
manufactured goods. lands were brought under cultivation through
mechanisation. Small land holdings were
Causes of Industrial Revolution
consolidated into larger enclosures under
in England the control of wealthy private landowners
The Industrial Revolution started first in and the method of crop rotation along with
Britain due to a variety of causes. the new farming techniques yielded more
(a) 
The impact of Commercial Revolution. produce. But it also caused unemployment
among the agricultural labourers. Pauparised
Revolution in trade and commerce brought
peasants moved to the cities and became the
into existence a class of capitalists who
workforce for various factories from the mid
were constantly seeking new opportunities
eighteenth century.
to invest their surplus wealth. As a result,
more and more capital was made available (h) The British had well established ports all
for the development of manufacturing. across the coast which enabled easy internal
and external trade.
(b) 
Though a later entrant to the race in
(i) 
The geographical location of England,
establishing colonies overseas, Britain
slightly away from the mainland and
gained supremacy over a period of time. It
relatively safe from foreign invasions, was
defeated the European powers such as Spain,
another cause for industrial revolution
Portugal, and France. In the beginning of
the 18th century, Britain had colonies in (j) Finally the temperate climate of the British
one fourth of the world and ruled over 25% isles was favourable for the manufacturing
of the world population in Africa, America of cotton cloth.
and Asia. So there was a growing demand Important Inventions during
for industrial products from these Empire Industrial Revolution
colonies. The factory System: Before the industrial
(c) The markets at home were also expanding as revolution, production took place in small
the population grew. In England, population workshops or in the cottages of the workers.
rose from four million in 1600 to six million Potters, wheel makers, cart makers, spinners
in 1700 and nine million by the end of the and weavers used their skill and strength to
produce the desired goods. With the advent of
eighteenth century.
new inventions, the tasks were performed by
(d) The drain of wealth to England from various machines that needed to be operated at regular
colonies, notably from India, provided intervals by skilled or semi-skilled people.
the capital necessary for investment in Factories became the places where the goods
industries. were produced in large quantities.
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Cotton Industries: The first factories Iron industries: Traditionally iron

were established in the cotton industry. This could be extracted from iron ore by heating
became possible due to the invention of (smelting) it. For this, a large quantum of
spinning jenny, flying shuttle, water frame and charcoal was required which was obtained
Crompton’s Mule. Flying shuttle was invented by burning firewood. Sources of coal had
by John Kay in 1733. Before this invention depleted by 1700 because of deforestation.
the thread in the shuttle in the weaver’s hand Britain partially solved the problem, as
had to be carried slowly across and through about 1709, Abraham Darby a coal owner in
Derbyshire, discovered that coke could be
the other threads placed lengthwise, called
used for melting. The chief obstacle for the
the warp. The flying shuttle quickened this
extraction of coal was the accumulation of
process and thus doubled the weaver’s output.
water in the mines. What they found useful
Spinning Jenny, invented in 1764 by James
was a device, developed first by Thomas
Hargreaves, could spin eight threads at the Newcomen in 1712, to pump the water from
same time while in the traditional method the coal mines. This was further improved
only one thread could be spun. Water frame, by James Watt in 1769. He joined hands
developed in 1769 by Richard Arkwright, was with an entrepreneur (Mathew Boulton) and
able to spin 128 threads at a time. Crompton’s together they produced more than 500 steam
Mule, a combination of Water Frame and engines that were used to supply power to the
Spinning Jenny, was invented by Samuel new factories. The coming of power-driven
Crompton. It gave greater control over the machinery meant the rise of the factory
weaving process and as a result, spinners system on a wide scale.
could make many different types of yarn.

Spinning Jenny Newcomen Engine lifting coal from mines

Coke was smokeless and could produce more
In 1700, only 500 tons of cotton were heat than charcoal. Due to this, iron industries
imported by Britain. With innovations in were set up near coal mines. Due to the rapid
spinning and weaving and the rise of factory production of iron many household objects such
production in textiles, the demand of raw as spoons and pans were made of iron. Even the
cotton increased dramatically. By 1860, the factories were built with strong iron girders.
country was importing 500,000 tons each year.
Fascinated by the use of iron in the massive
By the early nineteenth century, Manchester,
structures, the French in 1889 constructed
the centre of the British textile industry, had the 324-metre-tall the Eiffel Tower in Paris.
acquired the nickname "Cottonopolis”.
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Steam Engines: The steamboat preceded In 1835 the first

the steam engine as a means of locomotion. On electric telegraph came
the Firth of Clyde Canal there was a steam boat into existence. Sixteen
in 1802. In 1804 the first locomotive was made. years later the first
In 1830 the first passenger railway between undersea cable was laid
Liverpool and Manchester was opened. George between England and
Stephenson’s engine, “The Rocket,” functioned France. In a few years the
with a speed of over thirty miles an hour, telegraph system spread
John McAdam
unimaginable at that time. throughout the world.
The modern factory
with its giant chimneys began to dominate the
landscape of the area around Manchester in
Lancashire and Glasgow in Scotland. In 1750,
England had two cities with more than 50,000
inhabitants, London and Edinburgh. By 1851 the
number of cities of this size had increased to 29.

Steam Engine - The Rocket

In 1807, an American Robert Fulton
made the first successful steam boat. In April
1838, the first steasmships, the Sirius and the
Great Western, crossed the Atlantic. Isambard
Kingdom Brunel, an English Engineer, built the
first fully iron ship with the screw propellers
Industrial Manchester
called SS Great Britain in 1843. In earlier times,
instead of screw propellers, paddle wheels were Second Stage of Industrial
used. Revolution : Germany and the USA
Roads: With the increase in production, The significant discoveries of the Second
it became important to have good roads. Industrial Revolution emanated more from
However, the roads were of poor quality and the the laboratory of the physicist or chemist than
travelling time was long and strenuous. Due to from the brain of the individual inventor.
the pressure exercised by leading industrialists The other essential features of the Second
roads were maintained by turnpikes, who Industrial Revolution were the introduction
collected toll from the people for the proper of automatic machinery, and the enormous
management of the roads. John Loudon increase in mass production and a division
McAdam invented an effective and economical of the labour into minute segments of the
method of constructing roads. manufacturing process.
Throughout the eighteenth century
Macadamisation means to pave the road by there was steady industrial development and
laying and compacting successive layers of great commercial activity in Western Europe.
broken stone, often with hot tar. This was exemplified by the development
of banking, and improvement in internal
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means of communication such as roads and By the end of the

canals. In France and Prussia there were nineteenth century
factories under state patronage. Glass works Germany emerged as
at Le Creusot, and the linen manufacture of the most industrialised
Silesia were important. On the continent of country. It surpassed the
Europe, the Napoleonic Wars checked the home of the Industrial
progress of commerce and industry. But with Revolution, Britain,
the coming of peace, English machines were and proved to be a
Werner
freely introduced in France and Germany. competitor of the United
Von Siemens
During the thirty years that followed the States. In electrics,
fall of Napoleon, steam came rapidly into German companies like Siemens outshone its
use throughout Western Europe. By 1847, counterparts in other countries. In chemicals,
in cities of France such as Paris, Lyons, Germany excelled in the production of
Marseilles, Bordeaux and Toulouse there were potassium salt, dyes, pharmaceutical products,
great factories. The English scientist Michael and synthetics. Companies like Bayer and
Faraday had invented the idea of electricity Hoechst led the chemical industry of Germany.
and a few years later the American inventor
Industrial Revolution in USA
Thomas Alva Edison had perfected his model
of a light bulb for home use. This led to the The USA was
making of electrical generators in the 1870s, largely an agrarian
thereby making public electricity possible. country in the early
nineteenth century.
There was an increase in
population along with
the number of colonies.
Samuel Slater, a citizen of
Samuel Slater
England, having gained
the experience of operating a mill offered his
services to Moses Brown, a leading Rhode Island
Diesel Engine Rudolf Diesel industrialist, who had earlier made an abortive
attempt to operate a mill. Brown agreed, and
In Germany, states led by Prussia used
in consequence the mill became operational
British techniques in industrial production
in 1793, being the first water-powered roller
and manufacturing. The Zollverein, as the
spinning textile mill in the Americas. By 1800,
union of States with free trade as their common
Slater's mill had been duplicated by many
policy, was formed by Prussia. This led to the
other entrepreneurs. Andrew Jackson, the U.S.
removal of tariff wall. The unification of
President hailed him as "Father of the American
Germany in 1871 made industrial development
Industrial Revolution."
more rapid. The invention and use of electricity
and along with this the invention of Diesel
engine by Rudolf Diesel helped the Germans
to be the masters of automobile industry in
Europe. Daimler and Benz became the most
popular brands of automobile in Germany and
the world. Germany made its mark in iron and
steel industry. Germany contributed to the use
of chemicals in agriculture, dye in the textile Thomas Alexander
industry, and electronics goods industry. Alva Edison Graham Bell

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Samuel F.B. Morse’s invention of the „„The Industrial Revolution solved the
telegraph and Elias Howe’s invention of the problem of production. But not the problem
sewing machine came before the Civil war. of distribution of new wealth created.
After the Civil war, industrialisation went on at „„Machine-made manufactures ruined the
a rapid pace. In 1869, the first transcontinental handicrafts and rendered tens of thousands
railroad was completed to transport people, of artisans and weavers jobless.
raw materials and manufactures. The invention „„During the first phase of the Industrial
of electricity by Thomas Alva Edison (1879) Revolution the introduction of machines
and telephone by Alexander Graham Bell (1876) meant that able-bodied men were thrown
changed the whole world. out of employment by the cheap labour of
The Industrial Revolution quickened the women and children. Moreover, many of
process of the transition of the United States the factories and mines were dangerous
from a rural to an urban society. Young people and unsanitary.
raised on farms saw greater opportunities in the „„An important outcome of the Industrial
cities and moved there. There was unprecedented Revolution was the creation of two new
urbanisation and territorial expansion in the US classes: an industrial bourgeoisie and a
and, as a result, between 1860 and 1900, fourteen proletariat. To the industrial bourgeoisie
million immigrants came to the country, most forms of government intervention,
providing workers for a wide variety of industries. except protective tariffs and suppression
Impact of Industrial Revolution of strikes, were allergic. They insisted that
free enterprise was absolutely essential to
„„If the Renaissance changed people’s
vigorous economic growth.
approach to life, the Industrial Revolution
changed the way they had existed since „„The new class of industrial workers did
the agrarian times. The mechanisation not simply suffer. Towards the end of
of industry resulted in much greater the Napoleonic Wars, strong waves of
production and therefore it produced agitations began. The struggle went through
greater wealth. But this new wealth went different phases: machine breaking,
to a small group, the owners of the new mass demonstrations and formation of
industries. collectives (trade unions).

Peterloo Massacre: In 1819, a year of industrial depression and high food prices, a great
demonstration was organised by the radical leader Henry Hunt. About 60,000 persons attended,
including a large number of women and children. None was armed, and their demonstration
was peaceful. The magistrates, who were alarmed by the size and mood of the crowd, ordered the
Manchester yeomanry (a voluntary cavalry corps) to attack the crowd. More than 700 people were
injured and 17 killed. Hunt and the other radical leaders were arrested, tried, and convicted.
Tolpuddle Prosecution: The Whig government in Britain, alarmed at the growing discontent of
the working-class, arrested six Tolpuddle labourers (1834) for organising the labourers against the
proposed wage cuts. All the six were convicted and sentenced to seven years’ transportation to a
penal colony in Australia. The six became martyrs for the cause of labour.
Great Railroad Strike of 1877 in the USA
The bad working conditions in the factories, long hours of work, low wages, exploitation of women
and children contributed to the growth of labour unions in the USA. After the Civil War, workers
organised strikes and one major strike was the Great Railroad Strike of 1877. Wage cuts in the
railroad industry, in the context of a prolonged economic depression, led to the strike. The strike
was crushed by a combination of vigilantes, National Guardsmen, and the Federal Army.

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Haymarket Massacre
A labour protest took place on 4 May 1886, at Haymarket Square in Chicago. It began as a peaceful
rally in support of workers striking for an eight-hour day and in reaction to the killing of several
workers the previous day by the police. An unknown person threw a bomb at the police as they began
to disperse the crowd. The bomb blast and ensuing gunfire resulted in the deaths of seven police
officers and at least four civilians; scores of others were wounded. To commemorate the Haymarket
Affair 1 May 1887 is observed as the Labour Day or May Day or International Workers’ Day.

   Summary
„„Oppressive taxation measures of Britain EXERCISE
and the resistance of colonists leading to the Q.R.Code
outbreak of American War of Independence I. C
 hoose the
are narrated.
correct answer
„„The course and outcome of the War along with
the significance of Revolution are assessed. 1. 
The Europeans who settled first in North
„„The woeful conditions of peasantry, America were
the financial bankruptcy of the French (a) Portuguese
government, and the revolutionary ideas
articulated by the intellectuals of the time (b) Spanish
leading to the French Revolution of 1789 (c) Danish
are explained.
(d) English
„„The formation of National Assembly and its
Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen 2. New Amsterdam was renamed as
are detailed.
(a) Washington
„„The execution of the French king and the
abolition of monarchy, and the work done (b) New York
by the National Convention dominated by (c) Chicago
the Jacobins are elaborated.
(d) Amsterdam
„„Revolution in the French-controlled Saint-
Domingue followed by revolutions in other 3. Assertion (A): England passed the Navigation
Latin American countries like Venezuela, Acts.
Columbia, Mexico and Brazil are highlighted.
Reason (R): The Act mandated that
„„The essential features and causes of Industrial
Revolution of England, the machines colonial produce should be exported only in
invented and the use of steam revolutionising British ships.
cotton, and iron industries and transport and (a) Both A and R are correct, R explains A
communication systems are dealt with.
(b) Both A and R are correct, R does not
„„The Second Industrial Revolution in
Western Europe, notably in Germany, and explain A
in the US is explored. (c) A is correct but R is wrong
„„Impact of Industrial Revolution and the
(d) A is wrong but R is correct
incidence of state violence on organised
working class movement in England and 4. Assertion (A): In 1770, England abolished the
America are related. taxes on products except tea.
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Reason (R): This was retained to assert that 9. 

Which of the following statement/s is/are
the British Parliament had a right to tax the Correct?
colonies directly as well as indirectly. Statement I:  e peasantry made up the
Th
(a) Both A and R are correct, R explains A bulk of French society.
(b) Both A and R are correct, R does not Statement II: Th
 e peasants in France were
explain A serfs.

(c) A is correct but R is wrong Statement III: Th

 e peasants had to work
certain days in the week for
(d) A is wrong but R is correct their lords for remuneration.
5. Boston Tea Party incident took place in the (a) I and II (b) II and III
year
(c) I and III (d) All are Correct
(a) 1775 (b) 1773
10. The noble who led the protest that led to
(c) 1784 (d) 1799 Tennis Court Oath was
6. A
 ssertion (A): The representatives of all the (a) Marat (b) Danton
colonies except that of Georgia, demanded
(c ) Lafayette (d) Mirabeau
the repeal of the Intolerable Acts.
Reason (R): The Congress decided to boycott 11. A
 ssertion (A): The rising bourgeoisie
the British goods until then. wanted their political power to match their
economic status.
(a) Both A and R are correct, R explains A Reason (R): They wanted to have a voice in
(b) Both A and R are correct, R does not government.
explain A (a) Both A and R correct. R explains A
(c) A is correct R is wrong (b) Both A and R correct. R does not explain A
(d) A is wrong R is correct (c) A is correct but R is wrong
7. 
Which of the following statement/s is/are (d) A is wrong but R is correct
correct?
12. Match and choose the correct answer from
Statement I: 
On July 4, 1776, all the the code given below.
thirteen colonies declared
(A) Montesquieu 1. Jacobins
independence from Britain.
(B) Voltaire 2. English Philosopher
Statement II: 
The Declaration of
Independence was essentially (C) Reign of Terror 3. The Age of Louis XIV
the work of Thomas Jefferson. (D) John Locke 4. The Spirit of Laws
(a) I (b) II (a) 1 3 4 2 (b) 4 3 1 2
(c) None of the above (d) All the above (c) 4 1 2 3 (d) 1 4 3 2
8. In the American War of Independence the
13. The storming of the Bastille happened on
British army was led by
(a) Richard Lee (a) June 5, 1789
(b) George Washington (b) July 14, 1789
(c) William Howe (c) November 11, 1789
(d) Rockingham (d) May 1, 1789
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14. During the French Revolution was II. Write brief answers
dissatisfied with the Declaration of Rights
1. What impact did the European settlement
of Man and of the Citizen, as it excluded
in North America make on the indigenous
women.
population?
(a) Olympe de Gouges
2. What do you know about the Boston Tea Party?
(b) Mary Antoinette
3. 
What was the intellectual contribution of
(c) Roget de Lisle
Thomas Paine to the American Revolution?
(d) Robespierre
4. 
Point out the importance of the battle of
15. The official residence of Louise XVI was Saratoga.
5. Discuss the three Estates of the ancien regime.
(a) Versailles (b) Toulon
6. Highlight the essence of The Declaration of
(c) Marseilles (d) Tuileries the Rights of Man and of the Citizen.
16.  was earlier known as Saint- 7. Outline the contribution of Simon Bolivar to
Dominigue Latin American independence.
(a) Mexico (b) Panama (c) Haiti (d) Havana 8. Highlight the essential features of Industrial
17. The revolution in Mexico was led by Revolution.
(a) Simon Bolivar 9. Why is Samuel Slater considered the father of
American Industrial Revolution?
(b) Jose Maria Morelos
10. What was the background for the Peterloo
(c) Ferdinand de Lesseps
Massacre?
(d) Miguel Hidalgo
18. The liberator of Argentina was III. Write short answers
(a) San Martin 1. 
Discuss the important provisions of the
(b) Dom Pedro Treaty of Paris signed in 1783.
(c) Bernardo O’Higgins 2. 
Analyse the significance of American
(d) Marina Morelos Revolution.

19.  city acquired the nickname 3. Long before the revolution of 1789, there was
“Cottonopolis’’. a revolution in the realm of ideas. Explain.
(a) Manchester (b) Lancashire 4. What caused the “September Massacres”?
(c) Liverpool (d) Glasgow 5. 
Trace the circumstances in which Brazil
became the first constitutional monarchy in
20. Match and choose the correct answer from
the code given below South America.

(A) Michael Faraday 1. Ark Wright 6. 

What happened in Germany during the
(B) Elias Howe 2. Robert Fulton second phase of Industrial Revolution?
(C) Water Frame 3. Electricity
IV. Answer the following in detail
(D) Steam Boat 4. Sewing machine
1. Discuss the causes, course and results of the
A B C D
American War of Independence
(a) 1 3 4 2
(b) 1 4 2 3 2. Sketch the course of French Revolution from
(c) 3 4 1 2 the storming of Bastille to the execution of
(d) 3 4 2 1 Robespierre.
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3. American Revolution and French Revolution REFERENCES

inspired the revolution in Haiti. Substantiate.
4. 
Why did Industrial revolution start in „„William Doyle, The Oxford History of
England first? What impact did it make on the French Revolution, Oxford University
modern society? Press, 1989.
„„Edward McNall Burns, Western
V. Activity
Civilizations, Vols. 1 & 2, New York:
1. 
A debate may be organised on 'Had not W.W. Norton, eighth edition, 1973.
American Revolution succeeded, what would
have happened?' „„Thomas H. Holloway, A Companion to
Latin American History, Blackwell, 2011.
2. Students may be organised into three groups
forming Three Estates of the ancient regime „„Jeremy D. Popkin, A Short History of the
and hold a mock session of the States-General French Revolution, Routledge, 2018.
convened by Louis XVI in May 1789. „„Chris Harman, A People’s History of the
3. 
Students may be exposed to the ruin of World, Delhi: Orient Longman, 2007.
handicrafts in England in the context of
„„Gordon S Wood, The American
introduction of machines and factory
Revolution: A History, Modern Library,
system and be apprised of the corresponding
2002.
situation in India after the establishment of
British colonial rule. „„Encyclopaedia Britannica

GLOSSARY

willing to undertake any task

adventurous
involving risks துணிவான சாகசங்கள்
transatlantic across the Atlantic Ocean அட்லாண்டிக் கடலுக்கு அப்பால்
English Protestants in the 16th 16, 17 ஆம் நூற்றாண்டுகளில்
and 17th centuries who demanded க�ோட்பாட்டிலும் வழிபாட்டிலும்
Puritans
the simplification of doctrine and எளிமை வேண்டுமெனக் க�ோரிய
ஆங்கிலேய புராட்டஸ்டண்டுகள்;
worship தூய நெறியினர்
extirpate destroy completely முற்றிலும் அழி, நிர்மூலமாக்கு
massacre mass murder படுக�ொலை
a product made during the
துணை உற்பத்திப் ப�ொருள்,
byproduct manufacture of something else / a
secondary product துணை விளைப�ொருள்
replica an exact copy or model of something நகல் / பிரதி
status quo the existing state of affair முன்பிருந்த நிலை
நடுத்தரவகுப்பினர்/ உற்பத்திக்
the middle class / the capitalist class காரணிகளையும் சமூகத்தின்
bourgeoisie who own means of production and பெரும்பான்மையான
possess most of society’s wealth செல்வத்தையும் தங்களிடம்
க�ொண்டுள்ள முதலாளி வர்க்கம்

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UNIT
Europe in Turmoil
12
Learning Objectives
Q.R.Code
To acquire knowledge in
„„The rise of socialist ideas and birth of communism.
„„Chartist movement in England.
„„Significance of the July (1830) and the February (1848) revolutions in France.
„„Role of Mazzini, Cavour and Garibaldi in the Unification of Italy.
„„Bismarck’s ‘blood and iron policy’ for the Unification of Germany.
„„The Long Depression and its Impact in Germany and America, 1873-1896.

   Introduction army of 600,000 men, but the French armies

Europe in the nineteenth century was were beaten back. Napoleon abdicated (1814)
influenced by the developments in France. and was exiled to Elba but returned to France
Klemens von Metternich, the Chancellor of for one last effort to seize power in 1815. He was
Austria-Hungary, who formed a 'Holy Alliance' defeated by the allied forces of British, Belgians
between the monarchies of Austria, Russia, and Prussians at Waterloo in Belgium. He was
Prussia and France to suppress democratic finally exiled to the remote island of St. Helena
and nationalistic trends in Europe, famously in the West Atlantic until his death in 1821.
said, “When France sneezes, Europe catches a After the fall of
cold.” France sneezed not once, but thrice in Napoleon, an unstable
1789, 1830 and 1848, when revolutions broke peace lasted for nearly
out in France. The French Revolution of 1789 forty years. Two factors
led to the emergence of the idea of liberalism prepared the way for
expressed through its famous slogan, ‘Liberty, the outbreak of wars
Equality and Fraternity’. The revolutionary between 1854 and 1871.
energies released and ideals fostered during the The first one was the
Napoleon
Era of Revolution were destroyed by Napoleon restoration of monarchy
Bonaparte
Bonaparte. For some years Napoleon’s reign was and the unfair privileges
a career of victory. However, as he never won the abolished during the Revolution. On regaining
command of the sea from the British, his fleets their former position, forgetting past lessons,
suffered a crushing defeat at the hands of the the rulers almost immediately aimed at
British in 1805. Spain rose against Napoleon in absolute power once more. The second was the
1808 and then a British army under Wellington unworkable system of boundaries drawn by
pushed the French armies out of the peninsula. the diplomats at Congress of Vienna (1815),
In 1812 Napoleon invaded Russia with a great disregarding the principle of nationality.
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thinkers. Progressive thinkers and liberals

believed in the virtues of democracy, and tried
hard to achieve them. But democracy offered
no solution to issues of poverty or class conflict.
Europe in the nineteenth century was ‘a strange
mixture of capitalism and imperialism and
nationalism and internationalism and wealth
Congress of Vienna (1815) and poverty’.
The reactionary monarchical forces under The Industrial Revolution ended the
the leadership of Metternich had begun to domestic system of industry and necessitated
function despotically through the Concert of the workmen to live near the factories. Long
Europe. There was repression of the liberation rows of tenement houses were built for their
movements. Popular revolts in Naples (1820) accommodation. Wages were abominably low.
and Spain (1822) were suppressed with the aid Hours of labour were as high as fifteen or even
of foreign troops, Austrian in the case of former eighteen a day. Women and children were
and French in the latter case. There was little employed in large numbers. The factories were
liberty in any European country. In spite of owned by a small class of capitalists, whose main
this, the American and the French Revolutions object was unbridled profit. The working classes
had made the ideas of democracy and political were initially unorganised and therefore wholly
liberty known and appreciated by liberal at the mercy of their employers. Many, however,

N
Prussia A = Parma EUROPE AFTER THE CONGRESS OF VIENNA FINLAND W E
Austrian Empire B = Modena S

France C = Lucca SWEDEN AND NORWAY St. Petersburg

Piedmont-Sardinia D = Tuscany
Russia E = San Marino
a
Se
German States North Moscow
c
Sea DENMARK lti
Ba
Boundary of German Confederation
Amsterdam S
UNITED KINGDOM Hamburg PRUSSIA RUSSIAN
D
AN

EMPIRE
RL

London Berlin Warsaw

AT L A N T I C
HE

KINGDOM OF
OCEAN English Channel
NET

Saxony POLAND
GERMAN
Paris CONFEDERATION
Bavaria Vienna
Bay of
Biscay KINGDOM SWITZ. AUSTRIAN EMPIRE
OF FRANCE Savoy
Lombardy ia
Genoa A B enet
V E
DA

Nice
Black Sea
LM A

PORTUGAL C D PAPAL
O
AT dri

STATES TT
IA ati

Lisbon Madrid Corsica OM Constantinople

KINGDOM
PIEDMONT- Rome
Naples
AN
SARDINIA EM
c

OF SPAIN PIR
Se

KINGDOM E
a

Sevilla Mediterranean OF THE

Sea TWO SICILIES
Not to Scale

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soon began to feel that without organisation and 12.1  Rise of Socialist
unity, no permanent improvement was possible.
So they strove to establish trade unions. When
Ideas and Birth of
trade unions arose, the government first declared Communism
these unions illegal. Many of the frontline Socialist ideas in
leaders, as we have seen in the previous lesson, the modern sense came
were imprisoned or banished. In 1824, however, to be articulated by
labour unions were legalised. With the rise of the Physiocrats or the
trade unions, an alternate system to capitalism economists who were
was conceived and socialism was used as a making enquiries into
plank by many to attack the state and defend the production and
the interests of the working class. The working distribution of food and
class organising into the Chartist Movement in Étienne-Gabriel
goods. Étienne-Gabriel Morally
England and later posing a serious challenge, Morally, the Utopian
as the Paris Commune did in France, to the thinker, in his Code de la Nature (1755),
capitalist order, and the unscrupulous measures denounced the institution of private property
adopted by the capitalists in connivance with and proposed a communistic organisation of
the capitalist state to crush labour struggles are society. He was the precursor of various schools
highlighted in this lesson. of collectivist thinkers in the nineteenth century
who are categorised as Socialists. Francois
Concert of Europe: Babeuf, a political agitator of the French
Founded by major Revolutionary period, felt that the Revolution in
European Powers, France did not address the needs of the peasants
Austria, Prussia, and workers, and argued in favour of abolition
Russia and Britain, in of private property and for common ownership
the post-Napoleonic of land.
era, it worked for the
Metternich
preservation of European Utopian Socialism
order and balance of power. Under the pretext The earliest socialists in Europe were
of political status quo, the great powers under not revolutionaries. They proposed idealistic
the aegis of Concert of Europe intervened schemes for cooperative societies, in which
and imposed their collective will on states all would work at their assigned tasks and
threatened by internal rebellion during the so- share the outcome of their common efforts.
called Metternich Era (1815–1848). The term “Utopian Socialism” was first used
by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels to describe
Under Napoleon Italy had been reduced the ideas articulated by the socialists before
to three political divisions. This step towards them. Utopian Socialists recommended the
unity was destroyed by the Congress of establishment of model communities, where
Vienna in 1815. Eight states were set up and the means of production would be collectively
the whole of Northern Italy was handed over owned. They promoted a visionary idea of
to the German-speaking Austrians. Germany a socialistic society, devoid of poverty or
was organised into a confederation of thirty unemployment. Their influence led to the
eight states, governed by a Diet presided establishment of several hundred model
over by Austria. But the cause of nationality communes (communities) in Europe and
was not lost either in Italy or Germany. Both USA. Claude-Henri Saint-Simon, Francois-
Italy and Germany unified and emerged as Marie-Charles Fourier and Robert Owen were
nation states. some of the prominent Utopian Socialists.

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Claude Henri Saint-Simon the workers. He did

(1760–1825) not employ children
Saint Simon was a below the age of 10 in
French aristocrat who his industries. Later
fought against the British he criticised private
in the American War of property and profit.
Independence. A strong He began to advocate
believer in science and the establishment Robert Owen
progress, he criticised of new cooperative
contemporary French communities that would combine industrial
Saint Simon and agricultural production. In his book A
society for being in the
grip of feudalism. Saint-Simon suggested that New View of Society (1818), he advocated a
scientists take the place of priests in the social national education system, public works for
order. He expressed the view that property the unemployed and reform of the Poor Laws.
owners who held political power could hope to Thanks to his efforts, the British Parliament
maintain themselves against the propertyless passed the Factory Act of 1819. By the mid-
only by subsidising the advance of knowledge. 1820s Owen had developed a theory of
In his book called New Christianity he advocated Utopian Socialism based on social equality
the adoption of the Christian principle of and cooperation. His other initiatives included
concern for the poor. formation of the Grand National Consolidated
Trades Union (1834) and the Cooperative
Charles Fourier (1772–1837) Congresses (1831-1835).
Fourier was
an early Utopian Poor Laws: In Britain the Poor Laws, as
Socialist. He believed codified (1597–98) during Elizabethan
that social conditions period, provided relief for the aged, sick,
were the primary cause and infant poor, as well as work for the able-
of human misery. bodied unemployed in workhouses.
Social and economic
inequality could be Pierre-Joseph Proudhon
Charles Fourier
overcome if everybody (1809–1865)
had the basic minimum. Fourier believed in Proudhon was a
the goodness of human nature and rejected French anarchist who
the dogma of “original sin”. He saw harmony contributed significantly
as the law of the cosmos and held that what to the development of
is true for nature must be true for society. He socialism. Unlike the
envisaged a harmonious self-contained co- earlier Utopian socialists
operative society called phalansteres. It was who were drawn from
a community where there would be equal the middle class, he
distribution of profit and loss. Proudhon
belonged to the working
class. Drawing inspiration from the cooperative
Robert Owen (1771–1858)
communities, he and other anarchists were
Among the factory owners of Manchester opposed to the state and believed in revolution.
there was a humanitarian by name Robert In his pamphlet titled “What is Property?” he
Owen. Shocked by the condition of the factory wrote that “All property is theft.” Proudhon
workers, he introduced many reforms in his believed that labour should be the basis for social
own factories and improved the condition of organisation and that all systems of government
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were oppressive. He wanted to replace Karl Marx and Scientific Socialism

nation-state with federations of autonomous
communes. In 1848-49, he was a member of the
National Assembly but was disillusioned by his
experience. His ideas became popular among
the working class of France by the middle of
the nineteenth century. In 1864, some of the
followers of Proudhon issued the Manifesto
of the Sixty. The manifesto declared that the
Karl Marx Friedrich Engels
French Revolution of 1789 only brought about
political equality and not economic equality. Karl Marx (1818–1883) and Friedrich
They wanted the working class to be represented Engels (1820–1895) made the most profound
by themselves. In the 1863 elections, they contribution to socialism. Eventually their ideas
unsuccessfully sponsored three working class came to be known as Marxism or Communism.
candidates in the parliamentary elections of They called their views on socialism as scientific
France. His views, which influenced the Russian socialism. On the eve of the 1848 Revolution,
anarchist thinker Michael Alexandrovich Marx and Engels published The Communist
Bakunin, sought to overthrow the state by a Manifesto. The most famous rallying cry in this
general strike and replace it with democratically- famous work is: “Workers of the world, unite!
run cooperative groups. You have nothing to lose but your chains.”
Marx believed that in just the same way
Anarchism: Belief in the abolition of state as capitalism replaced feudalism, so socialism
and organisation of society on a voluntary, would eventually replace capitalism. Marx built
cooperative basis without recourse to force his theory on a belief that there is a conflict
or compulsion of interests in the social order between the
prosperous employing classes of people and the
Louis Jean Joseph Charles Blanc employed mass. With the advance in education,
(1811-1882) this great employed mass will become more
An influential and more class-conscious and more and more
French socialist, Louis firm in their antagonism to the class-conscious
Blanc, in 1839, started ruling minority. In some way the class-conscious
the Revue du Progres, workers would seize power, he prophesied, and
a journal of advanced inaugurate a new social state.
social thought. His In 1867 Marx published the first volume
most important of Das Kapital, a critique of capitalism. In this
essay “Organisation work, he highlighted the exploitation of the
Louis Blanc
of Labour” serially proletariat (the working class) by the bourgeoisie
appeared in 1839. In his writings, he proposed a (the capitalist class).
scheme of state-financed but worker-controlled
The International Working Men’s
“social workshops” that would guarantee work
Association, founded in 1864, was influenced
for everyone and lead gradually to a socialist
by his ideas. Its purpose was to form an
society. Louis Blanc argued that socialism
international working class alliance. Marx
cannot be achieved without state power. In 1848,
worked hard to exclude the moderates from the
he became a member of the French provisional
International and denounced other socialists
government and was able to influence it to set
such as Ferdinand Lassalle and Bakunin. Despite
up workshops for the unemployed and provide
his efforts to consolidate the International it
employment to all who needed it.
declined by 1876. However, many socialist
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parties emerged in Europe: the German Social the six key points that the Chartists believed
Democratic Party in 1875, the Belgian Socialist were necessary to reform the electoral system,
Party in 1879, the Paris Commune, 1871 and the was presented and deliberated in these meetings.
establishment of a socialist party in 1905. The The six key points were:
Second International was founded in Paris in 1. Universal suffrage.
1889 which influenced the socialist movement
2. Voting by ballot, to prevent intimidation.
till the outbreak of the First World War.
3. No property qualification for candidates.
Chartism in England
4. Payment of members elected to the House of
Commons, as it would enable the poor people
to contend for office and contest elections.
5. Equal electoral districts and equal
representation.
6. Annual parliaments.
Panicked by rumours that there would be a
popular uprising, the government sent the army
to the industrial areas. In 1842 the workers
struck work in Lancashire and marched from
factory to factory stopping the work, and
Chartist Movement extending and intensifying their action. In 1848,
in the wake of a wave of revolutions that swept
In England the working class lined up
Europe, subsequent to the February Revolution
behind the Chartist movement. The Chartist
of that year in France, masses of workers
movement was not a riot or revolt. It was an
prepared again for confrontation. The state
organised movement. The impact of 1830
stood firm with the backing of the lower middle
French Revolution in England was the outbreak
of militant labour agitation. Different streams of class. The Chartist leaders also vacillated, when
agitation converged to give rise to the Chartist the 50,000 strong crowd at Kennington, south
movement. The chartists propagated their ideas London, began to melt away. In the meantime
through newspapers such as The Poor Man’s the government arrested most of them and
Guardian, The Charter, The Northern Star and turned half of London into an armed camp.
The Chartist Circular. Its principal paper, the Chartism comprised a mixture of different
Northern Star, founded in 1837, soon equalled groups holding different ideas. Its leaders were
the circulation of the Times. Articles published divided between those who believed in winning
in the Northern Star were read out for the over the existing rulers, and those who believed
illiterates in workshops and pubs in every in overthrowing them. Though Chartism was
industrial area. not successful, its main demands, which were
Hundreds of not conceded in the 1832 Reform Act, were
thousands of workers later incorporated in the Parliamentary Reform
attended mass meetings Acts of 1867 and 1884.
held during 1838–39. July Revolution (1830)
The People's Charter,
On 26 July 1830, the Bourbon king Charles
prepared by William
Lovett of the London X issued four ordinances dissolving the Chamber
Working Men’s of Deputies, suspending freedom of the press,
William Lovett modifying the electoral laws so that three-fourths
Association, detailing
of the electorate lost their votes, and calling for new
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1848, when there was a

spontaneous rising in
Paris. Crowds chanting
“Vive de la reforme,” an
expression in French
to show patriotism,
stormed into the lines
of troops and swarmed Louis Philippe
through the palaces and
the assembly buildings. The opposition rallied
behind the French revolutionary poet Lamartine.
Louis Blanc also joined. In the elections held in
April 1848, on the basis of universal manhood
suffrage, the moderates were elected in large
July Revolution numbers. Only a few socialists were elected. The
elections to the Chamber. newly elected Assembly decided to shut down the
In protest, the Parisian workshops that had been started at the initiative
masses took to the streets of Louis Blanc, as the workshops were seen as a
for the first time since threat to social order. The workers retaliated and
1795. The royal forces braved the government repression. Between June
were unable to contain 24 and 26, thousands of people were killed and
the insurrection. Charles eleven thousand revolutionaries were imprisoned
X was advised to go into Charles X or deported. The period came to be known as
exile and put in his place, the bloody June days. The Constituent Assembly
a relative, Louis Philip of Orleans who had the drafted a new constitution based on which
backing of the middle class. The tactics worked in elections were held. Louis Napoleon, the nephew
France. But in other parts of Europe there arose a of Napoleon Bonaparte, was elected President in
number of risings. The revolution was successful in December 1848. Before long, in January 1852,
the Netherlands, where Belgium was separated to he crowned himself as the Emperor by holding
form an independent state. The Greeks, who had a plebiscite. He assumed the title Napoleon III.
been fighting for independence from Turkish rule,
attained independence in 1832, with the support of The year 1848 was one of the distinct
the Great Powers. But the revolt of Poles against the triumphs for nationalism. Metternich, the
Russian Tsar was suppressed. arbiter of Europe and enemy of nationality, was
forced to leave Vienna in disguise. Hungary and
February Revolution (1848)
Bohemia both claimed national independence.
Milan expelled the Austrians. Venice became
an independent republic. Charles Albert,
King of Sardinia, declared war against Austria.
Absolutism seemed dead for a while. But it
was not to be. By the summer, the monarchs
had begun their attacks on the revolutionaries
and succeeded in crushing the democratic
movements in important centres like Berlin,
February Revolution Vienna and Milan. In the space of a year
The French King, Louis Philippe, had counter-revolution was victorious throughout
to abdicate and flee the country in February, the continent.
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Nationalism in southern and made them into nations. Conditions suitable for
eastern Europe the rise of Italy and Germany as nation states
In Europe the countries that first achieved developed only in the nineteenth century with
national unity were France, Spain and England. the spread of nationalism.
Italy which had made rich contributions to art
Unification of Italy
and letters was not part of this political change.
Cities in Italy like Rome, Florence, Venice, Italy before Napoleon’s
Naples and Milan were the capitals of small time was a patchwork of
states. Hence she became the prey of powerful little states and petty princes.
kingdoms. Besides, the age of Renaissance Under Napoleon Italy had
was an age of intellectual liberty and certainly been reduced to three
not an age of political liberty. The petty states political divisions. This step
of Italy, though enlightened in many ways, towards unity was destroyed
were mostly governed by tyrants, such as the by the Congress of Vienna. Eight states were set
Medici in Florence, the cruel Visconti in Milan up and the whole of Northern Italy was handed
and Caesar Borgia in central Italy. What was over to the German-speaking Austrians. Italy
true of Italy was true of Germany. The Holy in the nineteenth century was a ‘patchwork
Roman Empire was an empire only in name. of about a dozen large states and a number of
In practice, Germany contained three of four smaller ones.’ Metternich described Italy as “a
hundred separate States. It was their kings who mere geographical expression.” The empire of
saved these countries from feudal anarchy and Piedmont-Sardinia, in the northwest, bordering

N
UNIFICATION OF ITALY W E
SWITZERLAND S
VENETIA
FRANCE LOMBARDY AUSTRIAN
SAVOY Megenta
Solferino EMPIRE
Turin Milan
PARMA Venice
PIEDMONT ROMAGNA OTTOMAN
Nice Genoa MODENA M
AR EMPIRE
Monaco Florence
C
TUSCANY U HE
KINGDOM OF M S
BR
PIEDMONT IA PAPAL
Corsica Ad
(France) Rome STATES ri ati
c S ea
Ty NA
rrh Naples PLE
en S
Sardinia ian
S
ES

ea
I LI
SIC
O

Ionian Sea
W

Kingdom of Piedmont, before 1859

ET

Kingdom of Piedmont, 1859 Messina

TH
OF

Kingdom of Piedmont, 1860 Sicily

M

Kingdom of Piedmont, 1870-71

DO

Not to Scale
NG

Mediterranean Sea
KI

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France, played a central role in unifying Italy. considered the brain, Mazzini the soul and
To its east Lombardy and Venetia were under Garibaldi the sword-arm of Italian Unification.
the control of the Austrian Empire. It also
controlled a few smaller states such as Tuscany, Mazzini (1805–1872)
Parma and Modena. The Papal States were Giuseppe Mazzini
located in the middle under the control of the laid the foundations of
Roman Catholic Church. In the south was the the Italian unification.
Kingdom of the two Sicilies or Naples and Sicily Born in Genoa in a
was under the control of a family of Bourbon well-to-do family,
dynasty. he graduated in law.
The Napoleonic rule, for the first time, Attracted to politics
provided Italy with a sense of unity through at a young age, he Mazzini
uniform administration. The nationalistic advocated the freedom
aspirations of the Italians were dashed when the of the Italian nation. He involved himself in the
Congress of Vienna restored the old monarchies insurrectionary activities of the Carbonari for
in the various Italian principalities. The 1820s which he was arrested. He soon gave up the idea
witnessed the mushrooming of several secret of secret plotting and began to believe in open
societies such as the Carbonari, advocating propaganda against monarchy. He believed that
liberal and patriotic ideas. They kept alive the Italy was a great civilisation that could provide
ideas of liberalism and nationalism. Revolts leadership to the rest of the world. He started
broke out in Naples, Piedmont and Lombardy. the Young Italy movement in 1831 with the
However, they were crushed by Austria. aim of an Italian Republic. Exiled for working
for the cause of unification of Italy in 1848,
In the wake of the 1830 Revolution in
when revolts were breaking out all over North
France, similar rebellions broke out in Modena,
Italy, Mazzini returned to Rome. The Pope was
Parma and Papal States which were again
driven away and a republic declared under a
crushed by Austria. In 1848, following the
committee of three, of which Mazzini was a
February Revolution in France, the people
member. But with the failure of 1848 Revolution
again rose in revolt in several Italian states
and the restoration of Rome to Pope with the
including Piedmont-Sardinia, Sicily, Papal
support of the French, Mazzini carried on his
States, Milan and Lombardy and Venetia. As
work by propaganda and preparing for the next
a result liberal constitutions were granted in
programme of action.
Sicily, Piedmont Sardinia and the Papal States.
King Charles Albert of Piedmont-Sardinia, Count Cavour (1810–1861)
under the influence of the Revolution, invaded
Lombardy and Venetia. However, the Austrians Count Cavour was
defeated him with the help of Russian troops. one of those inspired
Charles Albert saved Piedmont-Sardinia from by the idea of Italian
Austrian occupation by taking the blame upon nationalism. In 1847
himself for the war and abdicated in favour he started a newspaper.
of his son Victor Emmanuel II. However, The Italian unification
despite the defeat of Pidemont-Sardinia and movement came to be
the suppression of revolution in various Italian known after the name
of the newspaper as Count Cavour
principalities, liberal and nationalistic ideas
survived. Il Risorgimento. The
Risorgimento (the resurrection of Italian spirit)
Mazzini, Count Camillo di Cavour, and
was an ideological and literary movement that
Giuseppe Garibaldi were the three central
helped to arouse the national consciousness
figures of the unification of Italy. Cavour was
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of the Italian people. Cavour rose to become Participating in Mazzini’s

the Prime Minister of Sardinia and played a rebellion in Piedmont,
crucial role in the unification of Italy. He used he then fled to South
a combination of diplomacy and war to achieve America as an exile. He
the unification under the leadership of Sardinia. took up the cause of
Cavour realised that Italian unification could revolutionaries there and
not be achieved without international support. fought for the cause of
Garibaldi
He needed the support of other Great powers Rio Grande and Uruguay
to expel Austria from Lombardy and Venetia. against Argentinian occupation. Therefore, he
Therefore, he involved Piedmont-Sardinia was called the ‘Hero of Two Worlds’. In 1843, he
in the Crimean War to draw international started the Italian Legion. This force of
attention and get the support of England and volunteers came to be known as the Red Shirts.
France. In July 1858, he struck an agreement Garibaldi accepted the invitation of the
with Napoleon III of France who offered to people of Sicily in their revolt against their
support Piedmont-Sardinia in its conflict with monarch. He left the port of Genoa with 1000
Austria. volunteers to Sicily. Landing unnoticed on the
War with Austria, 1859 coast of Sicily he and his volunteers defeated
Cavour then provoked war with Austria the 20000 strong Neapolitan (Naples) troops
by mobilising troops near the Austrian border. without any loss of life. He then crossed into
When Austria issued an ultimatum to disband Naples and defeated the royal troops with the
the troops he allowed it to expire. As a result help of the locals. However, Cavour, suspicious
Austria attacked Piedmont-Sardinia in April of Garibaldi’s triumphant march, sent the
1859. The combined armies of Piedmont- Piedmontese force to stop him from invading
Sardinia and France defeated the Austrian Rome. Garibaldi submitted his conquest to
armies. They won a major victory at the Battle King Victor Emmanuel II and retreated to lead
of Solferino. Instead of continuing the war, the rest of his life in his home at the island of
Napoleon III of France concluded a peace Caprera.
agreement with the Austrian Emperor Francis Plebiscites held in Sicily, Naples and Papal
Joseph II at Villa Franca on 11 July 1859. States led to their merger with Piedmont-
Cavour was disappointed at French withdrawal Sardinia. At the end of the war, Austria retained
and resigned. In November 1859, Piedmont- control over Venetia and Pope held Rome.
Sardinia and Austria concluded the Treaty of The rest of Italy was unified under Piedmont.
Zurich. Austria ceded Lombardy but retained In May 1861, King Victor Emmanuel II was
control over Venetia. proclaimed by the Parliament as the ruler of
Cavour was reappointed as Prime Minister Italy. During the Austro-Prussian War in 1866,
in 1860. Parma, Modena and Tuscany were Italy had allied itself
merged with the Kingdom of Piedmont- with Prussia and was
Sardinia through plebiscites. Similarly, Savoy rewarded with Venetia.
and Nice were annexed to France on the basis In 1871, Italy took
of plebiscites. advantage of the Franco-
Prussian War to annex
Garibaldi and the Conquest of Rome as the French
Southern Italy forces withdrew. Thus,
Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807–1882) played a the Italian Unification King Victor
key role in the unification of Italy by waging was completed. Emmanuel II
guerilla warfare. He joined Mazzini’s Young
Italy and was influenced by his ideas.

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Unification of Germany In the same year the Frankfurt Assembly was

In spite of a common convened. Most of the elected members were
language and many liberals who believed that a liberal national-
other common features German state could be created. They were
the German people divided on the question of what constituted the
continued to be split German nation. The delegates who demanded
up into a large number ‘Great Germany’ believed that the German
of States. Intellectuals nation should include as many Germans as
such as Johann von possible including Austria except Hungary and
J.G. Fichte the crown should be offered to the Austrian
Herder (1744–1803) and
Friedrich Schlegel (1772–1829) promoted the Emperor. Some delegates put forward the idea
idea of German nation by glorifying its past. of ‘Little Germany’ which argued that Austria
Herder believed that civilisation was a product should be excluded from the German nation
of the culture of the common people, the and the crown be offered to King of Prussia.
Volk (folk) and promoted the idea of a unique Eventually Austria withdrew from the
German spirit, the Volkgeist. J.G. Fichte (1762– Assembly. A constitution was framed by the
1814) delivered a series of Addresses to the Assembly and the Little Germans offered the
German Nation. He claimed the German spirit constitutional monarchy to King Frederick
was not just one among the many spirits but was William of Prussia. However, the latter declined
superior to the rest. This inspired and promoted it as he did not want to accept the revolutionary
the idea of nationalism among the Germans. notion of the Assembly offering the crown
to him.
Before Napoleon Germany consisted
Otto von Bismarck,
of about 360 principalities. Napoleon
Chancellor Prussia,
unconsciously gave an impetus to the spirit
transformed it into a
of nationalism by forming a Confederation of
powerful state with the
the Rhine. For the first time, it gave a sense of
objective of uniting
unity to Germany. However, the Congress of
the Germanic states
Vienna, which transformed it into the German
under its leadership.
Confederation consisting of 39 states, placed it
He adopted a ‘blood
under the control of Austria. Bismarck
and iron’ policy to
At the time of Fichte’s addresses Austria was achieve the unification. He realised that the
occupying the territories of Prussia, the largest unification of Germany was not possible
and the most powerful of the Confederation of without an armed conflict with Austria and
German States. It kindled in Prussia the spirit to France. He sparked conflict with Austria and
achieve its past glory. It rebuilt and strengthened France through diplomatic moves. Bismarck
its army. Recruitment was based on merit and opened negotiations with Russia and ensured
not on old aristocratic standing. The zeal for Russian neutrality in the event of a conflict
liberalism and modernisation combined with between Prussia and Austria. Bismarck had to
nationalism in Prussia. fight three wars to achieve the unification of
In 1834, Prussia was successful in Germany.
establishing the Zollverein (customs union). By
the 1840s it included most of the Germanic Bismarck remarked: Not through speeches
states except those under the control of Austria and resolutions of majorities will the
and provided economic unity to the Germanic mighty problems of the age be solved, but
states. In 1848, popular pressure led to the by blood and iron.
introduction of an elected legislative assembly.

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Schleswig–Holstein Question end by the Treaty of Prague. Austria withdrew

Schleswig and Holstein were Germanic from the German confederation. The northern
States under the control of Denmark. In 1863, states were formed into a North German
the King of Denmark merged these two duchies Confederation under Prussia. Though defeated,
into his kingdom. Bismarck proposed to Austria Italy was rewarded with Venetia for its support
a joint action against Denmark. In 1864, the joint to Prussia. The North German Confederation
forces of Prussia and Austria defeated Denmark. consisted of 22 states north of river Maine. A
By the Treaty of Vienna, Denmark surrendered new constitution came into effect on 1 July 1867.
the duchies to Prussia and Austria. Differences Bismarck followed a friendly policy towards the
arose on the fate of the Schleswig and Holstein. southern states in an attempt to win them over.
While Austria wanted them to be made part of Franco–Prussian War of 1870–71
the German Confederation, Bismarck wanted to
administer them separately. By the Convention
of Gastein in 1865 it was agreed that Holstein
would be under the control of Austria and
Schleswig under the control of Prussia. Holstein
had a large German population and was located
within Prussian territory making it difficult for
Austria to administer it. When Austria decided
to refer the matter to the Diet of the German
Confederation, it violated the Convention of
Gastein. Bismarck ordered the Prussian troops
to occupy Holstein.
Franco–Prussian War
Austro–Prussian War of 1866
Bismarck next turned his attention to
create a rift between Prussia and France to unite
the southern German states. The opportunity
came over the issue of succession to the Spanish
throne. After a revolution in Spain which drove
Queen Isabella out of the country, the throne was
offered to Prince Leopold, a relative of the King
of Prussia. France was agitated over the issue. A
Austro–Prussian War threat of war was averted when Prince Leopold
By his diplomacy Bismarck had ensured declined the offer. Bismarck was disappointed.
the neutrality of Russia and France. He also got However, a new opportunity arose when
the support of Piedmont-Sardinia which wanted Gramont, the French Foreign Minister met
to drive Austria out of Venetia. Thus ensuring the King of Prussia in Ems. He demanded that
that Austria would not receive support from Prussia promise that it would not claim the
any major power, he forced Austria to attack throne of Spain in the future. The Prussian
Prussia. The Austro-Prussian war is also known King sent a telegram about the discussion to
as the Seven Weeks’ War. Prussia defeated Bismarck. He edited it in such a manner that
Austria at the Battle of Sadowa or Konnniggratz the French thought their ambassador had been
in Bohemia. While the Prussian army wanted insulted while the Prussians thought that their
to march into Austria and capture Vienna, king had been humiliated. The Ems telegram
Bismarck opposed it. The war was brought to an triggered the Franco-Prussian War.
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UNIFICATION OF GERMANY
N
W E
S

DENMARK LI
BALTIC S EA T

H
Kon i gs b erg

UA
N O RT H S C H L E S WI G

NIA
SEA Danzig EAST
PRUSSIA
HOLSTEIN ECK
LUB WEST
P O M E R A N I A
H ambur g PRUSSIA
ME C K L EN B U R G - Stettin
G

SC H W ER I N
UR
S

Bremen
NB
D

El
N

DE

ba
LA

POSEN vist
OL

H A N O V E R
BERLIN
ula
RUSSIAN
ER

(POSNANIA)
Hanover
EMPIRE
H
ET

Posen
M ün s t e r B R A N D E N B U R G
N

oder
G E R M A N E M P I R E
Rh

POLAND
in

WESTPHALIA Kassel S
Leipzig I
Cologne Dresden L Breslau
E
Y S
U

N I
A

O
Coblence X A
UM

THURINGIA
S

HESSE A
S

S
A
BELGI

L UX E M B U R G GALICIA
Frankfurt BOHEMIA

Kingdom of prussia in 1861

PALATINATE
Nürnberg EMPIRE OF AUSTRIA
LO

N Annexed by prussia by 1866

RR

A B A V A R I A
IN North German Confederation
E

E Strasbourg Stuttgart
Danube (1866 - 1871)
D

WURTEMBERG
FRANCE Other German States
CE

Munich
A
ALSA

Alsace-Lorraine, Imperial Province (1871)

B

AUSTRIA
HOHENZOLLERN German Empire’s Boundary in 1871
Not to Scale
SW ITZER LA N D

France declared The Founding of the Third

war on Prussia. In Republic in France
the Battle of Sedan
After the Battle of Sedan Napoleon III
(2 September
was taken prisoner, and later his government
1870) France was
was overthrown by a group of republicans in
defeated. French
Paris. A provisional government was set up
King Napoleon III
to rule the country until a new constitution
surrendered. Bismarck King Napoleon III
could be drafted. Elections were held in
however continued his February 1871 for a National Constituent
march to Paris and captured it. The war was Assembly. A majority of the members were
brought to an end by the Treaty of Frankfurt monarchists. It is not that the French people
in 1871. Bismarck imposed harsh terms on preferred a monarchy, but rather that they
France. France ceded Alsace-Lorraine and longed for peace. The monarchists were
agreed to pay a huge war indemnity. At the hopelessly divided and hence for almost
Versailles Palace, King William I of Prussia four years a definite decision as to the form
was declared the Emperor of Germany of government could not be taken. Finally,
which combined both the North German in January 1875, the National Assembly
Confederation and the southern states. Thus, decided on a republican form of government.
the Unification of Germany was achieved by a This signaled the establishment of the Third
combination of diplomacy and warfare. Republic in France.

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Paris Commune, 1871 the commune. It succeeded in persuading

In its bid to exact huge financial payment Bismarck to release French prisoners of war.
and to possess French Alsace and Lorraine It gathered them in Versailles, together with
to Prussia, the Prussian army besieged Paris. new recruits from the countryside. Both the
Paris held out through five months of siege in Central Committee of the National Guard and
conditions of incredible hardship with people the Commune were composed of Blanquists
starving and without fuel to warm their homes and Proudhanists. Marx could not influence
in winter. Workers, artisans and their families events in Paris. Soon the defeat of Commune
bore the full brunt of the suffering as prices was achieved by Thiers. Thereafter there was
soared. The Parisians grew bitter when bigger an orgy of violence. Anyone who had fought
numbers of monarchists were returned to the for the Commune was summarily shot. Troops
National Assembly. Then came the betrayal patrolled the streets picking up poorer people
of the republic – the appointment of 71-year- at will and condemning them death. It is
old Thiers. Paris was once again armed. As the estimated that between 20,000 and 30,000 were
regular army had been disbanded under the killed. Of the 40,000 communards (members
terms of agreement with Prussia, the Parisian of the commune) arrested, 5000 of them were
masses kept their arms. Along with National sentenced to be deported and another 5,000 to
Guards, now overwhelmingly a working class imprisonment.
body, they surrounded the soldiers. One of the Karl Marx had this to say on the Commune:
generals, Lecomte, gave orders to shoot at the “It represented the greatest challenge the new
crowd three times. But the soldiers stood still. world of capital had yet faced and the greatest
The crowd fraternised with the soldiers and inspiration to the new class created by capital in
arrested Lecomte and his officers. That day opposition to it.”
Thiers and his government fled the capital. One
of the world’s great cities was in the hands of The Long Depression (1873–1896)
armed workers. The world witnessed an unprecedented
economic boom during 1865–1873. The
unification led to a phenomenal boom in
Germany between 1870 and 1873. During this
period 857 new companies were established.
It was unparalleled in the history of Germany.
The railway system almost doubled in size
between 1865 and 1875. Tens of thousands of
Germans invested in stock for the first time to
demonstrate both their patriotism and their
faith in the future of the new German Empire.
After the end of Civil War, the United States
Paris Commune too underwent an economic transformation,
The Commune set about implementing marked by the proliferation of big business
measures in their interests – banning night work houses, and the massive development of
in bakeries and handing over to associations of agriculture attended with the rise of national
workers any workshops or factories shut down labour unions. The period from the 1870s to
by their owners, providing pensions for widows 1900 in the USA came to be called the Gilded
and free education for every child, and stopping Age. The rapid expansion of industrialisation
the collection of debts incurred during the siege. led to a real wage growth of 60% between
In the meantime, the republican government 1860 and 1890. The average annual wage per
was organising armed forces to suppress industrial worker (including men, women,
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and children) rose from $380 in 1880 to $564 result the steelworkers ultimately lost the strike.
in 1890. However, the Gilded Age was also an The Pullman Strike of 1894, a national railroad
era of abject poverty and inequality, as millions strike, involving the American Railway Union,
of immigrants – many from impoverished was smashed by armed police and Pinkerton
regions – poured into the United States. The private detectives were hired by the employers
high concentration of wealth in a few hands was to shoot down strikers.
becoming more visible.
Then came the Depression. It was signalled
by the collapse of the Vienna Stock Market in
May 1873. The Depression was world-wide and
lasted till 1896, and is referred to as the Long
Depression. It affected Europe and the US very
much. American railroads became bankrupt.
German shares fell by 60 percent. Agriculture
was most affected, as there was a fall in prices.
Many countries responded by imposing
protective tariffs to prevent competition. Pullman Strike
In Germany, the Socialist Democratic Party
(SDP) emerged as a popular party. However,
Bismarck introduced anti-socialist legislations
to check the growth of socialism. Despite this
support for the party grew. With the repeal of
the anti-socialist laws after 1890, socialist trade
unions were able to function openly. SDP’s share
of Reichstag seats increased from 3 percent in
1887 to 20 percent in 1903.
Panic of 1873 In Britain, in the 1880s, the famous Match
Girls Strike by the women and teenage girls
The Gilded age was also an era of intense
working in Bryant and May Match Factory ended
mass mobilisation of working classes. Socialist
in the victory of strikers. There was also a dock
and labour movements emerged in many
strike (1889) in the port of London. Cardinal
countries as a mass phenomenon. When
Manning intervened and mediated on behalf of the
industrial capitalism was at its peak in the US,
strikers with the dock owners. But, in the 1890s,
nearly 100,000 workers went on strike each year.
In 1892, for example, 1,298 strikes involving
some 164,000 workers took place across the
nation. Trade Unions, aiming at protecting
workers’ wages, hours of labour, and working
conditions, were on the rise.
Capitalists who could not reconcile to the
rise of trade unions launched a counter offensive.
The socialists suffered persecution.The strike
at the Carnegie Steel Company’s Homestead
Steel Works in 1892 culminated in a gun battle
between unionised workers and men hired
by the company to break the strike. The state
supported the company management and as a Match Girls Strike
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British employers, following the examples of their 3. A

 s s e r t i o n ( A ) : Ut o p i a n S o c i a l i s t s
counterparts in the US, also destroyed many of the recommended model communities,
new unions through professional strike breakers, where the means of production would be
starving people back to work, lockouts and the like. collectively owned.
Reason (R): They promoted a visionary idea
     Summary of a socialistic society, devoid of poverty and
„„Liberalism and nationalism joining hands unemployment.
to fight for democracy and Industrial (a) Both A and R are correct. R explains A
Revolution leading to the rise of working (b) Both A and R are correct. R does not
class movements and the coming of explain A
socialism are explained.
(c) A is correct but R is wrong
„„The early socialists and Marx and their
contribution are discussed. (d) A is wrong but R is correct
„„The Chartist Movement in England 4. Labour Unions were legalised in England in
and its tragic end without achieving its __________
objectives are analysed. (a) 1815 (b) 1822 (c) 1824 (d) 1827
„„The 1830 and the 1848 revolutions
5. Match the following and select the answer
and the growing aggressive nature of
from the code given below.
nationalism leaving its liberal thrust in
western Europe are highlighted. (A) New Christianity 1. William Lovett
„„Ascendency of nationalism in Italy and (B) A New View
Germany that emerged as nation states of Society 2. Louis Blanc
are detailed. (C) Revue du Progres 3. Saint Simon
„„The built-in weakness of the capitalist (D) The People’s
system during the long depression of Charter 4. Robert Owen
1873-1896, and the growing militancy of
(a) 2, 3, 4, 1 (b) 3, 4, 2, 1
the labour that was unscrupulously dealt
with by the capitalists in collusion with (c) 1, 4, 3, 2 (d) 3, 1, 2, 4
the state are analysed. 6. Marx and Engels published the Communist
Manifesto in __________
(a) 1842 (b) 1848 (c) 1867 (d) 1871
EXERCISE
7. A
 ssertion (A): The Chartist movement was
Q.R.Code
I. C hoose the not a riot or revolt.
correct answer Reason (R): It was an organised movement
1. Napoleon was exiled first of the working class.
time to __________ (a) Both A and R are correct. R explains A
(a) Elba (b) St. Helena (b) B
 oth A and R are correct. R does not explain A
(c) Corsica (d) Waterloo (c) A is correct but R is wrong
2. Napoleon was defeated by the allied forces of (d) A is wrong but R is correct
British, Belgians and Prussians at Waterloo in 8. 
The Chartist’s principal newspaper was
__________ __________
(a) France (b) Germany (a) The Poor Man’s Guardian
(c) Belgium (d) Italy (b) The Charter
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(c) The Northern Star 16. 

The Seven Weeks’ War was fought
(d) Il Risorgimento between__________

9. 
Louis Napoleon, the nephew of Napoleon (a) Denmark and Prussia
Bonaparte, assumed the title __________ (b) Piedmont-Sardinia and Austria
(a) Napoleon II (b) Napoleon III (c) France and Prussia
(c) Duke of Orleans (d) Napoleon IV (d) Austria and Prussia
The author of Code de la Nature is
10.  17. The Franco-Prussian War was triggered by
__________ __________
(a) Charles Fourier (a) Convention of Gastein
(b) Étienne-Gabriel Morally (b) Ems telegram
(c ) Saint Simon (c) The treaty of Prague

(d) Bakunin (d) 

Dispute over the control of Alsace-
Lorraine
11. A
 ssertion (A): The year 1848 was one of the
distinct triumphs for nationalism. 18. __________ delivered a series of Addresses
to the German Nation.
Reason (R): Absolutism seemed dead for a
(a) Johann von Herder
while.
(b) Friedrich Schliegel
(a) Both A and R are correct. R explains A
(c) J.G. Fichte
(b) B
 oth A and R are correct. R does not explain A
(d) Otto von Bismarck
(c) A is correct but R is wrong
19. A
 ssertion (A): J.G. Fichte promoted the idea
d) A is wrong but R is correct
of nationalism among the Germans.
12. The Second International was founded in
Reason (R): Fichte was the leader of Young
__________
Italy Movement.
(a) Paris (b) Berlin (c) London (d) Rome (a) Both A and R are correct. R explains A
13. The Young Italy Movement was started in (b) B
 oth A and R are correct. R does not explain A
the year__________
(c) A is correct but R is wrong
(a) 1822 (b) 1827 (c) 1831 (d) 1846
(d) A is wrong but R is correct
14. Parma, Modena and Tuscany were merged
20. Match and choose the correct answer from
with the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia
the code given below.
after__________
(A) Metternich 1. Ruler of Piedmont-
(a) plebiscite
Sardinia
(b) invasion of Charles Albert
(B) Charles X 2. French Foreign
(c) Treaty of Solferina Minister
(d) Treaty of Villa Franca (C) Gramont 3. French King
15. __________ was called the “Hero of Two (D) Charles Albert 4. Chancellor of
Worlds”. Austria-Hungary
(a) Charles Albert (b) Bismarck (a) 1, 3, 4, 2 (b) 4, 2, 1, 3
(c) Napoleon III (d) Garibaldi (c) 4, 1, 2, 3 (d) 4, 3, 2, 1

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II. Write brief answers IV. Answer the following in detail

1. Why is the period between June 24 and 26, 1. Identify the important collectivist thinkers
1848 considered the bloody June days? of nineteenth century and highlight their
2. What role did Concert of Europe play in contributions to Socialism.
Metternich Era? 2. Discuss the political fallout of French
Revolutions of 1848 in other parts of Europe.
3. 
Why was Italy described as “a mere
3. How was the unification of Italy achieved?
geographical expression” by Metternich?
4. Why is Bismarck considered the true architect
4. Explain Poor Laws. of a unified Germany?
5. Attempt an account of the first International
Working Men’s Association of 1864. V. Activity
6. Highlight the contribution of Carbonari to 1. Students may collect information on
the unification of Italy. Napoleon Bonaparte’s major wars in Europe.
7. Who was Francois Babeuf? 2. Compare the 1830 July Revolution with the
February Revolution of 1848.
8. What was the importance of Zollverein?
3. Explore how Metternich despite his anti-
9. What do you know of the Gilded Age? national and anti-revolutionary ideology
10. What is the importance of the year 1873 in could dominate the whole of Europe for more
the economic history of America? than three decades.
4. Find out as to why lots of people were living
III. Write short answers in poverty when the United States was
1. When France sneezes, Europe catches a cold – experiencing an economic boom, during the
Elucidate. Gilded Age.
2. “The Industrial Revolution was the basis
REFERENCES
for emerging the ideas of Socialism” –
Substantiate. „„Edwards Mcnall Burns, ed., World
3. Estimate the pioneering work done by Robert Civilizations: Their History and their
Owen in improving the condition of workers Culture, vol. II, W.W. Norton & Co., New
in his factories. York, 1991.
4. How did the 1830 July Revolution in France „„Albert S.Lindemann, A History of Modern
impact other parts of Europe? Europe: From 1815 to the Present, Wiley-
5. Trace the events that led to the formation of Balckwell, West Sussex, UK, 2013.
Paris Commune.
„„B.V. Rao, History of Modern Europe, A.D.
6. Discuss the measures adopted by Paris
1789-2013, Sterling Publishers, New Delhi,
Commune in the interests of the poor and the
2014.
working class.
7. Attempt an account of Working class struggles „„Chris Harman, A People’s History of the
during the period of Long Depression in World, Orient Longman, 2007.
Britain and America. „„Encyclopaedia Britannica

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GLOSSARY

turmoil confusion, disorder, unrest குழப்பம், கலவரம்

fraternity brotherhood சக�ோதரத்துவம்
foster nurture, grow, bring up வளர்த்தல்
exile deport or expel from a country நாடு கடத்து; நாடு கடத்தல்

despotically in a harsh and oppressive manner எதேச்சதிகாரமாக,

சர்வாதிகாரமாக
tenement dwelling, residence வசிப்பிடம்
abominably in an offensive and hateful manner மிகவும் வெறுக்கத்தக்க
unbridled not controlled அடக்கி வைக்கப்படாத, தடையற்ற

unscrupulous without principles க�ொள்கையில்லாத,

பழிபாவங்களுக்கு அஞ்சாத
one who believes that the inherent
physiocrat natural order governing society is இயற்கைமுறை அரசாட்சி
வேண்டுமென்பவர்
based on land.
denounce reject, condemn கண்டனம் தெரிவி, நிராகரி
ideally perfect state, an imaginary
utopia
place considered to be perfect கற்பனையுலகு

dogma
a belief especially political or சமயக்கொள்கை, அரசியல்
religious one. க�ோட்பாடு
envisage predict or foresee எதிர்நோக்கு
recourse choice, alternative மாற்று, விருப்பேற்பு
antagonism hostility முரண்பாடு, குர�ோதம்
prophesy prediction, forecast முன்னறிவித்தல், தீர்க்கதரிசனம்
suffrage right to vote, franchise வாக்குரிமை
intimidation frightening, terrorising அச்சுறுத்தல், மிரட்டல்
insurrection revolt, uprising கிளர்ச்சி, கலகம்
resign from one’s office or step
abdicate down from the throne; fail to fulfill பதவி, அரியணை
ப�ோன்றவற்றைத் துற
responsibility
swarmed moved in திரளாக நுழை
make an attack in return for a
retaliate
similar attack பதிலடி க�ொடு

plebiscite referendum poll ப�ொது வாக்கெடுப்பு

brunt full force of a blow or an attack தாக்குதலின் முழுவலிமை
proliferation rapid increase in the number பெருக்கம், பல்கிப் பெருகுதல்

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UNIT
Imperialism and its Onslaught
13
Learning Objectives

To acquaint ourselves with Q.R.Code

„„Rise of Imperialism in the context of alliance between monopoly industry

and finance to conquer markets
„„Race for colonies and the resultant conflict among nations, culminating in the outbreak of
World War I
„„Causes, course and consequences of World War I
„„The Russian Revolution and its Significance
„„The Great Depression of 1930s
„„Fascist Counter-Revolution in Italy and Germany

   Introduction approach to other nations, particularly to

Britain. At last mutual suspicion and a strained
Throughout the eighteenth century there situation led to the First World War. With the
was steady industrial development and intense defeat of Germany and its allies in the war, a
commercial activity. As a result, in the following conference met at Versailles (1919) to draw up
century, Europe emerged as the dominant conditions for peace. One of the striking features
power, while Asia and Africa were colonised of the settlement was the formation of League of
and exploited. Within Europe England held Nations for the guarantee of future world peace.
a pre-eminent position as the world leader of Inflation and food shortages during the War
capitalism. With the revolution in transport contributed to a revolution in Russia. On the
and communication, between 1870 and 1914, other hand, the discontentment over the peace
a global economy developed. Steamship and settlement, political instability, impact of Great
telegraph lines linked continents, while railways Depression all contributed to the rise of fascist
linked the interiors to ports. Finance flowed governments in Italy and Germany.
from Europe and the USA fuelling world-wide
economic activity. An ever-growing demand for
markets and raw materials made the capitalist 13.1 Rise of Imperialism
powers race round the world for expanding
their empire for exploitation. The search for (a) D  ominance of Industrial
markets, the fierce competition for trade, the Capital and Advocacy of Free
fight for more colonies, all these plunged the Trade
rival nations into conflict. It was believed in the seventeenth century
The feeling that Germany had not been that a state’s greatness was dependent on
given its rightful place among the comity of commerce. It was natural, therefore, that the
nations accounted for its uncompromising interests of the state and of the merchant class

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became identical. The Mercantilist period barriers were reduced and the economies
(1600–1700) was a period of accumulation of of western European nations boomed. The
capital that facilitated the industrial revolution capitalism of free competition (based on the
in Europe. The leading powers of the time, principle of free trade without any control
Holland, France and England, became major or regulation by the state) later became the
colonial powers with access to overseas markets. capitalism of monopolies. In the battle of
Yet it was England, accomplishing industrial competition, as Marx observed, little business
revolution first, that emerged as the most was either crushed by big business or merged
powerful country. The export markets for with it to make still larger big business. By the
England existed initially in Europe. But as other middle of the nineteenth century partnerships
countries began to industrialise, the market for and joint-stock companies were giving way to
export of surplus manufactures had to be found trusts, followed by cartels. These powerful trusts
elsewhere. and cartels influenced governments.

Trusts are combinations of all or nearly

all of the producers of certain goods in
order to control their price and production.
In the USA, heavy industry was organised
through trusts-association of companies
which controlled production from the
extraction of raw materials to the disposal
The Mercantilist period
of finished products. Cartels are associations
Right from its inception Mercantilism of independent companies for the primary
had come under attack. Excessive control purpose of restricting competition in the sale
of industry in France led to a demand for no of their products. Cartels flourished because
control of industry. Physiocrats in France they enabled German producers to gain great
strongly advocated free trade. Laissez-faire, a leverage in world trade.
word coined by a French businessman named
de Gournay, became the cry everywhere. Adam
Smith, Scottish philosopher and economist, in 13.2  Scramble for Colonies
his influential book An Inquiry into the Nature and Road to War
and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (1776),
criticised the colonial (a) M  arkets for Raw Materials and
policy of the mercantilists Manufactured Goods leading
and argued for free trade to Colonisation
and free market. His In the second half of the nineteenth century
Wealth of Nations deeply many nations faced a problem of surplus of
influenced the politicians manufactured goods for which they had to find
of the time and paved outside markets. The answer to the problem, as
the way for the great evidenced from the experience of England, was
nineteenth-century era Adam Smith possession of colonies. Besides being a market
of free trade. for surplus goods, colonies could serve another
Having earned huge profits out of its useful purpose. Mass production needed
monopoly trade, England decided on a free large scale supply of raw materials such as
trade policy in 1833. Among the nations that grains, cotton, rubber, crude oil, minerals, etc.
followed England in this respect were Belgium, Industrialists did not want to be dependent on
the Netherlands, Norway, Piedmont, Portugal, other countries for the supply of raw materials.
Spain, and Sweden. As a consequence, trade They wanted direct control of the sources of
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these raw materials. The desire for markets and them, leaving a few areas to Germany and
control of the sources of raw materials was a Italy. Britain, France, Russia and Germany also
major factor in the making of imperialism. established “spheres of influence” in China.
After the 1870s, England, along with major Japan took over Korea and Taiwan. France
powers such as France, Belgium, Italy, and conquered Indo-China; the US the Philippines
Germany joined in the scramble for colonies as from Spain, while Britain and Russia agreed to
a market for surplus goods. America’s turn came partition Iran.
in 1898 when it defeated Spain and seized the The attempts to carve out colonies in
Philippines. It is interesting to note that in every Africa, as happened elsewhere, involved them in
case, whether in India or China or Africa, the first bloody battles in which the indigenous people
step towards integration of explored territories lost. New weapons such as breech-loading
was taken by imperial agents or missionaries or rifles and Gatling machine guns gave European
monopolistic trading companies. In less than armies the decisive edge in most of the battles.
twenty years the whole of Central Africa was
(b) M
 onopoly Capitalism leading
partitioned and incorporated in the empires of
to full-fledged Imperialism
Britain, France, Germany, Belgium, Portugal
and Italy. Monopoly industry brought huge profits
In 1876 barely 10 percent of Africa was to its owners. The result was accumulation
under European rule. By 1900 practically the of surplus money. The captains of industry
whole of Africa was colonised. Britain, France found out that by exporting capital abroad
and Belgium had divided the continent between they could earn increased profits. They
began to invest the surplus money in
Partition of Africa: In 1876 King Leopold II colonies where there was a pressing need for
of Belgium took the lead in exploring and railways, electricity, roads, etc. Apart from
seizing through his International African direct investment, loans were also arranged
Association, a great rubber producing region, from the “mother country”. When England
what is now known as Belgian Congo. In made loans to India for the constructions of
1881 a French expedition occupied Tunis, railways, the rails, engines and other required
to the great displeasure of the Italians who accessories were purchased in England again
had been longing to annex it. In 1891 they at a profit to English manufacturers. Thus
occupied the Ivory Coast, Dahomey in 1892 both investors and manufacturers found it
and Madagascar in 1895. Great Britain, apart in their interests to support colonialism.
from conquering Natal and the Transvaal in This alliance of industry and finance seeking
south Africa, annexed many parts of Africa. profits in markets of goods and capital was
In 1883 Great Britain succeeded in securing the essential characteristic of imperialism.
control over Egypt. The Gold Coast colonies,
Uganda, Zanzibar, part of East Africa, and English economist
Rhodesia became part of the British Empire. John A. Hobson defined
Between 1884 and 1890 Germany acquired Imperialism as follows:
Togoland, the Cameroons, German South- Imperialism is the
West Africa and German East Africa. The endeavour of the great
scramble for territory among the great controllers of industry to
European powers resulted in the completion broaden the channel for
of partition of “The Dark Continent of Africa” the flow of their surplus John A. Hobson
by the end of the century. Only countries such wealth by seeking foreign markets and
as Liberia, Morocco and Abyssinia remained foreign investments to take off the goods and
un-annexed. capital they cannot sell or use at home.

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(c) P  rotectionism and Consequent

Political Friction
Two major financial crashes, one in Vienna
and the other in New York, led to a full blown
economic depression in Europe and America
in the mid-1870s. The depression severely
affected production, prices and wages. Cheap
grain flooded the markets of western European
nations affecting the domestic producers who Franco-Prussian War
suffered due to fall in prices. People began to The objective of France was to recover
question the wisdom of free trade policies. Alsace and Lorraine that it had lost after the
Germany precipitated a crisis by its protectionist Franco-Prussian War (1871). The French
policy. Its Tariff Act of 1879 imposed tariffs on also had an ambition of adding mineral-
industrial and agricultural imports into Imperial rich Morocco to their African empire. Russia
Germany. Soon other nations followed suit. As entertained the hope of gaining control of
Britain could fall back on its policy of colonial the Bosporus and the Dardenelles (under
trade preferences, it revoked trade treaties in Turkey’s control then), as they were expected
1898 with France and Germany. Tariff actions to give access to the Mediterranean and to
and counter-actions by the various European take possession of Istanbul. Russia’s plan was
powers escalated protectionism and political to lay claim to the Balkans once Turkey was
friction. The leaders who administered the eliminated from Europe. Italian foreign policy
empires realised that the outcome of such was based on hopes at the expense of Austria
conflict would depend on the strength of their and Turkey. Austria’s hold on Trieste and other
armed forces. So they vied with each other in parts of Adriatic coast was precarious since
building their arsenal, thereby creating the much of this territory was inhabited by Italians.
conditions for war. Turkey blocked Italy’s acquisition of Tripoli
and other territories in North Africa. As for
13.3 World War I Britain, despite the lead in industrial growth
and control of a vast empire, it had to compete
(a) Pre-War Power Politics with Germany and the United States, which
were producing cheaper manufactured goods
Europe
and thus capturing England’s markets.
By the turn of the
century Germany had Asia
emerged as the most In Asia, during the Meiji era (1867–1912),
powerful industrial as Japan became a great industrial power and
state in the Continent. the Japanese people more educated, there
By then the world was developed an aggressive nationalism and a wish
largely occupied by to become a world power. Japan joined in the
the other imperialist scramble for China. Japan invaded Korea, then
Kaiser William II
powers. Under Kaiser an independent kingdom and drove out the
William II, Germany sought colonies. Its Chinese army. In the ensuing Sino-Japanese
ambition was to gain control over north Africa. War, according to the Treaty of Shimonoseki
German capitalists and imperialists also desired signed at the end, Japan got Formosa, Port
eastward expansion and the government obliged Arthur and Liaotung peninsula. The crushing
them by constructing a railway line from Berlin defeat of China by Japan in (1894–95) surprised
to Baghdad to facilitate economic control of the the world. Fearing this sudden increase in Japan’s
Ottoman Empire. power, the European powers forced Japan to give
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up the Liaotung peninsula. Japan resented this (1873), an alliance

“Triple Intervention” (intervention of France, involving Germany,
England and Russia in 1895) and embarked on Austria and Russia,
a big armaments programme. however failed. But he
succeeded in cementing
Japan in “Charmed Circle of Great a strong relationship
Powers” with Austria, which,
Even more significant than the Sino– expecting troubles
Japanese War was the Japanese defeat of Russia Bismarck
from the Slavs inside
in 1904–05. Following the “Triple Intervention,” and outside its borders, wanted to have an
Russia had occupied southern Manchuria. Japan understanding with Germany. In 1882 this
entered into an alliance with England in 1902 alliance was expanded into the Triple Alliance
and demanded that Russia withdraw its troops. with the inclusion of Italy.
Russia underestimated Japan. In 1904 a war
As a counter-move to Germany, France
broke out. In this Russo-Japanese War, Japan
started negotiations with Russia which ended
was victorious and by the treaty of Portsmouth
in a secret military pact signed in 1894.
signed at the mediation of the USA, Japan got
Accordingly, it was decided that each should
back Port Arthur. With this war Japan had
come to the aid of the other in case of an attack
entered the “charmed circle of the great Powers”.
by Germany, or Austria or Italy supported by
Strong-arm Diplomacy of Japan Germany. In the meantime, Britain abandoned
after 1905 its isolation and struck an alliance with Japan.
The assassination of a prominent Japanese Since France was Russia’s ally, Japan preferred
diplomat by a Korean provided the excuse to ally with Britain (1902). The Anglo–Japanese
in 1910 for Japan’s annexation of Korea. The Alliance prompted France to seek an alliance
confusion in China following the downfall of with Britain to resolve disputes over Morocco
Manchu dynasty in 1912 provided Japan with and Egypt. This resulted in the Entente Cordiale
an opportunity for further expansion. In 1915 (1904). In return for letting the French have
Japan presented Twenty-One Demands to the a free hand in Morocco, France agreed to
President of the newly established Chinese recognize the British occupation of Egypt.
Republic, Yuan Shih-kai. These demands Britain subsequently reached an agreement
included transfer of German rights in the with Russia in 1907 for the division of Persia
Chinese coastal province of Shantung to Japan into spheres of influence. Thus was formed the
and the recognition of Japanese hold over Triple Entente of Britain, France and Russia
Manchuria, and the appointment of Japanese Thus, by 1907, the great powers of Europe
advisers to the Chinese government. The had come to be arrayed in two opposing camps:
Chinese had to concede most of the Japanese the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary
demands. and Italy) and the Triple Entente (Britain,
(b) Causes of the War France and Russia).

(i) T
 he Evolution of the System of (ii) I
nternational Crises between
Alliances 1905 and 1913
The evolution of the system of alliances Morocco
goes back to the 1870s. Its original architect Relying on their understanding with
was Bismarck. Bismarck feared that the French, England (Entente Cordiale, 1904) the French
on losing Alsace and Lorraine, might launch a decided to go ahead with their plan in Morocco.
war of revenge. Therefore he was determined Early in 1905, a French mission arrived at Fez,
to isolate France. His Three Emperors League a city in Morocco, treating it as a part of French
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protectorate. Germany protested. French agreed Balkan War I

to refer the dispute to a European conference. With encouragement from Russia, Greece,
Nothing came of this conference held at Algiers. Serbia, Bulgaria and later Montenegro the
Yet it was clear that Britain had ranged itself on Balkan League was formed in March 1912 to
the side of France against Germany. take over Macedonia. Macedonia had a mixed
population.The war started in October 1912
Agadir, 1911
and in less than two months the resistance of
Within a year, the French were again active
the Turks was broken. The Turks were driven
in Morocco. This time the Germans sent their
from their European provinces. But the problem
gunboat Panther to Agadir, a sea port on the started while dividing the conquered territories.
Moroccan coast claiming German interests According to the Treaty of London signed in
there. The Germans took notice of British May 1913 the new state of Albania was created
threats and decided not to precipitate the and Macedonia was divided.
matter further. However, France had to make
considerable concessions to Germany in West Balkan War II
Africa to balance the French gains in Morocco. The victors quarrelled over the division
of Macedonia. Bulgarians attacked their allies
Bosnian Crisis Serbia and Greece, but were easily defeated.
A serious crisis occurred in 1908 when The Turks took the opportunity to retake
Austria–Hungary suddenly announced the Adrianople, which they had lost. The second
annexation of Bosnia (peopled by Serbians) and Balkan War ended with the signing of the Treaty
Herzegovina, which until then had remained of Bucharest in August 1913.
an Austrian protectorate. This was a strategic Two things emerged out of the Balkan
move on the part of Russia that gave freedom crisis. First, the Bulgarians felt injured and
to move its warships, through the Dardanelles awaited an opportunity to take revenge on
and the Bosporus, to the Mediterranean. The Serbia. Secondly, the passions of the Serbians
Turks were angry but could do nothing. Serbia were inflamed by victory. From this time on,
was furious and appealed to Russia for help. But anti-Austrian struggle in Serbia and in the
Russia had not fully recovered from the war neighbouring province of Bosnia became ever
with Japan and did not therefore intervene, as more militant.
it would have to face an aggressive Germany
Immediate Cause
in support of Austria-Hungary. So Russia and
Serbia had to wait until a more favourable time. The climax to these
events in the Balkans
The Balkan Wars occurred in Sarajevo
Turkey was a powerful country in the in Bosnia. On 28 June
south-west of Europe in the first half of 1914 the Archduke
eighteenth century. Its empire extended over Franz Ferdinand, heir to
the Balkans and across Hungary to Poland. Franz Joseph, Emperor
(Balkans is a region in south-eastern Europe of Austria-Hungary, was Franz Ferdinand
between the Mediterranean and the Black Sea.) assassinated by a Bosnian
Taking advantage of the political and economic student Princip, a Serb. Austria asserted that the
instability of the Turkish Empire from the assassin had acted at the instigation of Serbia. After
second half of the eighteenth century, Greece, a month, an ultimatum was served to Belgrade,
followed by others, began to secede, one after demanding unconditional surrender. The Serbian
another, from Turkish control. explanation and Germany’s effort at mediation

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were turned down by Austria. Britain tried to the United States gave only moral support and
localise the war. On 28 July Austria declared war (valuable) material aid to Britain and France.
on Serbia and bombarded Belgrade. Even as Russia
Battle of the Frontiers
was mobilising forces to intervene in support of
Serbia, Germany struck first. It declared war on Western Front, 1914
Belgians could do little in the face of German
Russia and its ally France on 1 August.
invasion except to make a formal protest against
Britain was against involving itself in the War.
the violation of their neutrality. So the burden
But on 3 August, an appeal came from the King
of breaking the advancing German army fell
of Belgium asking for British help. Belgium was
on the French. The French could not stop the
not on the side of the Allies. Yet it was invaded
overwhelming force of invasion. The first German
by Germany. The German violation of Belgian
advance was within twenty miles of Paris. The
neutrality was viewed seriously. It had been the
panicked French government had to move to
age-long policy of Britain that the Belgian coast
Bordeaux.
should not be in the hands of any adjacent Great
Powers, which might use those shores as a basis Eastern Front, 1914
for invasion. So in pursuance of this principle On the Eastern Front, the Russian forces
of national security Britain now decided to penetrated far into East Prussia, In the battle of
fight Germany. On 3 August an ultimatum was Tannenberg Russia suffered heavy losses on account
served on Germany demanding its immediate of the decisive role played by Von Hindenburg.
withdrawal from Belgian soil. On 4 August Britain The German general Hindenburg later began the
and Germany were at war. invasion of Russian Poland. But trapped in a two-
front war, Germany never had sufficient resources
(c) Course of the War
to consolidate its victories in the east.
War Spreads
Though the wars fought in the Eastern Front
Following Britain’s plunge into the war other
turned out to be a disaster for Allies, this caused
nations were quickly drawn into the conflict.
distraction and helped to relieve the pressure on
Montenegro joined with the Serbia on 7 August
France. In the Battle of the Marne (6–13 September
in fighting Austria. Two weeks later the Japanese
1914), the French succeeded in stopping the
declared war on Germany, with the intention of
German advance. By 13 September the Germans
conquering German possessions in the Far East.
had been thrust back about fifty miles. Paris was
In October Turkey began the bombardment of
thus saved.
Russian ports in the Black Sea. Italy maintained
neutrality until May 1915, but was dragged into Conquest of German Colonies
the war on the side of Triple Entente powers, with One important result of the British command
the promise of Austrian and Turkish territories. of the seas was that the Germans were unable to
send aid to their colonies. So, all of them, except
Central Powers and Allies
German East Africa, were captured during the
The warring nations were grouped into two,
first few months of the war.
namely the Central Powers
and the Axis. The Central Western Front, 1915
Powers consisted of Germany, Q.R.Code After the first German effort to annihilate
Austria–Hungary, Turkey and France had failed, the opposing armies on the
Bulgaria. The nine states that Western Front settled down to trench warfare,
opposed the Central powers digging in along a 650 km front from the English
were: Russia, France, Britain, Italy, the United Channel to Switzerland. Behind a barbed
States, Belgium, Serbia, Romania and Greece. wire, machine-guns and artillery on each side
Most Americans wanted their country to remain confronted the other for almost four years in a war
neutral and therefore in the first three years of attrition.
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Trench Warfare: The bullets and shells Q Ships and U Boats: During the First World
flying through the air in the battle War Germany's most fearsome weapon was
conditions of First World War compelled the submarine or U-Boat. The Germans
soldiers to burrow into the soil to obtain adopted a strategy to starve Britain by sinking
shelter and survive. Trenches or ditches every ship it could. 880,000 tons of shipping
dug by troops enabled them to protect went to the bottom of the seas in one month
themselves from the effects of shell-fire. The alone. The Q-ships were Britain's answer to
Germans supplied their infantry with deep, the Germany. The British sent more than
well-constructed dug-outs, lit by electric 200 steamers, trawlers, and cargo vessels in
light, and furnished with beds. The typical a disguised form of a cargo ship and pressed
trench system in World War consisted of into action against the U-boat menace. The
two to four trench lines running parallel to idea was to lure the U-boats into attacking
each other. Each trench was dug in a zigzag these decoy ships which would unleash its
manner so that no enemy, standing at one hidden armed force and weaponry.
end, could fire for more than a few yards
down its length. The main lines of trenches
were connected to each other and to the War in Eastern front, 1917
rear by a series of linking trenches through The breakthrough in the east for the
which food, ammunition, fresh troops, Central Powers came with the overthrow of
mail, and orders were delivered. Russia’s Tsarist regime in the February 1917
revolution, allowing Germany to concentrate its
efforts in the west. Soviet Russia wanted peace
Battles of Somme and Verdun, and consequently it signed the Treaty of Brest-
1916 Litovsk (3 March 1918) with Germany.
Germans thought a protracted battle on
a large scale would wear down the French The Gallipoli Campaign of 1915–16: Also
morale. So they attacked Verdun, the famous known as the Dardanelles Campaign, it
fortress in the French line, between February was an unsuccessful attempt by the Allied
and July 1916. The losses on both sides were Powers to control the sea route from Europe
terrible. The main burden of taking a principal to Russia. Lack of sufficient intelligence and
part in the campaign in France, however, fell knowledge of the terrain, along with fierce
on Great Britain. The British offensive against Turkish resistance, hampered the success of
Germans occurred near the River Somme. the invasion. By mid-October, Allied forces
The battle of Verdun, in which two million had suffered heavy casualties and had made
people took part, along with Battle of Somme, little headway from their initial landing sites.
however, decided the fortunes of the War in
favour of the Allies.
The Battle of Cambrai: (November–
Jutland, 1916 December 1917) This battle in Cambrai,
France, was significant for the first use of
At sea, the main battle was fought in May
tanks by the British on a large scale. Germans
1916 off the Jutland peninsula, Denmark. The
were taken completely by surprise when 340
battle was inconclusive. The Battle of Jutland
tanks appeared suddenly.
is remembered as the largest naval battle of
the First World War. Naval battles ended
when (1916) the German government America’s Entry into the War
authorised unrestricted submarine warfare to The intensified submarine campaign brought
combat the Allied naval blockade. America into the war. The British liner, Lusitania,

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was sunk in May 1915 by a German submarine Georges Clemenceau (Prime Minister of France)
with the loss of 128 American lives. President played an important part in the deliberations.
Woodrow Wilson who managed to maintain The peace was based on the Woodrow Wilson’s
American neutrality for nearly two years finally 14-point programme.
yielded to the pressure from the people of America
and declared war against Germany in April 1917. President Wilson’s peace proposals
America’s entry with its enormous resources included: 1. Open covenants openly
made Allied victory a foregone conclusion. arrived at. 2. Freedom of the seas.
3. Removal of economic barriers between
nations. 4. Reduction of armaments.
5. Impartial settlement of colonial claims,
with consideration for the interests of
the peoples involved, 6. Russia should be
allowed to operate whatever government
it wanted and that government should
Lusitania be accepted, supported and welcomed.
7. Restoration of the independence of
Allies Deserting Germany Belgium. 8. Restoration of Alsace and
On 3 November 1918 Emperor Charles, who Lorraine to France. 9. readjustment of Italian
succeeded Francis Joseph, signed an armistice frontiers on lines of nationality. 10. National
which took Austria out of power. But in the last Self-Determination. 11. Restoration of
few weeks of the war, Germany was deserted by Romania, Serbia and Montenegro, with
all its allies. The first to surrender was Bulgaria. outlet to sea for Serbia. 12. Autonomous
The Turks opted for an armistice. Germany was development for the peoples of Turkey,
now left with the impossible task of carrying on with the Straits from the Black Sea to the
the struggle alone. The morale of German troops Mediterranean “permanently opened.”
was low. The blockade of the Allies was causing 13. An independent Poland, inhabited by
enormous distress to the people of Germany. indisputably Polish populations and with
Kaiser abdicated the throne and fled to Holland. In access to the sea. 14. A League of Nations.
the meantime a provisional government headed
by Friedrich Ebert, leader of the socialists in the Faced with a threat of a renewed war,
Reichstag, took steps to conclude negotiations for the German government was forced to agree
an armistice. On 11 November Germany signed to the terms. On 28 June 1919 the peace
the surrender. treaty was signed in the Hall of Mirrors at
Versailles.
(d)Peace Conference in Paris
Separate treaties were drawn up and
signed by the Allies with Austria (Treaty of
St. Germain), Hungary (Trianon), Bulgaria
(Neuilly) and Turkey (Sevres). The Treaty
with Turkey (Treaty of Sevres), though
accepted by the Sultan, failed because of the
resistance of Kemal Pasha and his followers.
Paris Peace Conference (e) P
rovisions of the Versailles
The Peace Conference opened in Paris in Treaty
January 1919. Woodrow Wilson (USA), Lloyd The provisions of the Treaty of Versailles
George (Prime Minister of England), and can be summarised as follows: Germany
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was required to surrender Alsace–Lorraine enforced as the Government of Netherlands

to France.The coal mines in the Saar Valley refused to hand over the German Emperor
were to be ceded to France. The Saar was to to the Allies.
be administered by the League of Nations
until 1935, when a plebiscite would be held 13.4  Russian Revolution
to determine whether it should remain under and its Impact
the League, be returned to Germany, or be
awarded to France. Poland was pieced together Introduction
by the joining of Polish provinces of Russia, The most significant outcome of the First
Austria and Germany, with a corridor to the World War was the Russian revolution. The
Baltic containing the German port of Danzig Tsarist government in Russia was faced with
which was to be under the political control unbearable strains in the First World War.
of League of Nations. Germany was forced to People went hungry. Cities and towns were
give up all the rights and titles over its overseas filled with workers who could not be adequately
possessions to the allies. All German colonies fed and housed. In March 1917, there erupted
became mandated territories under the League the first revolution (February Revolution) with
of Nations. strikes and demonstrations in Petrograd. The
To prevent any new attack upon France first revolution did not solve any of Russia’s
or Belgium, Germany was forbidden to keep problems. Though the Russian monarchy was
overthrown, the interim government carried
soldiers or maintain fortifications in the Rhine
on the war. Therefore there was a second great
valley. The Rhineland was to be occupied by the
uprising in November (October revolution)
Allies. The area on the east bank of the Rhine
in which the Bolsheviks under the guidance
was to be demilitarised. In Eastern Europe the
of Lenin, seized power and established a
provinces of Russia ceded to Germany according
communist government in Russia.
to the treaty of Brest-Litovsk were made into
the independent republics of Finland, Estonia,
Latvia and Lithuania. After being non-existent
for a century, Poland was pieced together by the
joining of Polish provinces.
Germany was disarmed and was forced
to give up practically all of its submarines and
battleships. Germany was forbidden to have
any airplanes, either military or naval and its
army was to be limited to 100,000 officers and
men. The union of Austria and Germany was February Revolution
forbidden and Germany was to acknowledge
and respect the Independence of Austria. (a) Causes of the Revolution
Germany and its allies were held responsible Autocratic Rule of Tsars
for the loss and damage suffered during the In the nineteenth century, Russia was a
war. The exact amount of war reparations was backward country ruled by a series of autocratic
decided in 1921 as 33 billion dollars. Tsars. They kept Russia economically and
William II, the German emperor was socially backward. Serfs were persecuted and
charged with the supreme offence against lived miserable lives. Anti-Semitism was rife
the International morality and the sanctity with the persecution and massacre of Jews.
of treaties. He was to be tried by a Tribunal. There was no space for democratic dissent.
However, this provision could not be Intellectuals, university professors, students,
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out their livelihood. So the peasants became the

Vladimir Ilyich Lenin combustible material for the revolution.
(1870–1924): Lenin
was born near the Industrial backwardness and
Middle Volga. In 1887 abominable living condition of
his eldest brother was working class
hanged for taking part
Russia began to industrialise late. Russia
in an attempt on the
lagged behind all great European powers.
Tsar’s life. Influenced by
Lenin Russian workers laboured under oppressive
the ideas of Karl Marx,
conditions. Trade unions and strikes were
Lenin believed that the way for freedom was
completely banned. The Russian working class
through mass action. He spent his time taking
was looking for an opportunity to protest.
classes for study groups of factory workers in
St Petersburg on Marxism. Arrested in 1895 Role of Nihilists
he was kept in Siberia. After his release in
The young, radical and non-gentry
1900, he moved from one boarding house to
intellectuals who waged a merciless war
another in the big cities of Europe. In 1903 a
against the Russian state were called Nihilists
congress of forty-three delegates of the Social
by their enemies. The first unsuccessful
Democratic Party, the chief party of the left,
attempt on the life of Tsar Alexander II and
moved to London. Here the congress split
innumerable trials that followed dubbing the
on the issue of organisation and strategy.
suspected intellectuals as nihilists and sending
Lenin gained the support of a small majority
them, both men and women, to Siberia did
(bolshinstvo), known as Bolsheviks, which
not stop their revolutionary activities in
became the Bolshevik Party. His opponents,
Russia. Revolutionary forces swelled, as many
in a minority (menshinstvo), were called
minority groups such as the Jews and Poles
Mensheviks.
joined them.

scientists and writers suffered imprisonment Nihilism represented a revolt against

and exile for expressing opinions. The Tsars the established social order. It rejected all
authority exercised by the state, by the
were universally hated and everyone looked
church and by the family. It based its belief
forward to their downfall.
on nothing but scientific truth.
Conditions of Peasantry
Russia was basically a peasant society. Marxism and Its Influence
Nearly one-half of the population were serfs Marx and Engels held the firm view
tied to the land. Russian peasants were forced that the existence of the bourgeoisie was
to labour on their lords’ lands for a few days as necessary a condition for the Socialist
every week without any payment, and were revolution as the proletariat. They never
not allowed to marry without the consent of envisaged the possibility of a successful
the lords. Serfs were punished severely even Socialist revolution in backward Russia.
However, Marxist ideas, apart from other
for minor faults.During the reign of Nicholas
radical ideas such as anarchism and
I, there were more than five hundred serf riots
various forms of socialism, gained ground
in various parts of Russia, but they were all in a situation were living conditions were
crushed ruthlessly. Alexander II issued an edict oppressive. But Marxist groups were in the
of emancipation in 1861 and freed the serfs. lead, and in Lenin they found a charismatic
But they were not provided with land to eke leader with great organisational skills.
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Autocracy of the Tsar Nicholas II there was a rumour of a palace revolution,

Nicholas made himself the Commander-in-
Tsar Nicholas II of
Chief of his army and was making a mess of
the Romanov dynasty
everything. Towards the end of 1916, Rasputin,
had little experience
a domineering influence over the Tsar and the
of government. His
Tsarina, was murdered creating a crisis in the
wife Alexandra was a
palace. Members of the St. Petersburg Soviet
dominant personality
were arrested.
and Nicholas was under
her strong influence. Popular Uprisings
Tsar Nicholas II
Determined that Russia As late as on 23 February 1917, when the
should not be left out in the scramble for socialists celebrated International Working
colonial possessions, Nicholas encouraged Women’s Day, the Tsar seemed unchallengeable.
Russian expansion in Manchuria, provoking a But he had to abdicate on the morning of 2
war with Japan in 1904. The resulting Russian March. Though none called for strikes, the
defeat led to strikes and riots. Opposition to the bread shortages among women textile workers,
Tsar grew. with their husbands in the army, forced them
On 23 January 1905 Father Gapon, to go on strike anyway and march through the
organised a march of men, women and children. factory areas of Petrograd. Masses of women
The processions were peaceful and unarmed, workers in a militant frame of mind demanding
with demands for a representative national “Bread for workers” waved their arms towards
assembly, and agrarian and industrial reforms. factory workers and shouted “Come out!” “Stop
But police and soldiers fired on the procession. work!” The city’s 400,000 workers joined the
Hundreds were killed and many thousands movement the next day (24 February).
wounded. The events of this day (known as
Bloody Sunday) led to riots, strikes and violence Abdication of Tsar
in which the governor-general of Moscow, was The government used the military to break
killed by a bomb. the strike. But on the fourth day of strikes and
demonstrations mutinies broke out even in the
Nicholas was forced to grant a constitution
barracks. The Tsar declared martial law. But
and establish a parliament, the Duma. This was
his order was not broadcast in the city, as there
no longer satisfactory to the left-wing parties
was no one to do this job. The Tsar then tried
that formed a soviet (council) of workers’
to return to Petrograd. The railway workers
delegates in St Petersburg. Similar soviets
stopped his train on the way. Frightened by
were set up in other cities. The Duma gave the
these developments, the generals at the front
middle classes, a voice in government. So the
and some leaders in Petrograd, pleaded with the
moderates were supportive of the government’s
Tsar to abdicate. On 15 March, a week after the
policy, while the left wing continued their
popular uprisings, Nicholas II abdicated.
opposition. But whenever the Duma opposed
any initiative of the Tsar, it was dissolved and Provisional Government
fresh elections were held. Without change of There were two parallel bodies to take
government policy, the fourth Duma ended on government functions. One consisted of
with the revolution of 1917. bourgeois politicians of the old state Duma,
Opposition to the Tsar and representing the propertied classes. On the
Dissolution of Duma other were the workers’ delegates drawn
The outbreak of the First World War had together in a workers’ council, or Soviet. The
temporarily strengthened the monarchy, as soviets were influenced by the underground
Russia was allied to France and Britain. As left-wingers. Those in the Duma were able to
form a provincial government with the consent
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of the soviets. The soviets were dominated by government was in office. Its head was Lenin.
Mensheviks and the minority Bolsheviks were The Bolshevik Party was renamed the Russian
undecided. The situation changed with the Communist Party.
arrival of Lenin.
Outcome of the Revolution
Failure of the Provisional Lenin thought the most important factor
Government for the fall of the Provisional government was
Lenin was in Switzerland when the its failure to withdraw from the War. So Lenin
revolution broke out. Lenin wanted continued immediately appealed for peace. Unmindful
revolution. His slogan of ‘All power to the of the harsh terms dictated by the Central
Soviets’ soon won over the workers’ leaders. Powers, Lenin opted for withdrawing from the
Devastated by war time shortages, the people War to concentrate on the formation of a new
were attracted by the slogan of ‘Bread, Peace government. In March 1918 the Treaty of Brest–
and Land.’ Litovsk was signed.
The Provisional government made two
grave mistakes. It postponed a decision on the
demand for the redistribution of land apart from
deciding to continue with the war. Frustrated
peasant soldiers deserted their posts and joined
those who had resorted to land grabbing.
This intensified the rising in Petrograd led by
the Bolsheviks. The government banned the
newspaper Pravda and arrested all Bolsheviks
except Lenin who was in hiding in Finland. Leon
Treaty of Brest–Litovsk
Trotsky was also arrested. Kerensky became
prime minister, leading a new coalition of Influence of the Russian
liberals and moderate Socialists. Faced with an Revolution
attempted coup Kerensky tried to dismiss both
The revolution fired people’s imagination
the government and the Soviet. His attempts
across the world. In many countries, communist
were frustrated by the Soviet and particularly
parties were formed. Soviet Union encouraged
by the Bolsheviks who had by then attained
the colonies to fight for their freedom and gave
popularity.
all out support to them. Debates over key issues,
Pravda is a Russian word meaning land reforms, social welfare, workers’ rights,
“Truth”. It was the official newspaper of the gender equality started taking place in a global
Communist Party of the Soviet Union from context.
1918 to 1991. The rapid progress made by the Soviet
Union in the decades after the revolution
Takeover by the Bolshevik Party inspired backward countries across the world,
under Lenin’s leadership and provided an alternative to capitalism.
In October Lenin persuaded the Bolshevik Illiteracy and poverty were eliminated in record
Central Committee to decide on an immediate time. Industry and agriculture developed
revolution. Trotsky prepared a detailed plan. remarkably, and the Great Depression which
On 7 November key government buildings, affected the entire world made no impact on
including the Winter Palace and the Prime the USSR. Women were given equal rights.
Minister’s headquarters, were seized by armed Industries and banks were nationalised. Land
factory workers and revolutionary troops. was declared as social property and distributed
On 8 November 1917 a new Communist among poor peasants.
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13.5 League of Nations up in The Hague. The International Labour

Organisation comprised a secretariat and
League of Nations was the brainchild of
a general conference which included four
American president Woodrow Wilson. It was
representatives from each country.
Wilson’s desire that a League in which the
states of the world would join and cooperate Objectives of the League
for the preservation of peace be established.
The two-fold objective of the League of
The Covenant of the League was worked out
Nations was to avoid war and maintain peace
at the Paris Peace Conference, and included
in the world and to promote international
every treaty signed after the First World War.
cooperation in economic and social affairs.
He believed that the defeat of Germany would
The League intended to act as conciliator
mean the rejection of militarism and therefore
and arbitrator, and thereby resolve a dispute
the organisation of a comity of nations to control
in its early stages. If wars should break out
international relations was necessary rather
despite arbitration, the members were to apply
than the ineffective balance of power. Wilson
sanctions to the aggressor - first economic and
took personal interest to see that this task was
then military. The difficulty in achieving the
accomplished.
objectives was increased from the beginning
by the absence of three Great Powers namely
USA (did not become a member), Germany
(a defeated nation) and Russia. The latter two
joined in 1926 and 1934. While Germany
resigned in 1933, Russia was expelled in 1939.

Activities of the League

League of Nations Between 1920 and 1925, the League was
called in to settle a number of disputes and was
Structure and Composition successful in three issues. In 1920 a dispute
In drawing up the constitution of this arose between Sweden and Finland over the
organisation, the ideas of Britain and America sovereignty of the Aaland Islands. The League
prevailed. The League consisted of five bodies: ruled that the islands should go to Finland. In
the Assembly, the Council, the Secretariat, the the following year the League was asked to settle
Permanent Court of Justice, and the International the frontier between Poland and Germany in
Labour Organisation. Each member-country Upper Silesia, which was successfully resolved.
was represented in the Assembly. It discussed The third dispute was between Greece and
general policy and any decision taken in the Bulgaria in 1925. Greece invaded Bulgaria,
Assembly had to be unanimous. The Council and the League ordered a ceasefire. After
was the executive of the League. Britain, France, investigation it decided that Greece was to pay
Italy, Japan and the United States were originally reparations.
declared permanent members of the Council.
Each member had one vote and since all decisions The League justified its existence through
had to be unanimous, even the small nations, in reduction of international opium traffic and in
effect, possessed the right of veto. the control of spread of disease by aiding poor
and backward countries. Its agencies collected
Secretariat huge data on labour and business conditions
The Secretariat of the League of Nations throughout the world. It conducted plebiscites
was located at Geneva and the first Secretary in disputed areas and helped in finding homes
General was Sir Eric Drummond from Britain. for refugees. It made a beginning in codifying
The International Court of Justice was set international law.
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Incidents of Violations Italy, Japan and Germany, headed by dictators,

refused to be bound by the orders of the League,
One of the major problems confronting
Britain and France were the only major powers
the European powers was how to achieve
who had the power to act. But they were not
disarmament. In 1925 the Council of the League
enthusiastic supporters of the League, as it was
set up a commission to hold a Disarmament
the brainchild of Wilson.
Conference. But the proposed conference
materialised only in 1932. In this Conference, 13.6 The Great Depression
Germany’s demand of equality of arms with The economic depression that began in
France was rejected. Hitler withdrew Germany the aftermath of the US stock market crash was
from the Conference and the League. international in character and devastated the
The League could do nothing about the world economy. During the First World War,
seizure of Vilna by Poland in 1920. In 1923, while the states of Europe were fighting on the
when war threatened to break out between battlefield, Americans were capturing their
Italy and Greece, Italians refused to submit to markets and extending their fields of investment
the mediation of the League. Japan attacked and thereby expanding their own industry and
Manchuria in September 1931 and the League agriculture. By the end of the war America had
condemned Japan. Japan followed the example emerged as the richest nation in the word.
of Germany and resigned. In the context of The war placed a heavy burden of debt
Italy’s attack on Ethiopia, the League applied on every European country. America had lent
sanctions. As the sanctions came into effect, enormously to war-ravaged European countries.
Italy in protest resigned from the League in The capital outflow from America had found its
1937. outlet in new investments. But these investments
Thereafter the League was a passive witness would yield desired results only after a period.
to events, taking no part in the crises over the In the meantime, because of the slump, the US
Rhineland, Austria, Czechoslovakia and Poland. was forced to withdraw its capital exported. The
The last decisive action it took was in December withdrawal of American capital caused decline
1939 when Russia was expelled for attacking in the volume and value of exports all over. The
Finland. The Assembly did not meet again and the effects of this development were accentuated by
League of Nations was finally dissolved in 1946. the US market crash.

Causes of Failure Stock Market Crash in the US

The League appeared to be an organisation
of the victors in the First World War. Though
it had a world-wide membership, it was very
much the centre of European diplomacy.
Unanimity of members was required for all
its decisions on political issues. Since it lacked
military power of its own, it could not enforce
its decisions. Stock Market Crash
The first huge stock market crash occurred
The founders of this peace organisation
on 24 October 1929. This resulted in more and
underestimated the potential of nationalism. more people selling their shares and disposing
The principle of “collective security’ could not of their stocks. But there were no buyers. This
be applied in actual practice. was followed by the failure of American banks.
The League of Nations was shown to have American financiers were forced to recall their
no teeth. It depended wholly on the good will own funds invested abroad. The stoppage of
and positive approach of all nations. When loans to Germany by America led to the failure
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of two large German banks. Having lent liberally vanquished nations like Italy and Germany
to banks abroad, the Bank of England too found switched to fascism though movements which
itself in bankruptcy. initially had many of the characteristics of mass
organisations.
Results of the Depression
Despite emergency measures such as (a) Fascism in Italy
cutbacks in expenditure and increased taxation,
the situation did not improve in England. In The first of the nations of Western Europe
to turn against the old ruling regime was Italy.
order to counteract this and to protect domestic
During World War I Italy mobilised more than
markets, each nation adopted a policy of
five and a half million men, of whom nearly
protectionism and devaluation of currency.
700,000 were killed. The financial cost of the
Devaluation forced creditors to stop lending.
participation in the War was huge. The country
This led to a world-wide credit contraction.
had suffered heavy losses in a war that was
Thus the defensive measures adopted by various
unpopular with both socialists and pro-Austrian
nations led to an unprecedented decline in
Catholics. The nationalists were equally unhappy
world economic activity. As its effect was deep
with the marginal gain in territory from the
and prolonged economists and historians call it
Treaty of Versailles. The War resulted in inflation
the Great Depression.
with consequent rise in prices, speculation and
Reflection in Politics profiteering. There were frequent protests and
The Depression changed the political strikes. People held the rulers of Italy responsible
conditions in several countries. In England, for the humiliation at Versailles.
the Labour Party was defeated in the general
Rise of Socialist Organisations
elections of 1931. In the USA, the Republican
As hardship increased, socialist ideas began
Party, which had taken credit for the boom
to spread. In 1918 Italian socialists voted to join
preceding the Depression, was rejected by the
the Communist International. In the election of
people in successive elections for about twenty
November 1919 they won about a third of the
years after the Depression. As we will see below,
seats in the Chamber of Deputies. Radicalism
the Fascist Parties seized government in Italy
spread even in rural areas. Red Leagues were
and Germany. In South America, Argentina,
organised to break up large estates and to
Brazil and Chile saw a change of government.
force landlords to reduce their rents. To the
13.7 R
 ise of Fascism landowning class fascism was a less dangerous
form of radicalism that could save their property
and Nazism from confiscation.
In the aftermath of the First World War,
the issue in most parts of continental Europe The Rise of Mussolini
was whether the government and the economic Benito Mussolini
system should continue under the control (1883–1945), was a
of feudal aristocracies, industrialists and son of a blacksmith.
financiers, or a combination of all of them. But He qualified as an
none of these elite classes had won over the elementary school
masses, especially the peasantry and the labour. master and left for
The masses in the emerging situation saw an further study in
opportunity to overthrow their oppressors. In Switzerland but ended
Mussolini
Russia the bourgeoisie overturned the autocracy up as a journalist with
in 1917 and were themselves overturned by the socialist views. He became the editor of Avanti,
Bolsheviks. In Britain the Labour Party handled the leading socialist daily. When the Fascist
the situation by opting for a welfare state. The Party was founded in 1919 Mussolini joined

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it immediately. As Fascists stood for authority, In 1938 Parliament was abolished and was
strength and discipline, support came from replaced by a body representing the Fascist Party
industrialists, nationalists, ex-soldiers, the and the corporations. This new arrangement
middle classes and discontented youth. Fascists bolstered Mussolini’s dictatorial control of
resorted to violence freely and their opponents the economy, as well as enabling him to wield
were attacked with knives, cudgels and guns. untrammelled power as head of the administration
The Fascist dictatorship arose out of the and the armed forces. Thus Mussolini destroyed
breakdown of the parliamentary government parliamentary government, trade unions and all
which had proved unable to cope with the democratic institutions.
disorders following the end of the War. The
Mussolini’s Pact with Pope
inability of the Democratic Party leaders to
In order to give respectability to the Fascist
combine and act decisively facilitated Mussolini’s
Party, Mussolini won over the Roman Catholic
triumph. What threatened to become a civil war
Church by recognising the Vatican City as
between the communists and their opponents
an independent state. In return the Church
was ended by the march of the black-shirted
recognised the Kingdom of Italy. The Roman
Fascists on Rome (October 1922). Impressed by
Catholic faith was made the religion of Italy and
the show of force, the King Immanuel III invited
compulsory religious teaching in school was
Mussolini to form a government.
ordered. The Lateran Treaty incorporating the
Fascism: The word Fascism derives above provisions was signed in 1929.
its origin from the Latin fasces, the ax
surrounded by a bundle of rods representing
the authority of the Roman state.
‘Fascism is a form of radical authoritarian
ultra-nationalism, characterised by dictatorial
power, forcible suppression of opposition
and strong regimentation of society and of
the economy, which came to prominence in The Lateran Treaty
early 20th-century Europe’.
Great Depression Years
Fascists under Mussolini In 1929 the United States plunged into
In the 1924 elections, after intimidation of a great financial and commercial slump. The
the electors, the Fascists won 65 per cent of the effect on the rest of the world was grave. By
votes. Matteotti, a socialist leader, who questioned 1931 European trade and finance was totally
the fairness of the elections was murdered. The paralysed. Though the Fascist government in
opposition parties boycotted the Parliament in Italy could boast of achievements during this
protest. Mussolini reacted by banning opposition period in the much publicised public works –
parties and censoring the press. Opposition new bridges, roads and canals, hospitals and
leaders were killed or imprisoned. schools – it could not solve the unemployment
Assuming the title of Il Duce (the leader), problem. By 1935, when the collapse of the
in 1926 Mussolini became a dictator with power League of Nations had become complete,
to legislate. He passed a law forbidding strikes Mussolini in order to have an economic empire
and lockouts. Unions and employers were
for Italy invaded Ethiopia. This was useful
organised into corporations which would settle
to divert attention away from the economic
wages and working conditions. The greater part
of the rest of the population was grouped into troubles. Mussolini’s success drew admiration
corporations, according to occupation. These from ruling classes elsewhere in Europe. Among
were then organised into national federations them was a rising figure among nationalist, anti-
and supervised by the Minister of Corporations. Semitic circles in Munich: Adolf Hitler.

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(b)  
Germany in the to organise strikes in protest. It provided an
post-War opportunity to certain underground movements
to thrive. There was already one in Berlin under
The factors which led to the eventual Ludendorff, who had organised the former
triumph of Fascism in Germany were many. First soldiers against the Republican government.
was the sense of humiliation arising from the There was another in Munich, a former corporal.
defeat in War. Between 1871 and 1914 Germany He was Adolf Hitler, the leader of the National
had risen to dizzy heights of economic, political Socialist German Workers’ Party.
and cultural accomplishments. Germany’s
universities, its science, philosophy and music Evolution of German Fascism
were known all over the world. Germany had During World War I, Hitler served in the
surpassed even Britain and the US in several Bavarian army. Hitler had developed an innate
fields of industrial production. Then came hatred against Jews and Marxists. A gifted speaker,
the crushing defeat in the First World War. he could whip up the passion of the audience. In
The German people were demoralised. The 1923 Hitler abortively attempted to capture power
reparations and other clauses in the Treaty of in Bavaria. His premature launch of the National
Versailles caused acute discontent and hardship. Revolution on the outskirts of Munich landed him
This was utilised by reactionary forces to in prison. During his time in prison he worked on
spread the idea that Socialists and Jews in the Mein Kampf (My Struggle), an autobiographical
government had let down the nation, and had book containing his political ideas.
even caused the Germany’s defeat. In 1929 two things occurred which exposed the
Germany had always been a military weakness of the German government. Stresemann
state. The army was the symbol not merely of died and there was a political vacuum. The failure
security but of national greatness. Therefore of the New York Stock Market triggering economic
Germany’s defeat and humiliation at the end of depression prompted the US to foreclose its German
World War I caused a deep shock to Germans. loans. By 1931 the world economic depression
The Great Depression further deepened their had gripped an already feeble Germany. In the
frustration and prompted them to turn against Presidential election of 1932 the Communist Party
the Republican government. polled about 60,00,000 votes. Alarmed capitalists
and property owners tilted towards supporting
Germany in the 1920s fascism. Hitler exploited this opportunity to usurp
Germany after the powers.
First World War formed
democratic governments The Third Reich
through coalition of Republican government in Germany
political parties. Socialist fell, as the Communists refused to collaborate
Ebert led the government with the Social Democrats. Thereupon
from 1919-1925 and industrialists, bankers and Junkers prevailed
later. Stresemann as one upon President Von Hindenburg to designate
associated with liberal Hitler Hitler as Chancellor in 1933 in the hope that
democrats conducted the governance of the they could control him. The Nazi state of Hitler,
country until 1929. This period, until the rise of known as the Third Reich, brought an end to
the Nazis in 1933, is called the Weimar Republic. the parliamentary democracy established in
The ordinary German citizen in these years Germany after the First World War.
was concerned himself only with the problems of Hitler replaced the flag of the Weimar
everyday life in an impoverished country under republic by the swastika banners of National
the burden of reparations. The occupation of the Socialism. Germany was converted into a highly
Ruhr by the French in 1923 infuriated the workers centralised state. All political parties except the
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Nazi party were declared illegal. The army of the armed forces. By 1938 the Nazi Party had
brown-shirted and jack-booted storm-troopers tightened its control over the army. Hitler’s
was expanded. The Hitler Youth was created, foreign policy aimed at restoring the armed
and the Labour Front set up. Trade unions were strength of Germany and annulling provisions of
abolished, their leaders were arrested and all Versailles Treaty which undermined Germany.
workers were compelled to join the German His deliberate attempts to breach the Treaty of
Labour Front. Strikes were made illegal, wages Versailles (discussed in the next lesson) led to
were fixed by the government, and the Labour the outbreak of Second World War.
Front was used by the Nazis to control industry.
Total state control was extended over the      Summary
press, the theatre, the cinema, radio and over
education. � Transition from Mercantilism to Industrial
capitalism and then to financial capitalism
The Nazi Party’s propaganda was led by
culminating in Imperialism is explained.
Joseph Goebbels, who manipulated public
opinion through planned propaganda. He � Markets for selling surplus manufactured
once said, ‘any lie frequently repeated will goods and for obtaining raw materials
ultimately gain belief.’ The Gestapo or Secret leading to search for colonies and the
State Police was formed and run by Himmler, resultant conflict amongst great powers in
who controlled the select bodyguard of Hitler. Europe are discussed.

Nazi Policy towards Jews � Rise of Japan as an imperial power in Asia

Along with the repressive measures, Hitler’s and its expansionist policy are highlighted.
government followed a policy of repressing � Europe organising into two warring camps
Jewish people. The Jews were removed from resulting in the formation of alliances and
government positions, excluded from the counter-alliances are detailed.
universities and deprived of citizenship.
� Important factors responsible for the
Jewish businesses were closed down, and their
outbreak of World War I, aggressive attitude
establishments were attacked. After the outbreak
of Germany, France’s hostility towards
of World War II concentration camps, barracks
Germany for the loss of its territories, Alsace
surrounded by electrified fences and watch
and Lorraine, Japan’s expansionist policy,
towers, were built where Jews were interred and
power politics in Balkans are explained.
used as forced labour with less than subsistence
nourishment. Later they were turned into � Conduct of War in frontiers and important
extermination camps where industrial means battles in other theatres of war are described.
of murder such as gas chambers were used to � Causes, course and results of Russian
kill Jews. It is estimated that about 6 million Revolution are analysed.
Jews in Europe were killed in what the Nazis
� America’s entry into the War in the context
termed ‘The Final Solution’. Apart from Jews,
of launching of submarines by Germany
the Nazi state also exterminated gypsies, and
and the decisive outcome of the War in
other itinerant communities, homosexuals and
favour of the Allies are outlined.
lunatics. Apart from these, several hundreds
of thousands of Germans who dissented with � Paris Peace Conference and the results of
Hitler too were killed. the War are elaborated.

Defiance of the Treaty of Versailles � The League of Nations and its role in
In August 1934 Hindenburg died and promoting peace are critically examined.
Hitler, apart from being Chancellor, became � Rise of Fascist governments and their
both President and Commander-in-Chief of fallout are described.

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8. The treaty of Portsmouth was signed at the

EXERCISE mediation of
(a) Spain (b) Britain (c) USA (d) France
Q.R.Code
9. Which country presented 21 demands to the
I. C
 hoose the President of the newly established Chinese
correct answer Republic?
1. 
What was the battle in which the French (a) France (b) Russia (c) Japan (d) Britain
succeeded in pushing back the advancing 10. The new state of Albania was created based
army of Germans? on the
(a) Battle of Marne (a) Treaty of Bucharest, 1913
(b) Battle of Tannenberg (b) Treaty of Versailles, 1919
(c) Battle of Verdun (c) Treaty of London, 1913
(d) Battle of Somme (d) Treaty of St. Germaine
2. Laissez Faire is a word coined by . 11. Which one of the following was not part of
(a) John A. Hobson (b) Karl Marx the Central Powers?
(c) Fischer (d) Gournay (a) Bulgaria (b) Austria-Hungary
3. 'An inquiry into the Nature and causes of the (c) Turkey (d) Montenegro
Wealth of Nations' was authored by 12. With imminent attack on Paris, the French
(a) Adam smith (b) Thomas Paine Government moved to
(c) Quesnay (d) Karl Marx (a) Marseilles (b) Bordeaux
4. 
England decided on free trade policy in (c) Lyons (d) Versailles
13. Which one of the following was not a part of
(a) 1833 (b) 1836 (c) 1843 (d) 1858 the Treaty of Versailles?
5. Assertion (A): In the second half of the (a) 
Germany was required to surrender
nineteenth century many nations were faced Alsace - Lorraine to France
with the problem of surplus manufactures. (b) Saar valley to be given to France
Reason (R): Surplus manufactures forced
 (c) Th
 e Rhineland was to be occupied by the Allies
nations to find new markets. (d) Danzig was to be under the control of Poland
(a) A and R are correct. R explains A 14. Which one of the following is not correctly
(b) A and R are correct. R does not explain A matched?
(c) A is true but R is wrong (a) Edict of Emancipation – Alexander II
(d) A is wrong and R is true (b) Bloody Sunday - Nicholas II
6. Tariff Act, 1879 was enacted by (c) 500 Serf riots in Russia - Nicholas I
(a) Germany (b) France (d) Treaty of Brest-Litovsk - Alexander III
(c) Britain (d) USA 15. Assertion (A): The League of Nations was
shown to have no teeth.
7. 
Shimonoseki Treaty was signed after the
 eason (R): The principle of “collective
R
security’ could not be applied in actual practice.
(a) Russio-Japanese war
(a) A and R are correct. R explains A
(b) Second Opium War
(b) A and R are correct but R does not explain A
(c) Second Anglo-Chinese War (c) A is correct but R is wrong
(d) Sino-Japanese war (d) A is wrong and R is correct
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16. Assertion (A): The Great Depression which 9. How did the Lateran Treaty help Mussolini in
affected the entire world had made no legitimising his authority?
impact on USSR.
10. What was the Third Reich?
 Reason (R): Land was declared as social
property and distributed among poor III. Write short answers
Peasants. 1. How did the first Moroccan crisis happen?
(a) A and R are correct. R explains A. 2. How was Trench Warfare fought?
(b) A and R are correct but R does not explain A.
3. What do you know of the fearsome U-boats
(c) A is correct but R is wrong.
and Q-ships?
(d) A is wrong. R is correct.
4. 
Highlight the sequence of events after
17. The first Secretary General of the League
of Nations Eric Drummond belonged to America’s entry into the War.
5. Analyse the impact of Russian Revolution on
(a) France (b) South Africa the world outside Russia.
(c) Britain (d) USA 6. Highlight the successful accomplishments of
18. 
The League of Nations was dissolved in League of Nations.
7. 
How did the impact of Great Depression
(a) 1939 (b) 1941 (c) 1945 (d) 1946 reflect in politics?
19. Who designated Hitler as the Chancellor of
Germany? IV. Answers the following in detail
(a) General Ludendorff 1. Enumerate the causes and the consequences
(b) Von Hindenburg of the First World War.
(c) General Smuts 2. “Marx supplied sparks and Lenin lit the fire”-
(d) Alfred von Bethmann Elucidate.
20. What was the name of journal Mussolini 3. 
The Treaty of Versailles was harsh and
edited? humiliating for Germany. Substantiate the
(a) Avanti (b) Pravda statement.
(c) Marxist (d) Mein Kampf 4. 
Describe the circumstances that favoured
II. Write brief answers Mussolini and Hitler to establish fascist
1. Why did Germany want to isolate France? governments in Italy and Germany respectively.

2. What was the significance of Entente Cordiale V. Activity

signed between Britain and France in 1904? 1. Students may be exposed to several videos on
3. Highlight the outcome of the Balkan crisis. World War I in You Tube.
2. Teachers to guide the students to locate the
4. What was “Triple Intervention”?
war fronts and to make a comparison of the
5. 
Write about the role played by Von map of pre-World War I and the redrawn
Hindenburg in the Eastern Front of the First
post-War map.
World War.
3. Students to debate on successes and failures
6. Point out the importance of Battle of Jutland.
of the League of Nations.
7. What is Nihilism?
4. Students and teachers are to make use of
8. How did the League of Nations resolve the videos of Khan Academy in Google on
dispute between Greece and Bulgaria in 1925? Fascism.
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REFERENCES � Chris Harman, A People’s History of the

World (New Delhi: Orient Longman,
� R.D. Cornwell, World History in the Twentieth 2007).
Century (London: Longman, 1972). � H.A. Davies, An Outline History of the World
� Edward McNall Burns, Western Civilizations, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006).
vol. 2 (New York: W.W. Norton, 1972). � K.A. Manikumar, A Colonial Economy in
� Richard Overy (ed.) Complete History of the the Great Depression: Madras (1929–1937),
World (London: Harper Collins, 2007). (Hyderabad: Orient Longman, 2003).

GLOSSARY

onslaught a sudden and severe onset of trouble கடுமையான திடீர் தாக்குதல்

the theory that trade generates wealth and a
Mercantilism government should encourage it by protecting வணிகவாதம்
domestic trade from foreign competition.

ammunition
any nuclear, chemical or biological material பேரழிவை ஏற்படுத்தும்
that can be used as a weapon of destruction வெடிப�ொருட்கள்
trawler a fishing boat மீன்பிடிப் படகு
a formal agreement to stop fighting for a
armistice
particular time. தற்காலிகப் ப�ோர் நிறுத்தம்

covenant agreement by legal deed சட்டஒப்பந்தம்

a person who is tied to the land and to its
serf
holder, the land lord. பண்ணையாள்

abominable detestable, hateful வெறுக்கத்தக்க

proletariat working class பாட்டாளி வர்க்கம்
belief in the abolition of state and organisation அரசு இல்லாத கூட்டு
anarchism of society on a voluntary, cooperative basis முயற்சியில் உருவாக்கப்படும்
without recourse to force or compulsion சமுதாயத்தில் நம்பிக்கை
a formal resignation and renunciation of
abdication
power, stepping down பதவி துறத்தல்

confiscation seizure of property பறிமுதல் செய்தல்

cudgel a short, thick stick used as a weapon குண்டாந்தடி

jackboot
a heavy military boot extending above the முழங்கால் வரையிருக்கும்
knee காலணி
lunatic a person who is mentally ill பித்துப்பிடித்த
annulling abolishing, invalidating ரத்து செய்தல், ஒழித்தல்

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ICT CORNER
Imperialism and its Onslaught

Through this activity you will learn

about an interactive Timeline events
of World War I.

Step - 1 Open the Browser and type the URL given below (or) Scan the QR Code.

Step - 2  lick on ‘map’ to see the events happened in the location and select any
C
year from the bottom timeline (Ex.1914)

Step - 3 Select the ‘box’ on the map to learn more about the World War I events.

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interactive/interactive_files/WW1/index.html

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UNIT Outbreak of World War II

14 and its Impact in Colonies

Learning Objectives

To acquaint ourselves with

„„The causes, course and results of World War II
Q.R.Code
„„The Chinese Revolution
„„Nationalist Movements and Struggles for Independence in Indonesia
and Philippines

   Introduction 14.1  Second World War:

The international order that emerged after Causes
the First World War, based on the concept of In the beginning of the war, with Great
collective security, collapsed. In September Britain and France opposing Germany and with
1939 Europe plunged into a terrible war Italy remaining temporarily neutral and later
again. The war of 1939–45 was much more of joining Germany, the line-up of the two sides
a world war than that of even 1914–18. This in both world wars was similar. The notable
was partly because of the part played by Japan. difference was that Japan aligned with Germany
In consequence the loss of life, the damage to instead of with the Western powers. Russia and
property and the cost of the war was much the USA did not enter the conflict until two
greater. Following the end of the Second World years after it began. The methods of warfare
had changed during the Second World War.
War, a wave of unrest swept colonies and
Trench warfare gave way to aerial bombing. No
nationalist agitation gained greater force. This
distinction was made between combatants and
set in motion a process of decolonisation in Asia
civilians in the Second World War. Casualties in
and Africa. In Southeast Asia, the Dutch fought the Second World War were therefore heavy.
a losing war but finally conceded independence
Let us first trace the circumstances that led
to Indonesia, the former Dutch East Indies, in
to the outbreak of the War.
1949. The developments in Indonesia, a Dutch
colony and Philippines, an American colony (a) The Unjust Nature of the
are explored as case studies in this lesson. In Peace Treaty
China, people turned away from the corrupt The terms imposed upon Germany at the
and incompetent nationalists. A civil war in end of First World War were harsh. Stripped off
China resulted in the establishment of People’s its colonies, the size of the German army was
Republic of China under Mao Tse Tung. drastically reduced. Germany was forced to cede
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Alsace and Lorraine to France and to agree to When Hitler came to power in 1933, a
the temporary occupation by French troops of Disarmament Conference was organised by
the Saar valley. Germany was also compelled to the League of Nations at Geneva. The issue
hand over to Poland large parts of the industrial was the German rearmament plan on a par
area of Silesia. Further Germany was to pay with France. The French refused to agree to
an impossible sum (6600 million pounds) in this proposal, while Britain was willing to
reparation. These terms gave rise to a strong concede Germany’s demand. Hitler’s response
feeling of injustice in Germany and had much do to French refusal was withdrawal of Germany
with the subsequent success of the Nazi Politics. from the conference and from the League of
Italy felt aggrieved as Dalmatia, claimed to be Nations. A plebiscite in Germany showed
predominantly Italian, was incorporated in the enormous support in favour of Hitler’s step.
new state of Yugoslavia. Reduced to the status Encouraged, in March 1935, Hitler announced
of a small republic, Austria was not allowed to Germany’s intention of building up an army by
unite with Germany as the combination would conscription to over half a million men. This
be a threat to France. was the first breach of the Treaty of Versailles.
The League of Nations attended by Britain,
(b) Failure of the League of Nations
France and Italy condemned Germany’s action
The League of Nations, envisaged as an
but took no further steps. Britain even went to
international body to avert another world war,
the extent of negotiating a naval agreement.
turned out to be an alliance of the victors against
According to this agreement, Germany could
the vanquished. The seeds for another war were
build up to 35 per cent of Britain’s naval
sowed ever since the Treaty of Versailles was
strength.
signed.
From 1918 to 1933 a series of conferences
were held to eliminate threats of war. In 1925,
representatives of the chief European powers
met at Locarno, a Swiss town, where Germany
and France agreed to respect the Rhine frontiers,
as established in the Versailles treaty. The next
agreement widely appreciated was the Kellogg–
Briand Pact of 1928. Though the US did not
become a member of the League of Nations, it
participated in this meet. The outcome of this
pact was the pledge of all nations of the world Disarmament Conference, Geneva
to renounce war as “an instrument of national
policy”. But the League of Nations was not Italy invaded Ethiopia in 1935. Emperor
strong enough to enforce these agreements Haile Selassie of Ethiopia appealed to the League
when some countries defied them. of Nations, but received no help.

(c) Economic Depression of 1930s

The most important economic cause of
World War II was the Great Depression. The
Depression intensified economic nationalism.
Hit by the problems of unemployment and
business stagnation, governments resorted to
high tariffs to preserve the home market for
consumption of their home products. This
Kellogg–Briand Pact resulted in an expansionist policy leading to
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the conquest of neighboring territories as a

means of solving economic problems. Japan
took the lead. In 1931 it reacted to the global
economic crisis by seizing the Chinese northern
region of Manchuria. In the face of decline of
Japanese exports of raw silk and cotton cloth,
Japanese militarists came up with this idea so
that Manchuria could be a market.
(d) Aspirations of German Big
Business and Grievances of
German Patriots Mussolini and Hitler
Britain, France, the US and the USSR
Britain and France condemned Mussolini’s
each controlled vast areas as colonies across
invasion of Ethiopia and this helped Hitler to
the world. Germany, the most powerful
establish close relationship with Italy. This was
industrial country in continental Europe,
the beginning of Rome–Berlin Axis
had no colonies. This prompted German big
business to campaign vigorously to break the (f) Japan’s Imperial Policy
restraints imposed by the Treaty of Versailles.
The German approach was emulated in East
It wanted to recover German territory lost to
Asia by Japan. It had already taken Taiwan and
Poland, absorb the German-speaking Austrian
Korea as colonies, and controlled Manchuria.
state and Czech border land, the Sudetenland.
The government that came up after a military
Under Nazi rule there was convergence
coup in Japan (1936) began to cast its covetous
between the requirements of big business and
eye over Dutch East Indies, the British colonies
Nazi ideology.
in Malaya and Singapore, the French colonies in
Powers like Great Britain, the United Indochina and the US-controlled Philippines.
States, France and Russia had their empire
extending over one fourth of land area of (g) Responsibility of Hitler for
the earth. Germany, Italy and Japan seemed the War
poor by comparison. German patriots openly
articulated their grievance by stating that (i) Incorporation of Saar into Germany
the average German citizen had only .004 of Under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles,
square mile of living space at his disposal, a plebiscite was to be held in the Saar in January
whereas the average Briton could draw upon 1935. The people were to decide whether they
the wealth and economic opportunities of wished to join Germany or France, or remain
almost three square miles of imperial territory. under League of Nations’ control. Ninety per
cent voted for a return to Germany. In March
(e) Mussolini’s Expansionist Policy
1935 the Saar was incorporated into Germany.
Mussolini’s Italy sought to expand its This was a morale booster for Hitler.
colonial empire by grabbing Ethiopia to add to its
colonial possessions such as Somaliland, Eritrea (ii) Annexation of Rhineland
and Libya. It looked for an opportunity to seize In 1936 Hitler flouted the peace settlement
Albania from Yugoslavia.The establishment of by sending troops to occupy Rhineland, the
an economy based on military state capitalism area of Germany demilitarised by the Treaty
encouraged the drive to armed expansion. The of Versailles. If the French had resisted, the
arms industries needed raw materials and the Germans would have withdrawn. The French
only way to obtain the resources required was army at that time was stronger than the
to grab extra territory. German, but economic distress caused by

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the Great Depression and political instability Sudetenland was launched. The British Prime
leading to the resignation of Prime Minister Minister, Neville Chamberlain, after consulting
Edouard Daladier rendered France incapable of the French and the Czechs, eventually agreed
resisting the breach of the Treaty of Versailles to cede to Germany all territories where more
by Germany. than half the inhabitants were German. But
to the warmonger Hitler, this proposition
was unacceptable. He was keen to avoid any
plebiscite in this matter. So he wanted his army
to occupy Sudetenland before such a plebiscite
could take place.

Munich Agreement
The mood in London was in favour of a
war against Hitler. But Chamberlain and his
counterpart in France were bent on buying
peace at any cost – a policy called ‘appeasement’.
A conference was held at Munich where the
British, French, German and Italian premiers
Rhineland in German occupation
agreed that the German army should occupy
(iii) F
 orcible Merger of Austria with Germany the Sudetenland, as demanded by Hitler,
Hitler, an Austrian by birth, had always on 1 October and that parts of Czechoslovakia
wanted Austria to be part of Germany. In should go to Poland and Hungary.
February 1938, Hitler summoned the Austrian
Chancellor Schuschnigg to Berchtesgaden,
a mountain town in the Bavarian Alps, for a
discussion. The Austrian Chancellor was given
a Hobson’s choice – either to legalise Nazi Party
in Austria and integrate Austria’s economy
with that of Germany or face a German
invasion. Austria has lost the support of Italy
with the formation of the Rome–Berlin Axis.
Schuschnigg was therefore left with no choice
but to choose the first option. At the instance
of Hitler, the Austrian Chancellor cancelled the
proposed plebiscite in Austria and formed a
Nazi government there. Thereupon the German
Munich Agreement
army entered Vienna to take control of the
country. (v) Aggression against Czechoslovakia
(iv) Occupation of Sudetenland The Czechs felt betrayed. The new frontiers
Encouraged by the lack of resistance from of Czechoslovakia had been guaranteed by
major European powers, Hitler turned his the four powers at the Munich Conference.
attention towards Czechoslovakia. In June 1938, Chamberlain claimed that the deal had averted
Hitler sent directions to his army about his another massive European war. But using the
intention of invading Sudetenland. A systematic conflict between the Slovaks and the Czechs as
Nazi propaganda that their German subjects an excuse, Hitler sent German forces to occupy
were being subjected to harsh treatment in the conflict zone.
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 WORLD DURING WORLD WAR II N
Arctic Ocean Arctic Ocean W E

12th_History_EM_Unit_14.indd 223
S

ALASKA

D
N
(U.S.A)

EDE
WAY
DENMARK SOVIET RUSSIA

a
FINLAN

SW
NETHERLAND

ea

NOR
S
Leningrad
BELGIUM

North Se
ltic
Ba
Moscow
Berlin Danzig
BRITAIN POLAND
Dunkirk Sudetenland

Rhineland
Czechoslovakia
Stalingrad
Normandy

Alsace
Munich

Lorraine
S ea
ria
GERMANY ITALY a
hu
e nc
UNITED STATES Black S
Pacific

223
FRANCE Rome Ma
n S ea
Caspian
OF AMERICA erranea Sicily
Medit KOREA JAPAN
Atlantic Casablanca CHINA Tokyo
Ocean
El Alamein Hiroshima Midway
EGYPT
Hawaiian Islan
ds Ocean INDIA Nagasaki
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BURMA INDOCHINA
Formosa
Pearl Harbour
PHILIPPINES
ETHIOPIA
MALAYA
SINGAPORE
Pacific Indian
Guadalcanal
Ocean Ocean

Allied Powers

Axis Powers Not to Scale

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Nazi–Soviet Pact Stages of War

The guarantees that Britain and France War in Europe
had given Poland were considered weak In the first few years of the War the German
without Russia’s help. During the early summer army seemed unstoppable. Poland was easily
of 1939, Britain and France negotiated with defeated within two weeks and divided between
Russia. But partly because of mutual distrust Germany and the Soviet Union in a second
and partly because Russia was not prepared for agreement signed in Moscow in September
a war against Germany, no progress could be 1939. In April 1940 Germany occupied Norway.
made. Russians preferred peace and guarantee With this annexation, Hitler ensured the
for their territories. As Germany offered protection of Germany’s supply of iron ore
both, in August 1939 the Nazi–Soviet (Non- from Sweden apart from obtaining naval and
aggression) Pact was signed in the Kremlin. air bases with which to strike at Britain. On 10
The secret clauses in the pact were: Eastern May 1940 Germany invaded the Netherlands,
Europe was to be demarcated into German and Luxembourg, Belgium and France, launching
Russian spheres of influence and Poland was to its blitzkrieg (the lightning strike).
be divided.
In six weeks all were defeated and British
forces were expelled from continental Europe.
About 198,000 British troops as well as 140,000
Allied troops, mainly French, had to be taken
to the beaches in Dunkirk and evacuated in
boats and small ships under heavy fire (May-
June 1940). The French soldiers evacuated from
Dunkirk formed the nucleus of the Free French
army under General de Gaulle, who ran the
French government in exile to fight the Fascists.
But for the Dunkirk evacuation, Britain would
Nazi–Soviet Pact have found it difficult to regroup.

(vi) I nvasion of Poland and

Outbreak of War
In order to carry
out Hitler’s larger plan
of conquering the whole
of Europe, Germany
invaded Poland on 1
September 1939 on the
ground that Poland
had been planning Dunkirk Evacuation
with its allies, Great Hitler Emboldened by Hitler’s success, Italy
Britain and France, to encircle joined Germany and invaded France in June
and dismember Germany and that Poles were and Egypt in September 1940. Around this
persecuting ethnic Germans. In two days Britain time Japan also joined the Axis powers. Hitler
gave the ultimatum: unless German troops were expected Britain to sue for peace. But Prime
withdrawn from Poland, Britain and Germany Minister Churchill, who replaced Chamberlain,
would be at war. The ultimatum was ignored refused to compromise. The German air force, in
and the Second World War began. an attempt to force a surrender, began to attack

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specific targets, especially the ports, airfields The War in Asia and the Pacific
and industrial installations. In September 1940, German victories in the Soviet Union
London was bombed – an operation known as prompted Japanese leaders to go on an offensive
the Blitz. By October 1940, night bombing raids in Southeast Asia and the Pacific. The decision
on London and other industrial cities became for war with the US was taken in November
routine. However, the German strategy failed 1941. On 7 December Japanese aircraft
because with the aid of the newly developed attacked the Pearl Harbour naval base in the
device ‘radar’ for detecting aircraft while still Hawaiian islands, inflicting severe damages
at a distance, the fighter planes of the Royal to the US Pacific Fleet. Japan then occupied
Air Force (Spitfires and Hurricanes) inflicted English colonial territories in Burma, Malaya,
severe losses on the German bombers. In the Singapore (where the British beat a shameful
Battle of Britain (in the air between July and retreat, leaving the population under the mercy
October 1940), Hitler suffered his first defeat. of the Japanese) and the Dutch possession of
But the U-Boat [a German Submarine] war in East Indies.
the Atlantic was disrupting British trade.
Pearl Harbour Incident and its
Fallout
The Japanese attack on
Pearl Harbour, instead of
crushing the morale of the
American people, galvanised
them into action. Until then
kept out of the war due to
American public opinion, the United States
declared war on Japan, thus making it an absolute
world war. Britain and China joined the US. Under
German U - Boat the Lend-Lease system, President Roosevelt
had already committed the US government to
In November 1940, a decision taken by
aid the opponents of Fascism, in the context
Germany to invade Russia was deferred due
of Italy and Japan joining Germany. The direct
to the campaign in the Balkans (April) against
involvement of the US greatly expanded the
Yugoslavia and Greece. On 22 June 1941 the
resources of the Allies as America brought more
invasion of Soviet Union commenced. After a
vehicles, ships and aircrafts than all the other
series of victories, German forces approached
fighting countries put together. In August 1942,
Leningrad and Moscow. By 1941 Hitler’s empire
US forces commanded by MacArthur began to
in Europe had reached its zenith.
play a prominent role in the Pacific. The naval
German rule everywhere was repressive, battle planned by Admiral Yamamoto resulted in
brutal and exploitative. More than seven a major Japanese defeat.
million Europeans, from France to Russia,
were taken as forced labour to Germany. One
third of Germanys’ war costs was met by tribute
extracted from occupied Europe. Nazi racism
was directed against the Jews, communists and
gypsies. Jews were imprisoned in concentration
camps, and about six million Jews were
murdered in a state-sponsored genocide using
industrial methods of extermination (called the
Holocaust). Pearl Harbour Attack
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The US navy defeated the Japanese navy

in the Battle of Midway (4–7 June 1942), which
turned the tide in favour of the Allies. The
Battle of Guadalcanal in the Solomon Islands
was a combined offensive of the army and the
navy, and lasted for several months (7 August
1942–9 February 1943). This battle too ended
in a crushing defeat for the Japanese. After
this, the American forces were able to re-take
the Philippines and gradually the Japanese
were pushed out of most of their conquered Battle of Stalingrad
territories. In 1944, the combined British and
Indian armies were able to repulse the Japanese According to one estimate, the total number of
who attempted to invade the north-east of India. Russians dead touched 20 million (13 million
Then, along with the Chinese, they pushed the soldiers and seven million civilians).
Japanese out of Burma, and took over Malaya
and Singapore. Fall of Mussolini
At the end of 1942, the Allied cause was
The Battle of Stalingrad, 1942 saved when German forces suffered their
The German strategy of lightning strikes first reverses at El Alamein in north Africa.
was initially successful in Soviet Russia. But The Battle of El Alamein, fought between the
the German army did not succeed in reaching German–Italian army commanded in the field
Moscow. It faced the bloodiest battles in world by Erwin Rommel and the British forces, in
history at Stalingrad. Hitler thought Stalingrad the deserts of North Africa, led to a German
would be a prize catch, as it was a large industrial Surrender in May 1943. The Allied forces then
city producing armaments and tractors. He invaded Sicily. The same king, Victor Immanuel
was also aiming for the rich oil fields of the III, who had handed power to Mussolini in
Caucasus. In addition, seizing the city that bore 1922 replaced him with General Badoglio and
the name of the Soviet leader Joseph Stalin sued for peace. Mussolini was kept under house
would add further glory to the image of Hitler. arrest. The General Badoglio government of
But even after it became clear that the German
Italy formally signed a surrender in Sicily on
Army could not hold Stalingrad, Hitler refused
3 September 1943.
to allow a strategic withdrawal. He was scared
that the strategic withdrawal from Stalingrad During 1943 there were two high level
would greatly dent Nazi prestige. Thus, Hitler conferences among the Allies. In January
condemned his best army to cold, starvation Churchill and Roosevelt met at Casablanca.
and death even as the Soviet army fired by a Here they decided to postpone the invasion of
nationalist spirit fought without respite. The France, which for over four years (1940–44)
great Soviet counter-offensive in the summer was literally a German province, until the next
(1942) turned the tide in favour of Soviet Union. year. (The Germans who had occupied France
Many military historians have argued that the possessed sixty army divisions.) The second
fate of the war was decided in Stalingrad. conference was at Teheran in Persia in which
The victory at this “Great Patriotic War” set Stalin was also present. Based on the strategy
the Red Army on course to storm Berlin. Along planned, the Anglo–American invasion of
with the Allied forces of Britain, France and France was fixed for 6 June 1944. The supreme
America, Soviets defeated the German army, commander of the Allied forces was the
effectively ending World War II in Europe. American General Eisenhower.
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Invasion of Anglo–American end to World War II. Between 60,000–80,000

Forces and Bombing of Dresden people were killed instantly when the bomb
The Allied forces under the command was dropped over Hiroshima, and an estimated
of Eisenhower invaded Normandy in France. 140,000 died from its effects before the end
Normandy was cleared of German forces and of the year. The death toll increased to over
on 25 August 1944 Paris was liberated. By the 200,000 in subsequent decades, as people died
beginning of September the Allies had gained of cancer (leukemia) and other diseases linked
control of the whole of the country, and also to dangerous radiation.
occupied Belgium. The Allied bombing of Historians differ in their interpretations
Germany (February 13–15, 1945) almost of the causes of the war. Some attribute it to
completely destroyed the German city of the Treaty of Versailles which was harsh and
Dresden. The raids became a symbol of the vindictive. So they justify Germany’s desire
“terror bombing” campaign against Germany. to change the terms of the treaty. There are
During this period, altogether 600,000 German others who blame the policy of appeasement
citizens were killed. Slowly, the German army followed by Britain and France. A few point
was forced back. But the Germans resisted and out the failure of Britain and France to reach
the war continued for another year. an agreement with the Soviet Union. They
In 1945 a final assault on Germany not only distrusted the Soviet Union but
brought Western and Soviet forces face to face did not respond to proposals for collective
across central Germany. On April 30, 1945 security put forward from 1934 onward.
Soviet forces neared Hitler’s command bunker But most historians hold Germany and
in central Berlin. Hitler committed suicide. Hitler responsible. They assert that it was
Berlin fell into the hands of Soviets on 2 May. the unscrupulous, ruthless and aggressive
The Soviet army had already captured much of policies based on a belligerent nationalism
Eastern Europe and Poland. and an ideology of racial (Aryan) purity,
plunged the world into six years of devastating
Dropping of Atomic Bombs and
warfare. ‘The Second World War was Hitler’s
the End of World War II
war. He planned it, began it and ultimately
lost it.’

Peace Making
The Atlantic Charter, a statement issued
by President Roosevelt and Prime Minister
Churchill, formed the basis of the settlement of
peace. Its essential principles were as follows:
1. No territorial changes without the consent
of the people concerned.
Atomic Bomb attack on Japan 2. The right of the people to choose the form
of their government.
Despite the defeat of Germany, the Japanese
3. All states to enjoy on equal terms access to
generals refused to surrender. Finally, the US
the trade and raw materials of the world.
on 6 August 1945 dropped an atomic bomb on
Hiroshima and three days later (9 August) on 4. Freedom to travel across the sea without
Nagasaki. In the race to develop the atomic hindrance
bomb, the US had overtaken Germany. Japan 5. Disarmament of all nations that threaten
surrendered immediately, thereby bringing an aggression.
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Reparation to Russia: Hungary, Belgium

and Finland were to give $100,000,000 to Russia.
Bulgaria was to pay $25,000,000 to Yugoslavia
and $4,000,000 to Greece. Rumania agreed
to give back Bessarabia, acquired in 1919,
and Bukovina to Russia. The Belgium treaties
guaranteed the free navigation of the Danube.
But it was blocked by Russia. The treaties came
into effect from 15 September 1947. But the
provisions were either violated or ignored.
Churchill - Truman - Stalin Austria: Disputes arose over the claim of
Yugoslavia to a portion of Austrian territory in
Otherwise there was no peace conference. southern Carinthia. Yugoslavia also demanded
Great Britain, the Soviet Union and the US, $150,000,000 as reparation. The problematic
represented by Churchill, Stalin and Truman, issue of defining German assets could not be
agreed at the Potsdam meet to create a council resolved even though the commission set up
of foreign ministers of five Powers – the Big for this purpose met in 85 sessions. The issue
three plus China and France – to continue of reparation with Russia was settled with the
the necessary preparatory work for the peace Soviet extension of rights to the oil and shipping
settlements. This council became the principal facilities in Austria and a cash payment of
agency for peace-making in Europe. It was $150,000,000 over a six year period in lieu of
agreed upon that peace treaties with Italy, the German assets. Austria was reestablished as
Hungary, Belgium, and Rumania be finalised a sovereign, independent and democratic state
before dealing treaties with Italy and Germany. with the same frontiers it had before the forced
Great Britain, USA, USSR and France would union with Germany in 1938. Austria agreed
draft the Italian treaty, the Big three would draft not to enter into political or economic union
the three Balkan treaties, Great Britain and with Germany in any form.
Soviet Union would draft for Finland. Then the Germany: The conference held at Potsdam,
draft treaties would be considered at a general near Berlin, issued the following formal
conference. declarations: 1. East Prussia to be divided into
two parts: northern part going to the Soviet
Peace Conference, 1946 Union, and the southern part to Poland. 2.
1500 delegates from 21 nations met at Poland to receive the former free city of Danzig.
Luxemburg Palace, Paris, from July 26 to 15 The military power of Germany was to be totally
October 1946. After a great deal of deliberations destroyed, and Germany was to be divided
the recommendations of the conference were into four occupation zones to be governed by
reviewed by the Council of Foreign Ministers the USSR, Great Britain, the United States and
and adopted after slight modifications. France. Thus substantial portions of pre-war
Germany were transferred to the USSR and to
Italian Peace treaty: The issue of Trieste Poland. Berlin in the heart of Russian sphere
dragged for several years. Italy demanded and the rest of the country was divided into four
Trieste. Soviet Union had promised it to zones. In April 1949 the German Democratic
Yugoslavia. Finally, in 1954, Trieste was divided Republic was proclaimed in the Soviet zone.
into Zone A and Zone B. Zone A went to Italy, NATO decided to approve the Federal Republic
while Zone B was awarded to Yugoslavia. The of Germany. In September the newly elected
Italian reparation was fixed at $ 260,000,000 parliament of the Federal Republic of Germany
(most of it to go to Greece and Yugoslavia). was established.
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Poland the War. Unlike after the First World War,

Poland moved some 200 miles to the this time, Roosevelt was determined that the
west, losing about 69,000 sq.miles to the Soviet United States should join the world peace
Union and gaining slightly less from Germany organisation.
in the west. Poland would surrender its eastern
Results of the Second World War
provinces to Russia and the existing government
of Poland, setup under Soviet aegis, was to be The Second World War caused
reorganised with the inclusion of democratic unprecedented hardship. As many as 60
leaders from among the Poles. million died, and great cities such as Warsaw,
Kiev, Tokyo and Berlin were reduced to rubble.
Japan The majority of ports in Europe and many
Roosevelt, Churchill and Nationalist in Asia were destroyed or badly damaged;
China’s Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek met bridges were blown up; railway locomotives
in Cairo as early as in November 1943 and and rolling stock vanished. Millions of people
decided the fate of the Japanese empire. All the lost their homes. Germany ceased to be a great
territories taken by Japan from China, with the power. Europe lost its status and prestige.
exception of Korea, were to be restored to the The economy was in a shambles. It was clear
Chinese Republic. Korea was to become free that the two dominating powers in the world
and independent. Japan lost all conquests it had were the United States and Soviet Russia. The
made since 1931. It was also obliged to give up ideological divisions between the two made
Formosa (now Taiwan) and the Pacific islands the post-war cooperation impossible, as we
that it had gained decades earlier. shall see in the next lesson.
Great Britain emerged with enormous
prestige, but her position as a world power
diminished on account of reduced wealth, and
the shrinking of its empire. The Second World
War was fatal to many European monarchies.
Kingship was abolished in Rumania, Yugoslavia,
Bulgaria and Italy. Apart from Britain, it survived
only in Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Holland
and Belgium and that too only as constitutional
monarchies.
The world had been one in its effort
Churchill - Roosevelt - Stalin
to defeat fascism which had threatened
After meeting in a conference at Yalta, world peace. The Allied victory had been
in the Crimea (February 1945), Roosevelt, underpinned by the popular support for
Churchill and Stalin declared their plans for the war effort. The struggle against fascism
the unconditional surrender of Germany, also empowered the common people. The
upon methods of controlling Germany and her shared suffering and sacrifice of the war years
allies after the war, and upon the establishment strengthened the belief in most democracies
of United Nations Organisation to preserve that governments had an obligation to
the peace, the economic organisations, known provide basic care for all citizens. When it was
collectively as the Bretton Woods system, the elected in the summer of 1945, for example,
World Bank, the International Monetary Fund the Labour government in Britain moved
and the General Agreement on Trade and rapidly to establish a welfare state. It became
Tariffs to achieve post-War reconstruction of the government’s obligation in Britain to
the economies which had been devastated by provide insurance against accident, sickness,
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old age and unemployment. The rights of

women also took a huge step forward as their
contribution to the war effort, and their share
in the suffering, were recognised. In France
and Italy, women finally got the vote.
The most significant outcome of the War
was the transformation that had taken place in
colonies. The fight for democracy encouraged
the nationalist forces to intensify their liberations
struggles. The defeat of armed forces of the
Western countries by Japan in Southeast Asia Taiping Rebellion
and also the initial setback suffered by Britain
The oppressive political and economic
and France in the War at the hands of Germans
system triggered a number of risings during
sent a clear signal that white men and their
the nineteenth century. The most serious was
states could be defeated. The old empires also
the Taiping Rebellion (1850–1864). That it took
realised that the Age of Empire was definitely
fourteen years for the government to crush was
at the end. The Dutch, for instance, found it
an indication of the weakness of the government.
difficult to maintain adequate military forces in
Growing European pressure, first the British,
the huge Indonesia archipelago. In Indo-China
and then the French, Germans, Russians and
the French, supported by the British and later by
Americans, forced China to cede trading rights
the USA, made a desperate attempt to hold back
at ports to foreigners. The British were twice
its independence. But the French were defeated
at war against China (Opium Wars). It was a
and forced to withdraw in 1954. The attempt
favourable time for the foreigners as China
by Britain and France to reassert themselves
was preoccupied with the Taiping Rebellion
as global imperial powers in the Suez Crisis of
and could offer no resistance. The European-
1956 was doomed. Later the US war against
controlled area stretched from Hong Kong
Vietnam turned out to be a shameful failure.
to Port Arthur. Shanghai especially became a
14.2  Chinese Revolution, flourishing port.
1949
The Taiping (meaning great peace) Rebellion
China had a long history and through started as a peasant uprising. But soon it
most of historical times was more advanced developed into a revolutionary movement
than Europe. But by 1900, China had lagged under the leadership of Hung Hsiu-chuan,
behind on most fronts. A particular reason a school teacher from a peasant family. He
for its downfall was the long corrupt and preached equality between people, stressing
inept rule of Manchu dynasty since 1650. The on equal division of the land, and an end to old
landed gentry produced scholar officials called social distinctions. In 1853, the movement’s
mandarins, who defended the established membership soared to two million and
order with privileged status. The mass succeeded in taking over Nanking and
of the population, the peasants, suffered administering 40 per cent of the country as
from high rents, high taxes and shortage of a state of its own. But the Taiping leadership
land. Agricultural production was stagnant. did nothing to improve the status of peasants.
Cultivated areas were densely populated, with A reorganised imperial army, with modern
the average size of a farm remaining less than weapons supplied by Britain and France, under
an acre. Although China possessed coal and the British army officer Major Gordon quelled
iron ore in abundance, industrial development the rebellion. Nanking was retrieved in 1864.
was slow.
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The weakness of China became very clear

when the newly modernised Japan began its
acts of aggression in 1894. By the peace treaty
of 1895, Formosa went to Japan and Korea
became independent. Thereupon thousands
of European businessmen began to exploit
Chinese trade. Christian missionaries landed
in China and began to spread their faith inland.
European activities and their interference
First Opium War in local administration produced hatred of
foreigners among the Chinese. In 1900, on top
of the discontent resulting from infiltration of
Opium Wars: The first Opium War was foreigners, there came two successive harvest
the result of China’s attempt to suppress the failures, and devastating floods caused by the
illegal opium trade, as the human cost of Yellow River. The Boxer Rebellion broke out.
the Chinese addiction was deadly. British
traders were the primary source of opium
supply in China. The treaty of Nanking
signed at the end of first Opium War (1842)
opened the doors to Britain. China ceded
Hong Kong and paid an indemnity.
The first war broke out when Chinese
officials boarded a British-registered ship,
the Arrow, docked in Canton and arrested
crew members for piracy. The ship belonged
to the Chinese, the crew were Chinese. But
the ship flew the British flag because of a Boxer Rebellion
permit from the Hong Kong government.
The permit had actually expired. Boxer Rebellion (1899–1901): Boxer was a
Nonetheless the British government, which name that foreigners gave to a Chinese secret
was looking for a pretext to go to war so society known as the Yihequan (“Righteous
that it could force China into granting more and Harmonious Fists”). Although the Boxers
trading concessions, responded by sending came from all sections of society, many
a warship. Fighting broke out and France, were peasants, particularly from Shandong
using the excuse of the murder of a French province, which had been struck by natural
missionary (February 1856), joined Great disasters. The original aim of the Boxers
Britain. This time a British and French force was the destruction of the Manchu dynasty
destroyed the Summer Palace in Peking. and also of the Westerners who enjoyed a
Finally, in 1860, China succumbed to the privileged position in China. The Boxers
superior British military strength and the burned churches and foreign residences and
Beijing Agreement was reached. It opened killed suspected Chinese Christians on sight.
Chinese ports to trade, allowed foreign A multi-national force, seized Peking, as the
ships down the Yangtze, and permitted Empress and her court fled. Nearly 100,000
the free movement of foreign missionaries people died. The great majority of those
within China. Most importantly, it allowed killed were civilians, including thousands of
the legal trade of British opium within Chinese Christians and 200 to 250 foreign
China. nationals (mostly Christian missionaries).

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The Boxer Rebellion formally ended

with the signing of the Boxer Protocol Sun Yat-sen (1866–1925)
on 7 September 1901. By the terms of the Dr. Sun Yat- sen,
agreement, forts protecting Beijing were to be born in a poor family,
destroyed. Boxers and Chinese government was educated in a
officials involved in the uprising were to be mission school and
punished. Foreign consulates were permitted became a medical
to station troops in Beijing for their defence. doctor. His interest
China was prohibited from importing arms in politics prompted
for two years and it was agreed to pay more him to participate
than $330 million in reparations to the foreign in a rising against the Qing government in
nations concerned. 1895. The rising failed and Sun Yat-sen had
In October 1911 a mutiny broke out to spend the next sixteen years in exile. He
among the troops in Wuchang. This is regarded spent his time in spreading his revolutionary
as the formal beginning of the revolution. The ideas amongst Chinese students and others
living overseas. In 1905, he founded a
mutineers soon captured the Wuchang mint
political party in Tokyo, which became the
and arsenal, and city after city declared war
Kuomintang or National People’s Party.
against the Manchus. Revolution broke out in
the valley of the Yangtze and soon spread to the Sun-Yat-sen championed three
greater part of central and south China. On New principles: Nationalism, Democracy,
Year’s Day 1912 the provinces involved in the and Socialism. In 1894 Sun Yat-sen had
revolt proclaimed a republic with its capital at founded the China Revival Society that
Nanking. On hearing the news of the uprising, took exception to the “unequal treaties,” as
Sun Yat-sen arrived in Shanghai and was the Chinese called the two treaties forced
immediately elected provisional President of on China by foreign powers. The society
the new Chinese Republic. Yuan Shih-kai, who grew and attracted the youth. By 1912, it
had earlier served as a minister in the Manchu had changed its name to the Kuo-Min-Tang.
administration, was recalled by the Regent Sun Yat-sen, the inspirer of the organisation,
who was acting for his infant son to handle the wanted a republic, not a constitutional
revolt. But gauging the mood of the people Yuan monarchy.
advised the abdication of the Emperor.
On February 12, 1912 an Edict of the republic. Exactly three months later, he
Abdication was issued and the Manchu dynasty dissolved the National Assembly and replaced
(Qing government) vanished from the Chinese it with a "political council," which drafted a
political stage. In the following month, Sun Yat- "constitutional compact" granting dictatorial
sen, in the interests of unity, resigned in favour powers to the president. Yuan was made
of Yuan, since the latter had total control over president for life. Yuan became unpopular
the army. when he agreed to the Japanese demand to
have economic control of Manchuria and
Yuan Shih-kai’s Unpopularity Shantung. On the death of Yuan in 1916, a
In the four years of his administration, new president was appointed. For the next
Yuan Shih-kai proved that he was opposed twelve years the government was central only
to both democracy and republicanism. in name. It was a period of disorder. Around
Yuan went on to ban the Kuomintang, the this time Marxist ideas were gaining support
Nationalist Party, and seize the provinces in the north of China, parallel to Sun-Yat-
under its control. On 10 October 1913, Yuan sen’s activities in the coastal cities between
was installed as the full-fledged president of Shanghai and Canton.
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The Communist Party of China not destroy the spirit of resistance. Instead it led
With the death of Yuan Shih-kai during the to an increasing level of class consciousness.
First World War, the country came to be divided By now Sun Yat-sen had established a
by rival Chinese generals backed by different constitutional government. But its position was
powers. Many of the intelligentsia had faith in weak. So he sought USSR’s help to reorganise
US liberalism to end this state of affairs. But they his Kuomintang. USSR sent Michael Borodin
felt let down as the expected did not happen. The to China. As an experienced Communist
frustration was unleashed by millions of people Borodin reorganised the Kuomintang as a
through rallies and demonstration in which centralised mass party and helped to build up
students took prominent part. After the Russian a revolutionary army. The Whampoa Military
Revolution of 1917, the writings and speeches of Academy was founded near Canton, with the
Marx and Lenin became popular amongst the assistance of Soviet officers. Its first director
intellectuals. Interest in Marxism grew as China’s was Chiang Kai-shek. On the staff in charge
emerging industrial working class gained in of political activities was Chou En Lai, as an
strength and demonstrated it through strikes alliance had been formed between the Chinese
and boycotts. In 1918 a Society for the Study Communist Party and the Kuomintang.
of Marxism was formed in Peking University.
Among the students who attended was a young Kuomintang and Chiang Kai-Shek
assistant librarian by the name of Mao Tse-tung. After the death of
A series of strikes rocked China in 1922. Sun Yat-sen in 1925,
About 2,000 seamen in Hong Kong, braving the Kuomintang was
the proclamation of marital law, struck work. It organised on Communist
soon developed into a general strike of 120,000 lines, but it did not adopt
workers forcing the employers to opt for peace. Communist policies.
Clashes between British police and workers in While the Kuomintang
British-owned factories in Hankou culminated was led by Chiang Kai-
Chiang Kai-shek
in a warlord shooting down 35 striking rail Shek, the Communist
workers and executing a union unit secretary. Party was under Mao Tse tung and Chou En
Such repressive measures halted the onward Lai. The Communists increased their influence
march of the working class movement, but did among the workers and peasants, and won
recruits for their army. The Kuomintang
represented the interests of the landlords and
Mao Tse-tung (1893–1976) capitalists.
Mao was born in Hunan in south-east China. Chiang Kai-Shek began his march known
His father was a wealthy peasant, and a as ‘the Northern Expedition’ from Canton,
firm supporter of the Manchu dynasty. Mao and by the end of 1925, he had captured
entered the junior college at Changsha in the Hanko. By March 1927, when the Expedition
year of the revolution (1911). Mao joined the was approaching Shanghai, a general strike
revolutionary army but soon left and enrolled involving 600,000 workers erupted and the
in the Teachers’ Training College in Changsha. unions had taken over the control of the city.
He remained there until 1918, spending Chiang Kai-shek had already cracked down on
long hours in the library. He then moved to the workers’ movement in Canton by arresting
Peking and served as an assistant librarian in a number of communist activists and harassing
Peking University. In the following year Mao the unions. In Shanghai, after allowing the
began his full-fledged political activities as an victorious rebel forces to hand him the city, he
organiser of Hunan and emerged as a staunch treacherously arranged for the criminal gangs
Communist. in collusion with wealthy Chinese merchants

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and the representatives of the foreign powers to by Kuomintang forces, by local war lords and
launch a pre-dawn attack on the offices of the by unfriendly tribesmen. The machine gun fire
main left wing unions. The workers’ sentries of Kuomintang contingents and the deafening
were disarmed and their leaders arrested. roar of the river caused horror to the marchers.
Demonstrations were fired on with machine- Of the 100,000 who set out, only 20,000 finally
guns, and thousands of activists died while arrived in northern Sheni late in 1935, after
fighting. At the instance of wealthy merchants crossing nearly 6000 miles. They were soon
and financiers, Chiang Kai-Shek purged all joined by other communist armies, and by 1937
Communists from the Kuomintang Party. In Mao Tse-tung was the ruler of over 10 million
1928 he was successful in capturing Peking. people. Mao organised Workers and Peasants’
Once again there was a central government in Councils in the villages of Shensi and Kansu and
China. But over the next 18 years his government the base for the eventual Communist conquest
became notorious for its corruption and of China was established.
gangsterism.
Japanese Aggression and its
Mao knew that the Kuomintang grip on Fallout
the towns was too strong. So concentrated
The Japanese continued to occupy north
his energies on organizing the peasantry. He
Chinese provinces while developing Manchuria
retreated into the wild mountains on the border
as a military base. Mao believed that Chiang
between the provinces of Kiangsi and Hunan.
Kai-shek was necessary for some time to hold
Here Mao and his comrades stayed for the next
together Kuomintang to fight the Japanese. As
seven years. As the army of Mao was gradually
a consequence of this pragmatic policy, the
growing, despite five extermination campaigns,
attacks on the Communists gradually petered
the Kuomintang was never able to penetrate
out. However, a stronger line was adopted
the mountains successfully. In the new base of
towards Japanese expansion. Yet the Japanese
the communists, they had protection from the
had occupied the whole of the eastern half of
attacks of Chiang Kai-Shek, and an advantage
China during the Second World War, as the
in dealing with constant threat from Japan and
Kuomintang armies fell easily. Chiang Kai-
also the attacks from war lords.
shek’s capital had to be shifted to Chungking.
The Long March 1934 Victory to Communists
With the announcement of the Japanese
surrender in 1945 after the bombing of Hiroshima
and Nagasaki, both the groups in China took
immediate steps to occupy the Japanese areas.
In the course of this race, the USA advised
both sides to negotiate. During 1946 General
George Marshall twice negotiated ceasefires,
but both were unsuccessful. The Kuomintang
government controlled
the administration, ports
The Long March and communication
As Chiang Kai-Shek had built a circle of system in view of
fortified posts around the Communist positions, the massive support
Mao wanted to move out of Hunan for safer provided by the USA.
territory. Therefore, the Communist army set out But the Kuomintang
on what came to be known as the Long March in soldiers, mainly drawn
1934. The marchers were continually harassed from the peasants, were Mao
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disillusioned and discontented. Mao, on the

other hand, had an army with higher morale
and better discipline. When civil war broke out,
Chiang Kai-Sehik’s army began to disintegrate,
with generals changing sides. Cities fell one by
one. By the end of 1949 Chiang Kai-Shek had fled
the mainland for Taiwan. The People’s Republic
of China was established in 1949.
14.3  Liberation Struggles
in Indonesia and
Dutch Colonial Rule
Philippines
The nationalist movement in East
Mao’s victory, following the independence Indies took shape much later than in the
of India, sent a message that imperialism Philippines. This is because the Dutch were
could be defeated in the colonies. But in slow in introducing Western education. In the
Southeast Asia, especially in the Philippines Philippines the Eurasians identified themselves
and Indonesia, nationalism was in its nascent with the native cause and became the leaders
stage and no substantial progress could be of the nationalist movement. The Dutch,
made towards achieving self-government until in contrast, largely free of racial prejudice,
the dawn of the 20th century. Three and a half intermarried with the natives and accepted
years of Japanese occupation resulted in the loss the Eurasians in their society. The Eurasians
of prestige to the European colonial powers, considered their interests as those of the Dutch.
with the national movements emerging strong
and powerful. But after the defeat of Japan in Rise of Nationalism
1945, Western powers sought to return to The first clear manifestation of nationalism
their territories. At first they tried to return as in the East Indies was in 1908, when the first
colonial rulers, but a brief period of rule proved native political society Boedi Oetomo (High
that this to be unrealistic. This resulted in the Endeavour) was organised. The society was
Dutch and American attempts to hand over founded by students of the first Dutch medical
power to friendly, moderate nationalist regimes school at the instance of their senior Wahidin
that could block the rise of communism which Sudirohusodo. The idea was that the native
was ascendant after the end of the World War. intellectuals should take the lead in working for
The East Indies (Indonesia) the educational advancement of the country.
It turned out to be a cultural body, consisting
The Dutch had occupied Java and Sumatra
since about 1640. In the second half of the mainly of civil servants and students from Java.
nineteenth century they conquered the outer Boedi Oetomo soon became defunct and a more
islands of the East Indies. During the nineteenth popular political society Sarekat Islam (Muslim
century the Dutch were mainly interested in Union) emerged.
economic, not political control. Most of the Sarekat Islam was formed mainly to fight
population relied on fishing and agriculture. against the economic power of the Chinese. But
Many worked on European sugar, tobacco, tea it gradually became a socialist and nationalist
and coffee plantations. Heavy investment in body. In 1916 it passed a resolution demanding
these plantations and other concerns with the self-government. In two years its membership
discovery of oil (1900) and the resultant growth increased from 350,000 to two and a half
of exports and import all made this area a million. Encouraged by the Russian Revolution
valuable colony for the Dutch. of 1917 the communists within Sarekat Islam
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attempted to gain control of the movement. As surrendered to the Japanese in the East Indies
they failed, they left and formed the Indonesian in March 1942. Some opposed the Japanese
Communist Party in 1919. and organised secret resistance. Some led
by Sukarno and Hatta believed that the best
Party Politics method of achieving independence would be
Efforts at delegating powers to the local to support the Japanese. In the last phase of
governments had already been initiated with the war the Japanese decided to negotiate the
the passage of a Decentralisation Law in 1903. terms of independence with the Indonesian
Provincial councils were established in the leaders.
following year. But the Indonesians played no
part in the government. In view of the growing Coming of Independence
nationalist agitation the Dutch government But after Japanese evacuation, in
created a People’s Parliament, Volksraad (1918) accordance with the decisions of the Potsdam
in Weltevreden, Batavia (Jakarta), Java, and Conference, British forces landed in the East
this continued to function until 1942. Indies in September 1945. They released about
During the 1920s, the Communists and 200,000 prisoners of war, mainly Dutch. The
Sarekat Islam vied with each other in Dutch had reoccupied nearly all the East Indian
dominating the nationalist movement. In this islands except Java and Sumatra, ruled by
rivalry for leadership the communists were Sukarno. The Dutch refused to recognise the
successful. They organised strikes which rule of Sukarno. Yet he refused to relinquish
culminated in a big uprising in 1926–27 in his office as President. So the British-occupying
western Java and Sumatra. This was force arranged negotiations which led to
immediately crushed. Thousands were Dutch-Indonesian Agreement. This resulted in
imprisoned and this caused a temporary Dutch recognition of Java and Sumatra as an
setback to the Communist Party. independent republic, leading to the merger
Around this time a young engineer of the rest of the islands to form a federation
named Sukarno organised the Indonesian known as the United States of Indonesia.
Nationalist Party. This third party in the Subsequently, the Dutch attempted to disrupt
country was supported the peace in Indonesia twice, but the pressure of
by the westernised world opinion, led by Jawaharlal Nehru as well
secular middle class. as the UN Security Council, led to a settlement
But in 1931 the police favourable to Indonesia at the end of 1949. A
raided the headquarters round table conference held at The Hague
of this party. Sukarno adopted a constitution for the independent
was imprisoned and the state of Indonesia. In December 1949 Indonesia
party he founded was became an independent state.
dissolved. Sukarno
Dutch Repression and Japanese
Aggression
During the 1930s, in the wake of
the economic depression that resulted in
unemployment, wage cuts and increased
protests, the government resorted to repression
and press censorship to check nationalism.
Sukarno and other nationalist leaders were
languishing in jail until 1942. The Dutch Signing of the Peace Treaty
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The Philippines 1898), Spain renounced all claim to Cuba, ceded

About 7000 islands named after the Guam and Puerto Rico to the United States, and
Spanish prince Philip, son of King Charles V, transferred sovereignty over the Philippines to
came to form the Philippines. Like the East the United States.
Indies, the Philippines had experienced Aguinaldo and
European rule since the sixteenth century. other Cavite rebels,
Spanish colonisation began with the expedition while fighting the
of Miguel Lopez de Legazpi in February 1565. Spanish army, won
Following this, Spain ruled the Philippines major victories in
for over 300 years, imposing its language, many battles, driving
culture and religion on the local population. the Spanish out.
Nationalism developed among the Filipinos On May 28, 1898,
earlier than elsewhere. The brutal way by Aguinaldo gathered a Emilio Aguinaldo
which the Cavite uprising (20 January 1872), force of about 18,000
involving 200 Filipino troops and workers troops and fought against a small Spanish
at the Cavite arsenal, was crushed served to garrison in Alapan, Imus, Cavite. After the
promote the nationalist cause. A number of victory at Alapan, Aguinaldo unfurled the
Filipino intellectuals were arrested and after a Philippine flag for the first time, and hoisted
brief trial, three priests (Jose Burgos, Jacinto it at the Teatro Caviteño in Cavite Nuevo
Zamora, and Mariano Gomez) were publicly (present-day Cavite City) in front of Filipino
executed and became martyrs. revolutionaries and more than 300 captured
Spanish troops. Emilio Aguinaldo was elected
the first president of the new republic with the
proclamation of Malolos Constitution. The
Philippine Republic endured until the capture
of Emilio Aguinaldo by the American forces on
March 23, 1901 that resulted in the dissolution
of the First Republic.
The nationalists of Philippines thought
the issue for America was Cuba. But soon
found out that they had only exchanged one
Spanish–American war master for another. Frustrated by the outcome
The dispute between America and Spain of Spanish-American War they resorted to
arising out of America’s interest in Cuba guerrilla warfare. The nationalist opposition to
snowballed into the Spanish–American war. In the American government was encouraged by
view of the mounting pressure building up a lobby in the US and so the government felt
internally, Spain had already decided to grant obliged to create representative institutions
Cuba limited powers of self-government. But at an early date. In the wake of American rule
the U.S. Congress demanded the withdrawal of (1902), most of the primary colonial institutions
Spain’s armed forces forthwith from the island. were firmly established: an English language
The Congress authorised the use of force to education system; an examination-based
secure that withdrawal. As Spain dodged, the civil service; a judicial system with provincial
U.S. declared war on 25 April 1898. Spain had courts; a system of municipal and provincial
readied neither its army nor its navy for a distant governments based on election, and finally an
war with the formidable power of the United elected national legislature. In the election held
States. So it was an easy victory for the US. By for the 80-member Assembly, the Nationalist
the Treaty of Paris (signed on 10 December Party won a majority.

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The Nationalist Party, however, after the Pearl Harbour attack, Japan attacked
continued to demand self-government. The the Philippines. The conquest of the Philippines
leader of the party, Quezon, said, ‘We should by Japan is often considered the worst military
prefer to rule ourselves in Hell to being ruled defeat in United States history. About 23,000
by others in Heaven.’ In the 1930s, during American military personnel were killed or
the Depression years, there were serious captured, while Filipino soldiers killed or
left-wing risings. The Partido Komunista ng captured totalled around 100,000.
Pilipinas (PKP) founded in 1930 was declared
illegal by the U.S. colonial authorities. Yet the
communist pressure persuaded the United
States government to agree to internal self-
government.
The Partido Komunista ng Pilipinas (The
Communist Party of the Philippines)
and the Huk Rebellion: Though outlawed
by the American government, the Partido
Komunista ng Pilipinas regained its legality
later and was at the helm of the Hukbalahap,
the People’s Army against the Japanese
Aggression. Hukbalahap was a strong guerrilla
organisation and with the re-conquest of Philippines Independence
the Philippines by the returning American After ending the aggression of Japan, the
forces, the PKP and the communist peasants
US honoured its promise given in the Act. In
(known as Huks) found themselves under
April 1946 elections were held, and on 4 July the
attack by their presumed wartime allies. Huk
Philippines became independent. USA left the
areas were bombarded by government forces
Philippines but provided military training and
and, as a result, the PKP resorted to guerrilla
warfare. At first they adopted it as a defensive financial support against Huks between 1946
posture. But in 1950 the party adopted a and 1954. Throughout the period the country
strategy for the seizure of power. By the mid- was one of the USA’s most loyal allies. The
1950s, however, the “Huk rebellion” had country was one of only three Asian states to
been crushed by the Philippine government, join the US-dominated South East Asian Treaty
assisted by the U.S. Organisation (SEATO) in 1954.

In 1934, the Tydings–McDuffie Act (The      Summary

Philippines Independence Act) provided a ten
„„The unjust nature of Versailles Peace Treaty,
year period for transferring power to Filipinos.
failure of League of Nations, economic
During this period the
United States could depression of the 1930s, expansionist
maintain military bases policies of Fascist powers like Italy,
in the Philippines, and Germany and Japan, all contributing to the
control foreign policy. outbreak of World War II are discussed.
This Act was ratified by a „„The importance of Japan’s attack on Pearl
plebiscite in 1935. From Harbour, the Battle of Stalingrad and
1935 to 1941 Quezon bombing of Dresden, the dropping of
was President of the atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki
Philippines. Immediately Quezon are highlighted.
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„„Peace settlement with Axis powers and Manchu dynasty and in establishing
their allies, the establishment of UNO and People’s government are described.
the total outcome of the War are analysed.
„„The Long March of Mao and the subsequent
„„The woes of Chinese peasants and the open developments leading finally to the
door policy pursued by the Manchu rulers, establishment of communist rule in China
resulting in China being carved out as are elaborated.
spheres of influence by the foreign powers
like Britain and France are detailed. „„The history of liberation struggles, with
particular reference to Indonesia and the
„„Spread of Christianity and interference of
Philippines, is traced.
foreigners in Chinese administration and
Japanese aggression of Chinese territories „„Japanese occupation of these two regions
whipped up nationalist sentiments of the for more than three years and eventual
Chinese and prodding them to revolt are emergence of nationalist movements
explained. leading to the overthrow of the colonial
„„Role played by Sun-Yat-sen and Mao-Tse regimes in Indonesia and the Philippines
Tung in mobilising the Chinese against are explored.

EXERCISE
Q.R.Code 4. In which year did Japan invade and seize
I. C
 hoose the Manchuria from China?
correct answer (a) 1931 (b) 1932 (c) 1933 (d) 1934
5. emerged as the most powerful
1. Which one of the
Industrial country in continental Europe
following was not the cause for the outbreak
towards the close of nineteenth century.
of Second World War?
(a) France (b) Spain
(a) The unjust nature of the terms of Peace
with Germany (c) Germany (d) Austria
(b) Failure of the League of Nations 6. Under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles,
a plebiscite was to be held in in
(c) Economic Depression of 1930s
January 1935.
(d) National Liberation Movements in
(a) Sudetenland (b) Rhineland
Colonies
(c) Saar (d) Alsace
2. The Kellogg–Briand Pact was signed in the
year 7. Assertion (A): The methods of warfare
changed during the Second World War.
(a) 1927 (b) 1928 (c) 1929 (d) 1930
Reason (R): Trench warfare had given way
3. Assertion (A): A Disarmament Conference
to aerial bombing.
was organised by the League of Nations at
Geneva. (a) Both A and R are correct. R explains A
Reason (R): The matter came up for (b) Both A and R are correct. R does not
deliberation was Germany’s rearmament explain A
plan on a par with France. (c) A is correct but R is wrong
(a) Both A and R are correct. R explains A (d) A is wrong but R is correct
(b) Both A and R are correct. R does not 8. In 1939 Germany signed Non-aggression
explain A pact with
(c) A is correct but R is wrong (a) Austria (b) Italy
(d) A is wrong but R is correct (c) Russia (d) Britain

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9. Japanese attack on Pearl Harbour was 15. Which one of the following was not the
planned by result of the Second World War?
(a) Yamamoto (b) Schuschnigg (a) Second World War was fatal to many
(c) Kaiser William II (d) Hirohito European monarchies.
10. Lend-Lease system introduced by President (b) The Labour Party government in
Roosevelt was helpful in Britain established a welfare state.
(a) providing additional soldiers to (c) The struggle against Fascism ended in
countries fighting the fascist forces the triumph of Imperialism
(d) The United States and Soviet Russia
(b) safeguarding the Jews from the
emerged as two super powers in the
murderous attacks of Hitler’s army
world.
(c) expanding the resources of the allies,
16. Which of the following pairs is correct?
supplying arms and ammunition
1) General de Gaulle - France
(d) providing medical services to those
2) Haile Selassie - Ethiopia
wounded in the Second World War.
3) General Badoglio - Japan
11. In August 1942, US forces in the Pacific was
commanded by 4) Admiral Yamamoto - Italy
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
(a) MacArthur
(c) 3 and 4 (d) All are correct
(b) Eisenhower
17. France joined the Second Opium War
(c) General de Gaulle
(a) to help Britain in the war
(d) George Marshall (b) to carve out a separate sphere of
12. The US navy defeated the Japanese navy in influence to France
the Battle of (c) to obtain permission for religious
(a) Britain (b) Guadalcanal activities
(c) El Alamein (d) Midway (d) to establish the French rights to engage
13. German forces suffered their first reverses in opium trade.
at 18. The end of Manchu dynasty came in the
(a) Potsdam (b) El Alamein year
(c) Stalingrad (d) Midway (a) 1908 (b) 1911 (c) 1912 (d) 1916
14. Which one of the following was not a 19. The dispute that led to the Spanish-
declaration of the Potsdam conference? American War in 1898 was on
(a) Cuba (b) the Philippines
(a) East Prussia to be divided into two
parts: northern part going to the Soviet (c) Puerto Rico (d) Batavia
Union, and the southern part to Poland. 20. Assertion (A): On 4 July 1946 the
(b) Poland to receive the former free city of Philippines became independent.
Danzig. Reason (R): Philippines joined the
US-dominated South East Asian Treaty
(c) Germany to be divided into four
occupation zones to be governed by the Organisation.
USSR, Great Britain, the United States (a) Both A and R are correct. R explains A
and France (b) Both A and R are correct. R does not
(d) Trieste was to be divided into Zone A explain A
and Zone B. Zone A went to Italy, while (c) A is correct but R is wrong
zone B was awarded to Yugoslavia. (d) A is wrong but R is correct
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II. Write brief answers 3. Describe Mao Tse Tung’s contribution to the
1. Bring out the importance of Kellogg-Briand establishment of Communist government
Pact. in China.
2. Why did Germany withdraw from the 4. Make a comparative analysis of common
League of Nations in 1933? and varying features in the liberation
3. What was the background for the formation struggles of Indonesia and Philippines.
of Rome-Berlin Axis?
V. Activity
4. What was the essence of the Munich
1. Teachers to arrange to screen the Pearl
agreement?
Harbour movie titled From Here to Eternity.
5. What do you know of Dunkirk Evacuation?
6. Highlight the importance of Japan’s attack 2. “Was the US justified in dropping of Atomic
on Pearl Harbour. bombs on Japan during the Second World
7. Enumerate the essential principles of War? Students to debate.
Atlantic Charter. 3. Teachers guide the students to mark the
8. Examine the importance of the Treaty of important nations and places of battles of the
Nanking. Second World War in an outline world map.
9. Explain the immediate outcome of
American rule established in the Philippines 4. Students to attempt a biographical account
in 1902. of important Generals like Yuan Shi kai,
10. Assess the significance of the Cavite uprising. MacArthur, George Marshall, General
Badoglio as well as rebel/ nationalist leaders
III. Write Short answers like Hung Hsiu-chuan, and Aguinaldo.
1. Why was Hitler keen on capturing
Stalingrad? Point out how his plan turned REFERENCES
out to be his “Waterloo”.
2. Allied bombing of Germany became a � H.A. Davies, An Outline History of the
symbol of terror bombing campaign. World, Oxford University Press, 2006.
Elucidate. � Edward McNall Burns, Western
3. Bring out the significance of Huk Rebellion. Civilizations, vol. 2, W.W. Norton, New
4. Highlight the important results of the York, 1972
Second World War. � R.D. Cornwell, World History in the
5. Attempt an account of Boxer Rebellion in Twentieth Century, Longman, 1972.
China. � Richard Overy (ed.), Complete History of
6. Discuss the role of Kuomintang Party in the World, Harper Collins, 2007
China’s nationalist politics.
� Amry Vandebosch, “Nationalism in
7. Estimate the contribution of Sukarno to
Netherlands East Indies,” Pacific Affairs,
the independence of Indonesia.
vol.4, no. 12, 1931.
IV. A
 nswer the following in detail
� Eric Hobsbawm, Age of Extremes: The
1. The seeds for the Second World War were
Short Twentieth Century 1914-1991,
sowed in the treaty of Versailles. Discuss
with reasons. Abacus, 1994.
2. Examine to what extent Germany and � Chris Harman, A People’s history of the
Hitler were responsible for the outbreak of World, Orient Longman, 2007.
Second World War. � Encyclopaedia Britannica

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GLOSSARY

ப�ோரில் த�ோற்ற நாடு மற்றொரு

payments made by a defeated nation
நாட்டிற்கு அது ஏற்படுத்திய
reparation after a war to pay for damages it caused
சேதத்திற்காக வழங்கும் இழப்பீட்டுத்
to another nation
த�ொகை

இராணுவ ஆட்கள் மற்றும் ஆயுதக்

disarmament reduction of military forces and weapons
குறைப்பு
breach go against the treaty, violate உடன்படிக்கையை மீறு
appeasement conciliation சமாதானப்படுத்துதல்

removing a person or persons from a

evacuation ஓரிடத்திலிருந்து வெளியேற்றுதல்
place.

ஊக்கம் க�ொள்ளச் செய்தல்,

embolden give the courage to do something
துணிவூட்டல்
a place where large numbers of people
concentration
are kept as prisoners in extremely bad சித்திரவதை முகாம்
camp
condition
vindictive revengeful பழிவாங்கும் இயல்புடைய
belligerent one eager to fight; aggressive ப�ோரிடுகிற, மூர்க்கத்தனமான

முன்னெப்போதுமில்லாத, முன்
unprecedented never done, never known before
சம்பவிக்காத

quell crush, suppress அடக்கு, ஒடுக்கு

obligation of an individual or a nation to
ப�ோரில் த�ோற்றவர் மீது க�ோரப்படும்
indemnity bear the losses of another incurred in a
இழப்பீட்டுத் த�ொகை
war.
staff who work on board a ship or
crew கப்பல்/ விமானப் பணியாளர் குழு
aircraft
treacherously in a disloyal and faithless manner நம்பிக்கைத் துர�ோகமாய்
manifestation appearance or demonstration வெளிப்பாடு
languish to exist in an unpleasant condition தளர்வடை, செயல் இழ

தவிர்க்க, தட்டிக்கழிக்கத் தந்திரம்

dodge to trick to evade
செய்தல்.
convince someone to do something
persuade விவாதத்தின்மூலம் இணங்கச் செய்
through reasoning or argument.
seizure capture, takeover, annexation பறிமுதல் செய்தல், கைப்பற்றுதல்

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ICT CORNER

Outbreak of World War II and its Impact in Colonies

Through this activity you will learn

about pictorial Timeline events of
World War II.

Step - 1 Open the Browser and type the URL given below (or) Scan the QR Code.

Step - 2  lick on ‘map’ to see the events happened in the location and select any
C
year from the bottom timeline (Ex.1939)

Step - 3 Select the ‘box’ on the map to learn more about the World War II events.

Step1 Step2 Step3

Web URL: https://www.abmc.gov/sites/default/files/

interactive/interactive_files/WW2/index.html

*Pictures are indicative only

*If browser requires, allow Flash Player or Java Script to load the page

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UNIT
The World after
15 World War II

Learning Objectives
Q.R.Code
To acquaint ourselves with
„„The emergence of a bi-Polar world in the post-World War II period
„„Beginning of Cold War with US funded post-War reconstruction of Europe
„„Military Pacts leading to the formation of two ideologically different camps: NATO,
led by the USA and the USSR-led Warsaw Pact countries.
„„Non-Alignment movement and Third World countries
„„UNO and its role in resolving global disputes
„„Formation and consolidation of the European Union
„„Collapse of Soviet Union and the end of Cold War

Introduction Afro-Asian countries, India included, decided

to remain un-aligned. This group of countries
World War II (1939–1945) was fought
came together and formed the Non-Aligned
between the Allied and the Axis powers. Britain,
Movement (NAM).
France and Russia formed the allied camp;
the United States joined it later in 1941 after The destruction and displacement
the attack on Pearl Harbour. Germany, Italy caused by the Second World War was much
and Japan were the Axis powers. Despite the greater than during the First World War
ideological differences amongst Allies, it was and so the world leaders realised the need
Germany's fascist and war-mongering attitude for a world organisation to prevent a war
that compelled them to work together. United in the future. As a result, United Nations
States and Britain were not comfortable with Organisation (UNO) was established in 1945.
the Soviet Union given its communist form of UNO played its role in resolving the disputes
government. among the member states. But the cold war
At the end of the Second World, USSR and situation prevented the UN from functioning
USA emerged as super powers. In their bid to independently and effectively. The War had
gain ideological supremacy they entertained ruined European economy and devastated
mutual suspicion and distrust. Both countries several cities in Western Europe. European
tried to spread their ideology either by force states had to come together initially for the
or by enticement. In the newly emerged bi- purpose of reconstruction of the shattered
polar world, most of the countries had to economy, paving the way for its evolution as
either ally with the US or with USSR. Many a strong collective in course of time.
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In this chapter we will be discussing the Emergence of a Bi-Polar World

emergence of the two power blocs, strategies Following the defeat of Germany, Stalin,
used by them to enlarge their spheres of Truman and Churchill, later replaced by
influence, emergence of NAM, the role of Clement Attlee, met at Potsdam near Berlin
UNO in resolving disputes, the post-war in July 1945 to discuss the future of Germany.
reconstruction in Europe and the establishment During the course of the meeting Truman
of European Union, and finally the end of cold informed Churchill about the invention of an
war with the collapse of Soviet Union. atomic bomb. A few days after the conference,
USA dropped atomic bombs over the Japanese
15.1  Post-War Conditions cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. With the
bombardment of Japanese cities, Japanese
in Europe Emperor Hirohito announced his country's
The Second World War was more unconditional surrender. This act of bombing
catastrophic than the First World War. As many Japan without informing USSR created a
as 60 million civilians were killed. In a planned diplomatic void between two countries. USSR
genocide the Nazis killed 6 million European produced an atomic bomb in 1949.
Jews. Millions became homeless and refugees. Meanwhile,
The War had destroyed factories and farm difference of opinion
lands. Great cities such as Warsaw, Kiev, Tokyo had arisen on the
and Berlin were totally devastated. Britain and creation of the
World Bank and the
France, which enjoyed prestige in international
International Monetary
politics prior to the War, were badly undermined.
Fund between the US
The condition of post-war Europe appeared
and the USSR. On 22
grave with shortages of food and raw materials. George Kennan
February 1946 George
There was by high rates of unemployment. Kennan, the American charge d’affaires
The post-War material conditions in Moscow, in an 8,000-word telegram to
challenged the laissez-faire attitude of capitalist the Department of State, known as ‘Long
countries. Many European countries turned into Telegram,’ emphasised that the Soviet Union
social welfare states committed to enhancing did not see the possibility for long-term
the conditions of its citizens. Not satisfied with peaceful coexistence with the capitalist world
the measures of the ruling governments the and suggested that the best strategy was to
distressed masses tended to support socialist “contain” communist expansion around the
globe.
movements. This was especially so in Greece
and Turkey where the communist movement In March 1946 Churchill, who was invited
was active. The USSR supported parties and to speak at Fulton in Missouri, condemned
the Soviet action of installing communist
movements which were left-leaning. By 1948 the
governments in Eastern European region.
Soviets had established left wing governments
He declared “From Stettin in the Baltic to
in the countries of eastern Europe notably in
Trieste in the Adriatic, an iron curtain has
Romania, Bulgaria and Hungary. Elections descended across the continent.” He called
held in Yugoslavia had already resulted in the for a western alliance which would stand
formation of a communist state under Tito. As firm against communism. Churchill’s speech
communism strengthened its grip on eastern is considered to signal the beginning of the
Europe, the Americans and the British began Cold War. Stalin criticised Churchill as a
to worry about the threat of Soviet-influenced warmonger. After the Iron Curtain Speech
parties coming to power in western Europe. of Churchill, USSR continued to tighten its
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hold over Eastern Europe. By the end of 1947

except Czechoslovakia the rest of the area was
brought under Communist rule.

Berlin Blockade and Airlift

15.2  Cold War

On 16 April 1947 Bernard Baruch, the
US Presidential adviser, in a speech at the State
Churchill at Fulton
House in Columbia, used the term "Cold War,"
The Berlin Blockade and (earlier coined by George Orwell, the great
Formation of East Germany and English writer and author of Animal Farm), to
describe the relations between the United States
West Germany
and the Soviet Union after the Second World
By the Yalta and Potsdam Conference War. A war without weapons, the Cold War was
agreements, Germany, with its capital city Berlin, a war of ideologies.
was divided into four zones, viz., U.S zone, U.K.
Between 1945 and 1991, the Cold War
zone, French zone and USSR zone. By early
defined the foreign policy of the super powers.
1948 all the three western zones were merged
During this period both the powers were in a
together and with the Marshall Plan these zones constant state of military preparedness. The US
registered rapid growth and development. wanted to promote open market for its goods and
USSR’s response was to put pressure on wanted to stop the spread of communism. On the
communications between West Berlin and West other hand USSR wanted to spread communism
Germany. In June 1948 the Russians stopped all and desired to have friendly governments on its
road and rail traffic between West Berlin and borders who shared the same value systems. The
West Germany. The western powers decided to powers adopted six major strategies to achieve
maintain contact with Berlin by air. For nearly their ends: Economic Aid, Military Pacts,
eleven months West Berlin was supplied by air, Propaganda, Espionage, Brinkmanship, and
and vast quantities of supplies were flown in at Surrogate Wars.
immense cost. In May 1949 USSR ended its ban
Cold War Strategies
on land traffic and the crisis ended. The western
powers now went ahead and set up the Federal (a) Economic Aid
Republic of Germany in August 1949 (FRG, Truman Plan
popularly known as West Germany) and USSR In 1945 a civil war broke out in Greece.
set up the German Democratic Republic (GDR, Britain which had supported Greece for
popularly known as East Germany) in October years, now decided to withdraw given its own
1949. If the division of Germany marked the real economic problems. Sometime later trouble
beginnings of the Cold War, the reunification of started in Turkey also, with the communists
Germany in 1990 signalled the end of Cold War. trying to take control. In 1947, Britain told the
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United States that it could no longer afford to In the Soviet view, Marshall Plan was little
fight communist insurgencies in Greece and more than a ploy to spread American
Turkey and decided to leave it as of March 31. influence.
United States chose to act. President Harry S.
Molotov Plan
Truman decided to intervene in support of
Greece and Turkey. He committed to provide In response to Marshall Plan, USSR set up
financial and military assistance to those The Cominform (the Communist Information
countries where communism was ascendant. Bureau) in September 1947. This was an
This laid the framework for US policy towards organisation in which all European communist
containing communism, known popularly as parties were represented. It discouraged trade
the Truman Doctrine which dominated until contact between the non-communist countries
the end of the Cold War. and tried to forge ideological and material linkages
with its member countries. In 1949, USSR came
out with its economic package known as Molotov
Plan. Another organisation, known as Comecon
(Council of Mutual Economic Assistance), was
set up to co-ordinate the economic policies of
USSR and its satellite states.

Truman and Marshall

Marshall Plan
With its experience in Greece and Turkey,
USA understood the value of American dollars
in containing Communism. So it decided to
move further in the same direction. In June
1947, George C. Marshall, the Secretary of Joseph Stalin and Molotov
State under President Truman, came out with
an economic plan for all those European (b) Military Pacts
countries which were affected by war. He Forging strategic alliances by signing
called it a European Recovery Programme. military pacts was another notable strategy
Marshall declared, "Our Policy is directed not used by both the powers to enlarge their
against any country or doctrine but against camps. In 1948 Czechoslovakia was the only
hunger, poverty, desperation and chaos". democratic state in Eastern Europe and was
European states were provided with financial a buffer between the capitalist bloc and the
assistance. Over the next four years 13,000 Soviet Union. In the elections of May 1948
million dollars were pumped into western the Communist party swept the polls. This
Europe in the name of Marshall plan. By 1948
further alarmed the western powers.
sixteen European states and the three Western
zones of Germany set up the Organisation for North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO)
European Economic Cooperation (OEEC). Despite the friendship of the United States,
Marshall Aid lasted for four years (1948–52). Western European countries felt insecure.
Molotov, the soviet foreign minister dubbed Communist victory in Czechoslovakia added
the Marshall Plan as "dollar imperialism". to their fears.
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as The Warsaw Pact, as the treaty was signed

On 1 November 1952, the United States in Warsaw, the capital of Poland. The members
successfully detonated “Mike,” the world’s were Soviet Union, Albania, Poland, Romania,
first hydrogen bomb, on the Elugelab Atoll
Hungary, East Germany, Czechoslovakia, and
in the Pacific Marshall Islands. Three years
Bulgaria. The treaty called upon member states
later, on 22 November 1955, the Soviet Union
to come to the defence of any member if it was
detonated its first hydrogen bomb.
attacked by an outside force. A unified military
The Western European countries were command under Marshall Ivan S. Konev of
now willing to consider a collective security the Soviet Union was set up. The Warsaw Pact
solution. The representatives of Great remained valid till 1991, the year of collapse of
Britain, France, Belgium, the Netherlands Soviet Union.
and Luxembourg met in Brussels and signed
a treaty in March 1948 which provided for
military, political, economic and cultural
collaboration. After sometime USA, Italy,
Canada, Iceland, Denmark, Norway, Ireland
and Portugal joined the five Brussels Treaty
Powers resulting in the formation of NATO.
Under NATO, all the member states agreed to
regard an attack on any one of them as an attack
on all of them and placed their defence forces
under a joint NATO Command Organisation. Central and Eastern
This collective defence arrangement applied European Countries Meet
only to attacks that occurred in Europe or South East Asian Treaty Organisation
North America and did not include conflicts (SEATO)
in colonial territories. In 1952, Greece and
In 1949 China turned into a Communist
Turkey were admitted to NATO and West
state under the leadership of Mao. Communism
Germany joined in 1955.
was spreading from China to Korea. Alarmed by
the spread of communism in the Asian region,
in September 1951, a tripartite military alliance
was signed between the US, Australia and New
Zealand (known as the ANZUS treaty). In 1954
the US signed a Mutual Defence Treaty with
Nationalist China (Taiwan), providing the latter
with American support in the event of an attack
or invasion by Communist China.
In September of 1954, USA, France,
Great Britain, New Zealand, Australia, the
NATO Meet in 1950 Philippines, Thailand and Pakistan formed
Warsaw Treaty Organisation the Southeast Asia Treaty Organisation
When West Germany became a member of (SEATO). SEATO is seen as an Asian-Pacific
NATO, USSR saw it as a direct threat and decided version of NATO. Interestingly only two
to make a counter arrangement. In May 1955, a south-east Asian countries, the Philippines
“treaty of mutual friendship, co-operation and and Thailand, had taken up membership and
mutual assistance” was signed by Soviet Union the rest of the countries refused to be part of it.
and seven of its European allies. It was named The alliance was headquartered at Bangkok.
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SEATO existed only for consultation, leaving music, literature and art. While the ideology
each individual nation to react individually to of capitalism was promoted, communism was
internal threats. SEATO was not as popular as condemned both as a political ideology and
NATO. With the end of Vietnam War, SEATO a social and economic system by the United
was disbanded in 1977. States. In USSR propaganda was designed in
such a way that collective work and collective
leadership within the socialist frame were
encouraged. Democracy and market economy
was dubbed as a façade to mask an exploitative
capitalism.

(d) Espionage

SEATO Conference in Manila

Central Treaty Organisation (CENTO)
In February 1955, Iraq and Turkey signed
a "pact of mutual cooperation" at Baghdad.
The membership was open to all countries in
the region. In April, Great Britain joined the CIA Headquarters
Pact, followed by Pakistan and Iran. The aim
was to check communist influence. A series of Espionage or spying was a key ploy used
events took place in Middle East in 1958 which by the both super powers to get information on
threatened regional stability: the Egypt–Syria military secrets and access government records.
union, revolution in Iraq and civil unrest in During the Cold War both superpowers
Lebanon. In response to these developments, maintained strong intelligence-gathering
the United States intervened in Lebanon. The agencies. In the United States the Central
members of the Baghdad Pact except for Iraq Intelligence Agency (CIA) was established
endorsed the US intervention. Iraq left the pact. in 1947 and the Soviet Union’s Komitet
As a result, the other signatories of the Baghdad Gosudarstvennoy Bezopasnosti (KGB), or
Pact formed the Central Treaty Organisation ‘Committee for National Security’ was formed
(CENTO), moving its headquarters to Ankara, in 1954. The espionage wars fuelled a great
Turkey. United States continued to support amount of suspicion and hatred, and a huge
the organisation as an associate, but not as a amount of popular films and novels with spies
member. In 1979, the Iranian revolution led to as heroes and villains added to it (e.g. James
the overthrow of the Shah and Iran withdrew Bond films).
from CENTO. Pakistan also withdrew that year
after the organisation ceased to play an active
role. CENTO was formally disbanded in 1979.

(c) Propaganda
During the Cold War both the US and
the USSR used propaganda as effective tools
to glorify their ideology, while criticising the
opponents values and ideals. Pro-American
values were promoted in film, television, KGB Office
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(e) Brinkmanship well. International opinion was mobilised in

Brinkmanship was a term that was these wars, and anti-Vietnam protests made a
constantly used during the Cold War. The word profound impact on the politics, society and
comes from U.S. Secretary of State John Foster culture of the US and western Europe.
Dulles. In an interview to Life in 1956, he claimed
that, in diplomacy, “if you are scared to go to 15.3  Third World Countries
the brink [of war], you are lost.” An example of and Non-Alignment
this policy was in 1962 when the Soviet Union
placed nuclear missiles in Cuba. This nearly In the aftermath of Second World War
brought about a nuclear war. The United States many colonial countries in Asia, Africa and
responded by putting a naval blockade around Latin America got their independence from
Cuba. Finally, after much negotiations, the imperial rule. The newly independent countries
missiles were removed from Cuba. were upset by the Cold War strategy of USA
and USSR. They viewed power blocs as another
form of imperialism and so decided to keep
Brinkmanship is the practice of trying
away from such politics. Calling themselves
to achieve an advantageous outcome by
countries of Third World, a term coined by
pushing dangerous events to the brink of
French demographer and historian Alfred Sauvy
active conflict. It occurs in international
in 1952, they decided to follow an independent
politics, foreign policy, and military strategy
and neutral policy in their foreign affairs.
and could involve even the threat of nuclear
weapons. Non-Aligned Movement (NAM)

USSR USA

CUBA

Cuban Missile Crisis

Bandung Conference
(f) Surrogate Wars
In 1955 the first Afro-Asian Conference was
US and USSR engaged in surrogate or held at Bandung in Indonesia where 29 states,
proxy wars as part of Cold War strategy. The mostly new independent states, including Egypt,
Korean War of 1950–53 and the Vietnam Indonesia, India, Iraq and the People’s Republic
Wars of 1955–75 were classic examples of the of China, gathered to condemn colonialism,
Cold War period. In both cases Soviet Union apartheid and growing tensions due to Cold
supported the communist government in War. The conference adopted a 'Declaration on
North Korea and in North Vietnam and the Promotion of World Peace and Cooperation'
United States supported South Korea and South which included Nehru's Panchsheel and a
Vietnam. These wars resulted in huge casualties collective pledge to remain neutral in the Cold
and losses, and turned out to be civil wars as War. The ten principles of Bandung later became
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the guiding principles of NAM. The term „„Recognition of the equality among all
"non-alignment" was coined by V. K. Krishna races and of the equality among all
Menon in 1953 at the United Nations. nations, both large and small.

Based on the Ten Principles of Bandung, „„Non-intervention or non-interference in

the First Summit of NAM was held at Belgrade, the internal affairs of another country.
the capital of Yugoslavia in 1961. Five members „„Respect for the right of every nation
played a prominent role in the foundation of to defend itself, either individually or
NAM: Jawaharlal Nehru of India, Sukarno collectively, in conformity with the
of Indonesia, Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt, Charter of the United Nations.
Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana and Josip Broz Tito
of Yugoslavia. The objective of NAM was to „„Non-use of collective defence pacts to
"create an independent path in world politics. benefit the specific interests of any of the
great powers.
The most important objectives included ending
of imperialism and colonialism, promotion „„Refraining from acts or threats of
of international peace and security and aggression and use of force against
disarmament, ending of racism and racial the territorial integrity or political
discrimination.” The statement issued at the independence of any country. Non-use
end of the Belgrade conference also deprecated of pressures by any country against other
military pacts with any great power or the countries.
permission for any super power to build a „„Settlement of all international disputes
military base in its territories. by peaceful means, such as negotiation,
conciliation, arbitration or judicial
settlement as well as other peaceful
means of the parties’ own choice, in
conformity with the Charter of the
United Nations.
„„Promotion of mutual interest and
cooperation.
„„Respect for justice and international
obligations.
During the Cold War period, NAM acted
as an alternative for the power bloc politics.
With the disintegration of Soviet Union, NAM
First Non-Aligned Conference, Belgrade became irrelevant.
The following goals and objectives were
set by the proponents of the Non-Aligned The Panchsheel (five principles), policy
Movement at the 1955 Bandung Conference: of Nehru, included 1. Mutual respect
for each other's territorial integrity and
„„Respect of fundamental human rights sovereignty, 2. Mutual non-aggression,
and of the objectives and principles of the 3. Mutual non-interference in domestic affairs,
Charter of the United Nations. 4. Equality and mutual benefit, 5. Peaceful
co-existence.
„„Respect for the sovereignty and territorial
integrity of all nations.
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15.4  UNO and Global Secretary-General. In addition to its main organs

UNO has currently 15 specialised agencies. Some
Disputes of the prominent agencies are International
The Second World War Labour Organisation (ILO - Geneva), Food
proved that the League of and Agriculture Organisation (FAO - Rome),
Nation was a failure. World International Monetary Fund (IMF - Washington
Q.R.Code
leaders realised the need for (D.C)), United Nations Educational, Scientific
the creation of an effective and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO - Paris),
organisation to prevent World Health Organisation (WHO - Geneva),
another war. At Dumbarton Oaks, a mansion and World Bank (Washington (D.C)).
in Georgetown, Washington, representatives of Role of UNO in resolving Global
China, the Soviet Union, the United States and
disputes
the United Kingdom met (August 21–October
7, 1944) and formulated proposals for a world "Since wars begin in the minds of men, it
organisation. The Moscow declaration of is in the minds of men that the defences of
1943 recognised the need for an international peace must be constructed". (Preamble to the
organisation to replace the League of Nations. Constitution of UNO).
Subsequently, at the Yalta Conference held in
February 1945, decisions on the voting system UNO Headquarters
in security council and a few other issues
were raised. After holding deliberations and
negotiations at the San Francisco Conference,
held in April, 1945, the Charter of the United
Nations was finalised.

UNO Headquarters, Newyork

The birth of UNO coincided with the
beginning of the Cold War. During this period
Yalta Conference
the UNO played an important role in preventing
On 24 October 1945 the UNO came into wars. But in disputes involving the permanent
existence with 51 members. The main organs of members of the Security Council the UNO
the UN are the General Assembly, the Security was a mute spectator. UN has an army known
Council, the Economic as the UN Peace-keeping Force. Member states
and Social Council, the contribute soldiers to this force. The UN soldiers
Trusteeship Council, are referred to as Blue Helmets, because of their
the International Court light blue helmets.
of Justice, and the
UN Secretariat. The Problem of Palestine
Norwegian Foreign After the Second World War the Jews
Minister, Trygve Lie, demanded a homeland in Palestine. Arabs
was elected the first UN Trygve Lie opposed the demand and the matter was
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on the Security Council. Since this was not

accepted USSR decided to boycott the Security
Council and all other UN organs. The People’s
Republic of China became a permanent member
in the Security Council only from 1971.

The Korean War (1950-53)

Korea, ruled by Japan since 1910, was
divided by the 38th parallel into two zones
Arab Refugees in 1945. The northern zone, with a third of
referred to the UN. In May 1947, the UN the population and most of the industry, was
General Assembly adopted a resolution of occupied by the USSR. The southern zone
establishing the U.N. Special Committee on with two-thirds of the population and most
Palestine (UNSCOP) to investigate and make of the farming areas, was controlled by the
recommendations. According to the UNSCOP United States. In the elections held under the
report, Arabs were in possession of about 85 supervision of UNO, in South Korea Syngman
percent of the land and only about 5.8 percent Rhee became president. In North Korea, USSR
was owned by Jews. Despite these facts, the set up the People’s Democratic Republic, a
recommendation of the UNSCOP was that Communist government, headed by Kim Il
Palestine should be partitioned into two states, Sung. Soon after, the Russians and Americans
with the majority Arabs surrendering land to the withdrew their forces. The South Korean
Jews for their new state. Under the proposal, 45 president openly proclaimed his ambition to
percent of the land would be for the Arab state, unite the whole country by force. Open warfare
compared to 55 percent for the Jewish state. On began on 25 June 1950 when North Korea
14 May 1948 a new state called Israel was formed. invaded South Korea.

Recognition to Nationalist China

Chiang Kai-shek with Korean War

Roosevelt and Churchill
The Security Council met immediately. In
In 1949, in the context of Mao Tse Tung the absence of the USSR, it passed a resolution
forming a Communist government in mainland calling for an end to the fighting. The members
China, Chiang Kai-shek fled to the island of of the UN were asked to help in the matter.
Formosa where he headed the Nationalist Sixteen members contributed forces, and
government. USSR then proposed that a forty-five countries gave aid in some form. The
representative of Communist China should American General MacArthur commanded the
replace the representative of Nationalist China United Nations forces. In August 1950, with the
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USSR returning to the Security Council, the called UNEF. The force would not be a fighting
General Assembly at the initiative of US passed force, but a peace force sent with the consent of
the ‘Uniting for Peace’ resolution. This clearly both sides. On December 22 the UN evacuated
set the precedent that if the Security Council British and French troops and Israeli forces
could not reach an agreement to intervene in a withdrew in March 1957. Nasser emerged a
crisis, then the General Assembly should meet victor and a hero for the cause of pan-Arab and
in emergency session and recommend the use Egyptian nationalism.
of armed force if necessary. USSR regarded this
resolution as illegal. The fighting ended with Hungarian Crisis, 1956
the signing of an armistice in July 1953. The war
had increased the importance of the General
Assembly.
Suez Crisis, 1956

Hungarian Revolution
The Hungarian leader Rakosi, appointed
as premier during the regime of Stalin was
Suez Canal dismissed in 1953. It resulted in the election
Suez Canal connects the Red sea with of Imre Nagy as premier. But Nagy enjoyed
the Mediterranean Sea. It was constructed support neither from his government nor from
by Ferdinand de Lesseps, a Frenchman, after the Russians. Rakosi continued to control the
obtaining permission from the Egyptian Pasha. Communist Party. Writers and intellectuals
Soon the ownership passed on to the British. It led the protest, demanding the resignation
was the main link between Asia and Europe. In of Rakosi. Though Rakosi was removed from
July 1956, the Egyptian president Gamal Abdel power in July 1956, the opposition continued.
Nasser nationalised the Suez Canal, which was A rebellion organised by a few intellectuals
until then privately owned by the Anglo-French broke out in Budapest on 23 October. Though
Suez Canal Corporation. On 29 October, the it began as a peaceful demonstration it soon
Israeli army invaded the Sinai Peninsula. The developed into a national rising against Soviet
following day, French and British aircrafts Russia and its puppet regime in Hungary. On 26
bombed Egyptian air bases. On 5 November October the Russians agreed to Nagy becoming
1956, British and French troops landed at the premier again. On his assumption of office he
Egyptian town of Port Said. The issue was started introducing a multiparty system and
taken up by the Security Council but Britain set up a coalition government. Enraged by
and France vetoed the resolution. The General the development, Soviet Russia sent its army
Assembly, at the initiative of the US, which into Hungary on 4 November and crushed the
became apprehensive of Soviet invasion, called rebellion.
for an emergency session and condemned The Hungarian Uprising occurred
the invasion. Israel, Great Britain and France simultaneously with the Anglo-French-Israeli
stopped fighting and decided to withdraw their attack on Egypt in the Suez affair. The matter
forces from Egypt. The General Assembly voted was taken up at the Security Council which
to create a United Nations Emergency Force, decided to demand the immediate withdrawal of
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Russian forces from Hungary. Russians vetoed the Israeli border. The UN told Nasser that he
the Security Council resolution and so the same could not ask for UN troop movement. So his
resolution was passed by the Assembly. But choice was to demand the complete withdrawal
nothing came out of the resolution. The failure of of the UN troop. On May 23 Egypt closed the
the United Nations to influence USSR’s actions Straits of Tiran to Israeli shipping. In early June
in Hungary showed that if a Great Power was Israel attacked Egypt, destroying virtually all of
determined to defy the UNO and had the power Cairo’s air force on the ground.
to do it, the UN was helpless.
Along with the leak of Khrushchev's
secret speech, this had a major impact on the
international communist movement, with large
numbers (especially of writers and intellectuals)
resigning from communist parties across the
world.

Arab–Israeli War
As the United Nations voted to partition
Palestine into a Jewish state and an Arab Arab-Israeli War
state in November 1947, conflict broke out
At the end of the Six Day War Israel
almost immediately between Jews and Arabs
occupied the remaining parts of Palestine,
in Palestine. On the eve of the British forces’
the West Bank, the Gaza Strip, and East
withdrawal (May 15, 1948), Israel declared
independence. The war came to an end with Jerusalem, plus the Syrian Golan Heights and
the intervention of the UN General Assembly the Egyptian Sinai. Two hundred fifty thousand
passing a resolution affirming the right more Palestinians were forced into exile, and
of Palestinian refugees from the 1947–48 a million more remain under Israeli military
war to return to their homes and to receive occupation even now. While referring to the
compensation for their losses. Israel joined the Palestinians only in the context of refugees,
UN the following year. From the start, when rather than reaffirming their national rights, the
Israel was created, there was little involvement resolution of the UN unequivocally called for
of the UN in making political decisions. UN the withdrawal of Israeli armed forces from the
peacekeepers were stationed on the Israeli– occupied territories. The resolution was drafted
Egyptian border, and the UN Refugee Works largely by the four powers of the Security
Agency (UNRWA) was established to provide Council – the limited reference to Palestinian
help for the refugees until such time as they rights was a reflection of US influence on the
returned home. proceedings.
By 1966 the U.S. providing began to Israel
For years following the 1967 war, the UN
with advanced planes and missiles. The Cold
War had come to the Middle East, and the voted repeatedly in favour of an international
UN was out of the scene. Over the next few peace conference, under its own auspices, with
months, tensions increased between Israel and all parties to the conflict (including the Palestine
the surrounding Arab states. In April 1967 Liberation Organisation led by Yasser Arafat) to
there were artillery exchanges between Israel resolve the Israel-Palestine conflict once and for
and Syria. The U.S. Sixth Fleet remained off all. But the U.S. always vetoed it. In the Cold
the Syrian coast. Egyptian President Nasser War context, Moscow and Washington played
symbolically asked the UN to move its troops an increasingly larger role either in escalating or
and observers, then inside Egyptian territory, to containing tension in the region.
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and OEEC transformed itself into the OECD

 

 
N

    W

S
E

 
  (Organisation for Economic Cooperation and





 Development) in 1961, adding the USA and






   





   


Canada to the original membership of West




 





 
European countries. Japan joined in 1964.





 





   
 
 

 


 





   



Not to Scale
 

Palestine Liberation Organisation (PLO) was

formed in 1964 to federate various Palestinian
groups that previously had operated as OEEC Charter
clandestine resistance movements. It came
Today there are thirty-seven member
into prominence after the Arab-Israeli
countries in OECD from all around the
War of June 1967. The PLO was engaged
world. Most of them are developed countries.
in a protracted guerrilla wars against Israel
They are all committed to the concept of free
until the 1980s, before entering into peace
market economy and democracy. It has its
negotiations in the 1990s. Yasser Arafat was
headquarters in Paris.
its outstanding leader.
Towards European Union
15.5  Consolidation and
Council of Europe
Expansion of
One of the momentous decisions taken
European Community in the post-World War II era was to integrate
In pursuance of its policy of containment the states of western Europe. In May 1949 ten
of communism, as we have seen, the USA came countries met in London and signed to form a
out with the Truman Doctrine and Marshall Council of Europe. The Council of Europe with
Plan to support the war-torn European headquarters at Strasbourg was established with
countries to reconstruct their economy. a committee of foreign ministers of member
An organisation, OEEC (Organisation for countries and a Consultative Assembly, drawn
European Economic Cooperation) was formed from the parliaments of foreign countries.
in April 1948 to overseer the disbursement
European Coal and Steel
of Marshall Aid under the auspices of the
European Recovery Programme (ERP). The Community (ECSC)
OEEC disbursed aid to its sixteen member
countries. The US wanted the OEEC to remove
tariff barriers between themselves so that it was
easier for American companies to do business.
OEEC obliged and followed free trade in 1949
for obtaining further financial aid. With the US
aid, by 1950, the western European countries
had returned to their pre-war production
levels. The success made them to move forward Schuman Konrad

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Robert Schuman, the French foreign European Economic Community

minister, realised that a reconciliation between (EEC)
France and Germany was good for both and
for reconstruction of post-War Europe. He
presented a plan known as Schuman Plan on
9 May 1950. Accordingly, he proposed that the
joint output of coal and steel in the two countries
be placed within the framework of a strong,
supranational structure, the High Authority.
This plan for sectoral economic integration
created mutual interests and automatically
linked the two countries. West Germany's
Chancellor, Konrad Adenauer, welcomed the
EEC in Session
plan to come close to the Western world.
The EEC facilitated the elimination of
barriers to the movement of goods, services,
capital, and labour. It also prohibited public
policies or private agreements that restricted
market competition. A Common Agricultural
Policy (CAP) and a common external trade
policy were evolved. In 1960, Britain organised
a rival organ known as the European Free Trade
Association (EFTA) with Britain, Denmark,
Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, Austria and
ECSC members Portugal as members. But EFTA was weak since
there were no common economic policies and
On 18 April 1951 France, West Germany, no authority to intervene in the internal affairs
Italy, the Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg of states.
signed a treaty at Paris to establish the European
Coal and Steel Community (ECSC). All duties In 1961 Britain decided to join EEC but the
and restrictions on trade in coal, iron and steel French President Charles de Gaulle opposed the
between the six were removed. ECSC was the entry because the economy of Britain was weak.
first step towards European Integration. Britain After his resignation, British Prime Minister
refused to join ECSC since it would mean Edward Heath, with his skilful diplomacy,
handing over control of their industries to an made way for Britain's entry. Britain was finally
outside authority. Steel production rose by admitted on 1 January 1973 along with Ireland
almost 50 per cent during the first five years and Denmark.
of ECSC. The success made them to include
the production of all goods. Spaak, the Foreign Single European Act (SEA)
Minister of Belgium wanted gradual removal The Single European Act that came into
of all customs duties and quotas so that there force on July 1, 1987 expanded the EEC’s
would be free competition and a common scope further. It called for more intensive
market. Six countries belonging to ECSC coordination of foreign policy among member
signed the treaty of Rome which established the countries. According to the SEA, each member
European Economic Community (EEC) or the was given multiple votes, depending on the
European Common Market, with headquarters country’s population. Approval of legislation
at Brussels. Britain did not join the EEC. required roughly two-thirds of the votes of all
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members. The new procedure increased the The period from the late 1960s to the late
power of European Parliament, which had been 1970s is known as period of détente (temporary
functioning since 1952. Specifically, legislative stoppage of hostility). The period witnessed
proposals that were rejected by the Parliament increased trade and cooperation between the
could be adopted by the Council of Ministers by US and the Soviet Union. The Strategic Arms
a unanimous vote. Limitation Talks (SALT 1972 & 1979) and later
European Union (EU) the Strategic Arms Reduction (START, 1991)
treaties heralded an era of coexistence and
cooperation.

European Union Flag - Euro Currency

In December 1991 the members of
EC came together and signed the Treaty of
Gorbachev with Ronald Reagan in
Maastricht by which the European Union was
American Summit
established in 1993 with a single market. With
the establishment of European Union, the With the election of Mikhail Gorbachev as
members worked on other areas such as foreign the President of USSR in March 1985, there were
policy and internal security. This treaty paved phenomenal political and social changes in the
the way for the creation of a single European Soviet Union. Gorbachev committed himself
currency – the euro. In 2017, Britain voted to to reforms. In February 1986 he spoke in the
exit the EU (British Exit known as “Brexit”). Communist Party Congress, explaining the
Today the European Union has 28 member
need for political and economic restructuring,
states, and functions from its headquarters at
or perestroika, and called for a new era of
Brussels, Belgium.
transparency and openness, or glasnost. By
End of Cold War Perestroika Gorbachev loosened centralised
control of many institutions, allowing
The US and the Soviet Union had created
businesses, farmers and manufacturers to
a bi-polar international structure. Initially the
Soviet military capabilities were weak. But decide for themselves which products to make,
by 1969 USSR had equalled US in terms of how much to produce, and what to charge for
nuclear capability. The threat of Mutual Assured them.
Destruction (MAD) created fear in both powers. Glasnost was instituted as a part of an effort
Moreover, the nuclear race was expensive and by Gorbachev to democratise the governing
cost them heavily. The earmarking of larger structure of Soviet Union. Fundamental
portions of their budgets for defence caused changes occurred in the political structure of
a resource crunch. Strong disarmament the Soviet Union: reduction of the power of the
movements in Europe also put pressure on Communist Party, and multicandidate elections
the ruling governments. This pushed the for assembly membership. Glasnost also
superpowers to the negotiating table. permitted criticism of government officials and
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allowed the media freer dissemination of news

and people free expression of their opinions. Boris Yeltsin (1931–2007): Joining the
With glasnost, Soviet citizens no longer had Communist Party in 1961, Yeltsin became a
to worry about arrest and exile for articulating full-time worker in the party in 1968. In the
negative opinions against the State. These ideas seventies he emerged as a popular figure and
created a revolutionary wave of liberalism in began to occupy in key positions in the Party.
Soviet Union. At the same time, it eventually led After Gorbachev came to power, he chose
to the disintegration of Soviet Union. Yeltsin (1985) to eliminate corruption in the
Moscow party organisation. In 1986 Yeltsin
was elevated to the Politburo (the highest
policy making body of the Soviet Union).
Soon he was made the mayor of Moscow.
Yeltsin antagonised Gorbachev when he
began criticising the slow pace of reform
at party meetings. His popularity with the
people grew as he advocated democratisation
Boris Yeltsin Jimmy Carter
of governance and economic reform. He
1989 was a watershed year in the Cold succeeded in winning a seat in the USSR
War era. Free elections were conducted in Congress of People’s Deputies (the new
Poland. The Polish Solidarity movement won Soviet Parliament) in March 1989. A year
the election, routing the Communists. In July later, on May 29, 1990, the Soviet parliament
Gorbachev, speaking at the Council of Europe, elected him president of the Russian republic
remarked that he rejected the Brezhnev against Gorbachev’s wishes. He became the
Doctrine: “Any interference in domestic affairs first popularly elected leader in 1991, after
and any attempts to restrict the sovereignty of
the collapse of Soviet Union.
states, both friends and allies or any others,
are inadmissible.” In November 1989, one of
the most famous symbols of the Cold War, the Summary
Berlin Wall came down. In late November 1989
West German Chancellor Helmut Kohl, without „„The devastated economy of Western
consulting any allies, suddenly announced a Europe in the aftermath of Second World
ten-point programme calling for free elections War and the emergence of bi-polar world
in East Germany and the eventual “German with US and USSR emerging as super
reunification". By the end of the 1989 a popular powers are explained.
uprising took place in Eastern Europe and most
„„Strategies of the competing super powers
of the leaders were ousted except in Bulgaria.
to establish hegemony through measures
Slowly Eastern Europe severed its affiliation
of economic aid and military pacts are
with communism. This was taken as a clue by
discussed.
many Soviet Republics and by mid-1990 many
of them declared themselves as independent „„Marshall Plan of the US and the USSR’s
states. On December 8, 1991, the Soviet Union Moltov Plan as a response, the formation
disintegrated. On 25th December Gorbachev of NATO and signing of Warsaw Pact by
resigned, Boris Yeltsin became the President of Soviet Union with its satellite countries
the Russian Republic. With the disintegration to counteract the former’s offensive are
of USSR the Cold War came to an end. highlighted.

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„„The Third World countries and their (a) Both A and R are correct; R explains A
non-alignment movement are detailed. (b) Both A and R are correct; R does not
„„UNO and its role in resolving global explain A
disputes with focus on Korean War, Suez (c) A is correct and R is wrong
Crisis, Arab-Israeli Wars are dealt with.
(d) A is wrong and R is correct
„„Evolution of European unity culminating 5
Marshall aid was for the purpose of
in the establishment of European ___________
Economic Community that transformed
into European Union is traced. (a) Economic reconstruction of Europe
(b) Protection of capitalistic enterprises.
„„The end of the Cold War with the collapse
of Soviet Union is analysed. (c) Establishment of American hegemony in
Europe
(d) forming a military alliance against Soviet
EXERCISE Russia
Q.R.Code
6. Truman doctrine advocated ___________
I. C
 hoose the
correct answer (a) 
financial aid to stop the spread of
communism
1. By the end of 1947 the only country left out
(b) supply of weapons to the insurgents in
of the Soviet influence in eastern Europe was
colonies
___________
(c) 
interference in internal affairs of east
(a) East Germany (b) Czechoslovakia
European countries
(c) Greece (d) Turkey
(d) 
permanent army to UN under US
2. Assertion (A): Stalin criticised Churchill as a Commander
warmonger.
7. Arrange the following in chronological order
Reason (R): Churchill had earlier called for a
1) Warsaw Pact 2) CENTO
western alliance against communism.
3) SEATO 4) NATO
(a) Both A and R are correct; R explains A
(a) 4, 2, 3, 1 (b) 1, 3, 2, 4
(b) Both A and R are correct; R does not
explain A (c) 4, 3, 2, 1 (d) 1, 2, 3, 4
(c) A is correct and R is wrong 8. 
The aim of the Baghdad Pact was to
___________
(d) A is wrong and R is correct
(a) 
protect England’s leadership in the
3. The term “Cold War” was coined by
Middle East
(a) Bernard Baruch (b) George Orwell
(b) exploit the oil resources in the region
(c) George Kennan (d) Churchill
(c) prevent communist influence
4. Assertion (A): The soviet foreign minister
(d) destabilise the government in Iraq
dubbed the Marshall Plan as "dollar
imperialism". 9. US intervention in Lebanon was opposed by
___________
Reason (R): In the Soviet view, Marshall
Plan was little more than a ploy to spread (a) Turkey (b) Iraq
American influence. (c) India (d) Pakistan
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10. 
The term “Third World” was coined by Statement II: D
 uring the Cold War period,
___________ the UNO played an important
(a) Alfred Sauvy (b) Marshall role in preventing wars.

(c) Molotov (d) Harry Truman Statement III: B

 ut in disputes involving the
permanent members of the
11. Match and choose the correct answer from
Security Council, the UNO
the code given below
was a mute spectator.
(A) Indonesia 1. Jawaharlal Nehru
(a) I, II (b) II, III
(B) Egypt 2. Tito
(c) I, III (d) All the above
(C) Ghana 3. Kwame Nkrumah
16. Suez Canal connects the Red Sea with the
(D) Yugoslavia 4. Gamal Abdel Nasser ___________
(E) India 5. Sukarno (a) Gulf of Aden (b) Gulf of Khambat
A B C D E (c) Mediterranean Sea (d) Arabian Sea
(a) 5 3 4 2 1
(b) 1 3 2 4 5 17. Trygve Lie, the first Secretary General of the
(c) 5 4 3 2 1 UNO, belonged to ___________
(d) 1 2 3 4 5 (a) Burma (b) Japan
12. 
The first Summit of NAM was held at
(c) Singapore (d) Norway
___________
18. Assertion (A): In 2017, Britain voted to exit
(a) Belgrade (b) Beijing
the European Union.
(c) Bandung (d) Pali
Reason (R): Britain’s exit is known as Brexit.
13.Assertion (A): The Second World War
proved that the League of Nation was a (a) Both A and R are correct; R explains A
failure. (b) Both A and R are correct; R does not
Reason (R): World leaders realised the need explain A
for the creation of an effective organisation (c) A is correct and R is wrong
to prevent another war.
(d) A is wrong and R is correct
(a) Both A and R are correct; R explains A
19. Glasnost denotes ___________
(b) Both A and R are correct; but R does not
explain A (a) transparency and openness

(c) A is correct but R is wrong (b) democratisation of Communist Party of

Soviet Union
(d) A is wrong and R is correct
(c) 
restructuring of the Soviet Federal
14. On 24 October 1945, the UNO came into Assembly
existence with ___________
(d) reinventing communism
(a) 100 members (b) 72 members
20. Soviet Union disintegrated on ___________
(c) 51 members (d) 126 members
(a) November 17, 1991
15. Which of the following statement/s is/are
correct? (b) December 8, 1991
Statement I: Th
 e Birth of UNO coincided (c) May 1, 1991
with the beginning of Cold War. (d) October 17, 1991
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II. Write brief answers 3. In disputes involving the permanent members
of the Security Council, the UNO was a mute
1. Identify the espionage agencies of USA and
spectator. Elucidate this statement from the
USSR.
cold war period experiences.
2. 
Explain the concept of containment of
4. Sketch the political career of Boris Yetlsin,
communism.
focusing on his role in the collapse of Soviet
3. Point out the significance of the “Uniting for Union.
Peace” resolution passed by the UN General
V. Activity
Assembly.
1. On the UNO Day (October 24) students may
4. What do you know about Cominform?
be asked to simulate a session of General
5. Provide examples of Surrogate Wars in the Assembly and debate any of the disputes
cold war era. detailed in this lesson.
6. What was the background to the Hungarian 2. Students may be organised into two groups
Crisis? arguing for and against Capitalism.
7. What was Schuman Plan? 3. 
Teachers and students shall explore the
8. Outline the concept of Perestroika. Universal Declaration of Human Rights
Charter adopted by the UN on 10 December
III. Write short answers 1948.
1. Warsaw Pact was a response of the Soviet
Union to the US controlled NATO-Explain.
REFERENCES

2. Write about the different stages in the final „„Dan Stone (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of
adoption of UN Charter. Post-War European History, 2012.
3. Trace the background of the formation of „„Norman Lowe, Mastering Modern World
NATO. History, Palgrave Master Series, 2013.
4. Give a brief account of Suez Canal Crisis. „„Peter Calvocoressi, World Politics Since
5. Why SEATO was not so popular as NATO? 1945, Longman, 2008.

IV. Answer the following in detail „„Hans J. Morgenthau, Politics among

Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace,
1. Highlight the goals and objectives of the Non- McGraw-Hill, 1993.
Aligned Movement.
„„Arjun Dev & Indira Arjun Dev, History of
2. Discuss the origin of Arab-Israeli conflict and the World, Orient BlackSwan, 2009.
show how subsequent developments caused a
major war between the two in 1967. „„Encyclopaedia Britannica.

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GLOSSARY

a person who advocates war or ப�ோரை ஆதரிப்பவர் அல்லது

warmonger
aggression towards other countries மற்ற நாடுகள் மீது ஆதிக்கத்தை
விரும்புபவர்
enticement attraction, temptation வசீகரம், வசப்படுதல், ஈர்த்தல்
devastated destroyed, ruined அழித்தது, சூறையாடியது
shattered exhausted, smashed தகர்த்தது

catastrophic disastrous, terrible, dreadful பேரழிவுமிக்க, பெருங்கேடு

விளைவிக்கின்ற
mass slaughter, indiscriminate
genocide
killing இனப்படுக�ொலை

a continuous attack with bombs,

bombardment
shells or other missiles சரமாரிக் குண்டுவீச்சுத் தாக்குதல்

ஒற்றறிதல், வேவுபார்த்தல்,
surveillance; the practice of using ஒற்றர்களைக் க�ொண்டு
espionage spies for close observation of an எதிரியைய�ோ அல்லது எதிரி
enemy or enemy country. நாட்டைய�ோ நெருக்கமாய்
கண்காணித்தல்
the practice of trying to achieve an
advantageous outcome by pushing
brinkmanship
a dangerous event to the brink of ப�ோரில் ஈடுபடா ராஜதந்திரம்
active conflict.
substitute; represent on behalf of
surrogate
others மாற்றாக, பதிலாள்
violent struggle of a group of
insurgency people who refuse to accept their கிளர்ச்சி, ஆட்சியை எதிர்த்து
கிளர்ந்தெழுதல்
government’s power
chaos complete disorder and confusion பெருங்குழப்பம், ஒழுங்கற்ற நிலை
detonate explode வெடி
involving three parties or consisting
tripartite
of three parts முத்தரப்பு
tactic or trick, action intended for சூழ்ச்சி, நிலைமையைச்
ploy turning a situation to one’s own சாதகமாக்கிக் க�ொள்ள எடுக்கும்
advantage நடவடிக்கை
a person who engages in population
demographer
studies. மக்கள்தொகை ஆய்வாளர்

the process of making two opposite

reconciliation
sides agree சமரச முயற்சி

earmark keep for a particular purpose குறிப்பிட்ட ந�ோக்கத்திற்காக

ஒதுக்கிவை
hegemony dominance, supremacy மேலாதிக்கம்

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ICT CORNER

The World after World War II

Through this activity you will know

about an interactive timeline on the
history of the Cold War.

Step - 1 Open the Browser and type the URL given below (or) Scan the QR Code.

Step - 2 Change language in top side menu and enter “cold war” into search box

Step - 3 
Track the timeline scale in bottom side to see the historical events of
Cold war

Step1 Step2 Step3

Web URL: https://www.cvce.eu/en

*Pictures are indicative only

*If browser requires, allow Flash Player or Java Script to load the page

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TIME LINE
1 unit = 10 years
Important Events of Indian National Movement (1900-1950)

1900

1905 - Partition of Bengal / Swadeshi Movement

1906 - Muslim League
1907 - Surat Split

1909 - Minto-Morely Reforms

1910
1911 - Ashe Murder

1915 - The First Hindu Mahasabha conference held at Haridwar

1916 - Home Rule League / Lucknow Pact
1917 - Champaran Movement
1919 - Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms / Rowlatt Act / Jalianwalah Bagh Massacre
1920 1920 - Non-Cooperation Movement
1921 - Malabar Rebellion
1922 - Chauri Chaura incident

1930 1930 - Dandi March

1931 - Gandhi-Irwin Pact
1932 - Communal Award / Poona Pact

1937 - First Congress Ministry in Provinces

1940 1940 - August Offer / Lahore Resolution

1942 - Cripps Mission / Quit India Movement

1945 -Wavell Plan / Simla Conference

1946 - Cabinet Mission / Direct Action / Interim Government / RIN Revolt
1947 - India becomes Independence

1950 1950 - India becomes Republic

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TIME LINE
1 unit = 10 years
Important Events of World History (1900-1950)

1900

1910

1914 - Outbreak of World War I

1916 - Battle of Somme / Battle of Verdun / Battle of Jutland

1917 - Russian Revolution / Battle of Cambrai
1918 - Treaty of Brest-Litovsk / End of World War I
1919 - Paris Peace Conference / Treaty of Versailles
1920 1920 - Establishment of League of Nations

1928 - Kellogg-Briand Pact

1929 - The Great Depression / The Lateran Treaty
1930

1933 - Disarmament Conference

1938 - Munich Agreement

1939 - The Nazi-Soviet (Non-aggression) Pact / Outbreak of World War II
1940 1940 - Dunkirk Evacuation
1941 - Pearl Harbour Incident
1942 - Battle of Midway / Battle of Stalingrad
1943 - Battle of El Alamein / Fall of Mussolini

1945 - End of World War II / Establishment of United Nations Organisation

1946 - Paris Peace Conference

1949 - Chinese Revolution

1950

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Higher Secondary - Class XII - History

List of Authors and Reviewers
Chairperson Academic Adviser & Expert Academic & Subject Co-ordinators
Dr. A.R.Venkatachalapathy Dr. P. Kumar T. Srinivasan
Professor Joint Director (Syllabus) Principal, DIET
Madras Institute of Development Studies SCERT, Chennai. Krishnagiri.
Chennai.
P. Suresh
P.G. Asst. in History
Co-chairperson
GGHSS, Attur
Dr. K.A. Manikumar Salem District.
Professor (Rtd), Dept. of History
Manonmaniam Sundaranar University
Tirunelveli.

ICT
Authors Content Readers
D. Nagaraj
Dr. Ugan Bhutia Dr. K. Jayakumar K. Karthikeyan B.T. Asst. in History
Asst. Professor, Dept. of History Associate Professor of History P.G. Asst. in History GHSS, Rappusal
S.R.M. Universtiy Periyar E.V.R. College K.A.N GBHSS, Konganapuram Pudukottai District.
Amaravathi, A.P. Tiruchirappalli. Salem District. EMIS Technology Team
Dr. Maanvendar Singh Dr. A. Thennarasu Sr. Lourdumariyal R.M. Satheesh
Asst. Professor Associate Professor & Head P.G. Asst. in History State Coordinator Technical,
S.R.M. University St. Joseph GHSS, Suramangalam TN EMIS, Samagra Shiksha.
(History)
Amaravathi, A.P. K.P. Sathya Narayana
Govt. Arts College, Salem. Salem.
Mr. K. Ashok IT Consultant,
Asst. Professor, Dept. of History Dr. J. Murugan J. Shakila TN EMIS, Samagra Shikaha
Madras Christian College Asst. Professor of History P.G. Asst. in History R. Arun Maruthi Selvan
Tambaram, Madras. Arignar Anna Govt. Arts College Fathima Girls HSS, Omalur Technical Project Consultant,
Salem District. TN EMIS, Samagra Shiksha
Prof. S. Chandrasekhar Attur, Salem District.
Former Head, Dept. of History
Dr. T.S. Saravanan
C. Parthipan Layout
Bangalore University, Bengaluru. P.G. Asst. in History Kamatchi Balan Arumugam
Deputy Director
Dr. E.K. Santha GHSS, Sukkampatty S. Ashok Kumar
TNTBESC
Independent Researcher Salem District. R. Balasubramani
Chennai.
Sikkim University Quarters M. Selvakumar Manickam
S. Gomathi Manickam V. Umamaheshwari R. Gopinath
Sikkim.
B.T. Asst. in History P.G. Asst. in History
Prof. K.A. Manikumar M.N.S. GGHSS, Attayampatti
Artist
Former Head, Dept. of History GHSS, Old Perungalathur
Salem District. Madhan kumar
Manonmaniam Sundaranar Kanchipuram District. V. Vinoth Kumar
University Tirunelveli. P. Balamurugan G. Saradha N.R. Yuvaraj
Dr. V. Krishna Ananth P.G. Asst. in History P.G. Asst. in History Sagaya Arasu
Associate Professor GBHSS, Thammampatti GHSS Pakkirisamy Annadurai
Dept. of History Salem District. Alagappampalayam Pudur
Wrapper Design
Sikkim University, Sikkim. Salem District.
V. Velmurugan Kathir Arumugam
Prof. J. Kanakalatha Mukund B.T. Asst. in History R. Dhanalakshmi
Former Professor P.G. Asst. in History
In-House QC
GHSS, Vellalagundam
Centre for Economic and Social Salem District. GGHSS, Nangavalli Rajesh Thangappan
Studies, Hyderabad. Jerald Wilson
Salem District.
A. Jafar Ali Arun Kamaraj Palanisamy
Dr. S. B. Darsana
P.G. Asst. in History G. Ayyadurai
Asst. Professor Typist
GHSS, Keeripatty P.G. Asst. in History
Central University of Tamil Nadu R.Mohanamobal
Salem District. GBHSS, Mecheri, Salem District.
Tiruvarur. Velacherry, Chennai.
Dr. Venkat Ramanujam K. Velu Dr. K. Suresh Co-ordinator
Dept. of History B.T. Asst. in History B.T. Asst in History
Ramesh Munisamy
Madras Christian College GGHSS,Thalaivasal Kumara Rajah Muthiah HSS
Tambaram, Madras. Salem District. Chennai.
This book has been printed on 80 G.S.M.
Elegant Maplitho paper.
Printed by offset at:

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NOTES

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