SRI MUTHUKUMARAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

(Approved by AICTE, Accredited by NBA and Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai)

Chikkarayapuram (Near Mangadu), Chennai- 600 069.

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

YEAR/SEM: IV/VII
SUBJECT CODE & NAME: EC 8751- OPTICAL COMMUNICATION

TWO MARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

UNIT I – Introduction to OFC

1. What are the limitations of optical fiber communication systems?
 Optical fiber is made up of glass. Because of the impurities present with the fiber
It results in absorption, which leads to loss of light in the optical fiber.
 It is costly.
 Maximum limitation of the bandwidth of the signals can be carried by the fiber due to
spreading of pulse.

2. What is the necessity of cladding for an optical fiber?

The necessity of cladding for an optical fiber is
 To avoid leakage of light from the fiber
 To avoid mechanical strength for the fiber
 To protect core from scratches and other mechanical damages.

3. List the advantages of mono-mode fiber.

The advantages of mono-mode fiber are
 No internal dispersion
 Information capacity of single mode fiber is large.

4. Define - Acceptance Angle

The maximum angle Фmax with which a ray of light can enter rough the entrance end of the
fibre and still be totally internally reflected is called acceptance angle of the fiber.

5. List the uses of optical fiber.

The uses of optical fibers are as follows
 To act as light source at the inaccessible places
 To transmit the optical images. (example: endoscopy)To act as sensors to do
mechanical, electrical and magnetic measurements
 To transmit the information which are in the form of coded signals of the
telephone communications, computer data etc.

6. List the disadvantages of mono-mode fiber.

The disadvantages of mono-mode fiber are

 Launching of light into single mode and joining of two fibers are very difficult.
 Fabrication is very difficult and so that fiber is so costly.
 7. What is the principle used in the working of fibers as light guides?
The phenomenon of total internal reflection is used to guide the light in the
optical fiber. To get total reflection, the ray should travel from denser region rarer
region i.e. from core to clad region. Of the fiber and the angle of incidence in the denser
medium should be greater than the critical angle of that medium.
8. Define- Refraction
When light travels from air medium to glass medium, bending of light may occur.
This is called refraction.

9. What is critical angle?

When we increase the incident angle with respect to normal, at some incident angle, the
dielectric of surface and φ2 becomes 90 and such incident angle is called critical angle.

10. What is Snell’s law?

The relationship at the interface is called Snell’s Law. It is given by the
equation
n1sinφ1 = n2sinφ2
11. What is meant by mode coupling?
The effect of coupling energy from one mode to another mode is known as mode
coupling. The cause of mode coupling is due to waveguide perturbations such as deviations Of the
fiber axis from straightness variations in the core diameter, irregularities at the Core- cladding
interface and refractive index variations.
12. What is V number of a fiber?

Normalized frequency or V number is a dimensionless parameter and represent the

relationship among three design parameters variables of the fiber viz core radius a, relative
refractive index Δ and the operating wavelength λ.
It is expressed as V = (2*π* Numerical aperture(a)) / λ

13. Compare Ray optics and wave optics.

Ray optics Wave optics
It is used to represent the It is used to analyze mode
light propagation theory
It is used to study reflection It is used to analyze
and refraction of light diffraction and interference of
light waves
14. Differentiate between mono-mode fiber and multi-mode fiber.
Mono-mode fiber Multi-mode fiber
Only one ray passes through the More than one ray passes
fiber through fiber at a time.
Coupling efficiency is less. Coupling efficiency is
large.
LED is not suitable for single mode LED is suitable for multi-
fiber. mode fiber
Intermodal dispersion is not Intermodal dispersion is
present. present
Fabricating single mode fiber is Fabricating multi-mode
difficult. fiber is easy.
 15. What is meant by linearly polarized mode?
The field components HE, EH, TE, TM forms linearly polarized modes. Linearly polarized
Modes are labeled LPjm where j and m are integers designation mode solutions.
16. What are the three windows of optical communications?

The three wavelengths 850nm, 1300nm, and 1500nm are three optical windows of
optical communication system. Since only at this wavelength silica fiber loss is minimum.

17. Define – Fiber Optic system

Fiber optic system is nothing but a fiber-optic cable is essentially light pipe that is
used to carry a light beam from one place to another.

18. What are the advantages of graded index fiber?

The advantages of graded index fiber are

 It provides higher bandwidth.

 It exhibits less intermodal dispersion because the different group velocities of the
mode tend to be normalized by the index grading.
19. What is step index fiber?

Step index fiber is a cylindrical waveguide that has the central core with uniform
refractive index n1 surrounded by outer cladding with refractive index of n 2. The refractive
index of the core is constant and is larger than the refractive index of the cladding. It makes
a step change at the core cladding interface.

20. Why step index single mode fiber preferred for long distance
communication?

The step index single mode fiber is preferred for long distance communication
because

 They exhibit higher transmission bandwidth because of low fiber losses.

 They have superior transmission quality because of the absence of the model noise.
 The installation of single mode fiber is easy and will not require any fiber
replacement over twenty plus years.

21. Define- Birefringence

Manufactured optical fibers have imperfections such as asymmetrical lateral
stresses, non - circular cores and variations in refractive index profiles. These imperfections
break the circular symmetry of the ideal fiber and lift the degeneracy of the two modes.
These modes propagate with different phase velocity and it is called as fiber birefringence.

22. What types of fibers are used commonly?

Based on refractive index profile- step index fiber, graded index fiber. Based on
propagation – Mono mode or single mode fiber, multi -mode fiber.

23. Define – Wavefront

 For plane waves, some constant phase points from a surface which is referred to as
wavefront.

24. What is an index profile?

The index profile of an optical fiber is a graphical representation of the magnitude
of the refractive index across the fiber.

25. What are leaky modes in optical fibers?

In leaky modes, the fields are confined partially in the fiber core and attenuated as
they propagate along the fiber length, due to radiation and tunnel effect.

26. What is the purpose of cladding?

Cladding provides mechanical strength, reduces scattering loss resulting from dielectric
discontinuities at the core surface and protects the core from absorbing surface contaminants with
which it could come into contact.

27. What are leaky rays?

The leaky rays are only partially confined to the core of the circular optical fiber and
attenuate as the light travels along the optical waveguide.

28. What are the conditions for total internal reflection?

The conditions for total internal reflections are:
 The ray should travel from denser to rarer medium. i.e. from core to clad region of
the optical fiber.
 The angle of incidence in the denser should greater than the critical angle of that
medium.

29. What are guided modes?

Guided modes are a pattern of electric and magnetic field distributions that is repeated
along the fiber at equal intervals.

30. Define- Mode

Mode is the pattern of distribution of electric and magnetic fields.
Transverse- Electric mode (TE) Transverse
Magnetic mode ( TM)

31. Define - Mode-Field Diameter

The fundamental parameter of a single mode fibre is said to be the mode field diameter. It is
possible to determine the mode-field diameter with the help of the fundamental LPo1 mode.

32. What are meridional rays?

Meridonal rays are the rays which follows zig -zag path when they travel through fiber and
for every reflection it will cross the fiber axis.

33. When do you have phase shift during total internal reflection of light?

When the light ray travels from denser medium to rarer medium, if the angle of
incidence is greater than the critical angle of Core medium, then there is a phase shift
for both TE and TM waves.
34. State Goes- Haenchen effect.
 Goes- Haenchen effect states that, there is a lateral shift of the reflected ray at the
point of incidence and at the core-cladding interface. This lateral shift is called the Goes-
Haenchen effect.

35. Differentiate between meridional rays and skew rays.

A meridional ray is a ray that passes through the axis of an optical fiber.
A skew ray is a ray that travels in a non-planar zig-zag path and never crosses the axis of
an optical fiber.

36. What do you mean by RAY?

In optics a ray is an idealized model of light, obtained by choosing a line that is
perpendicular to the wavefronts of the actual light, and that points
in the direction of energy flow.Rays are used to model the propagation of light through
an optical system, by dividing the real light field up into discrete rays that can be
computationally propagated through the system by the techniques of ray tracing.
37. What are skew rays?

A skew ray is a ray that travels in a non-planar zig-zag path and never crosses the axis of
an optical fiber.

38. What are the advantages of optical network?

The advantages of optical network are as follows:
 Low signal attenuation (as low as 0.2 dB/km),
 Immunity to electromagnetic interference
 High security of signal because of no electromagnetic radiation,
 Huge bandwidth
 Low signal distortion, suitable for carrying digital information,
 Low power requirement
 No crosstalk and interferences between fibers in the same cable,
 Low material usage, small space requirement, light weight, non- flammable,
cost-effective and high electrical resistance

39. What is an op tical network?

An optical network is not necessarily all-optical: the transmission is certainly optical, but
the switching could be optical, or electrical, or hybrid Also, an optical is not necessarily packet-
switched.

40. What are the advantages of optical communication?

The advantages of optical communication are
 Low transmission losses
 Electrical isolation
 Small size and weight
 No electromagnetic interference

41. Define – Longitudinal modes

 Longitudinal modes are associated with the length of the cavity and determine the
typical spectrum of the emitted radiation.

42. Define – Transverse Modes

Transverse modes are associated with the electromagnetic field and beam profile in
the direction perpendicular to the plane of PN junction. They determine the Laser
characteristics as the radiation pattern and the threshold current density.

PART – B
1. Explain the elements of optical fiber transmission link with a neat diagram and
briefly outline the evolution of fiber optic system.

An optical fiber communication system is similar in basic concept to any type of communication
system.
A block schematic of a general communication system is shown in Fig. the function of which is to
convey the signal from the information source over the transmission medium to the destination.

The communication system therefore consists of a transmitter or modulator linked to the information
source, the transmission medium, and a receiver or demodulator at the destination point.

In electrical communications the information source provides an electrical signal, usually derived
from a message signal which is not electrical (e.g. sound), to a transmitter comprising electrical and
electronic components which converts the signal into a suitable form for propagation over the
transmission medium.

This is often achieved by modulating a carrier, which, as mentioned previously, may be an

electromagnetic wave.

For optical fiber communications the system shown in Fig. may be considered in slightly greater detail, as
given in Fig. In this case the information source pro- vides an electrical signal to a transmitter comprising an
electrical stage which drives an optical source to give modulation of the light wave carrier.
The optical source which pro- vides the electrical–optical conversion may be either a semiconductor laser
or light-emitting diode (LED).

The transmission medium consists of an optical fiber cable and the receiver consists of an optical detector
which drives a further electrical stage and hence provides demodulation of the optical carrier.

Photodiodes (p–n, p–i–n or avalanche) and, in some instances, phototransistors and photoconductors are
utilized for the detection of the optical signal and the optical–electrical conversion.

Thus there is a requirement for electrical interfacing at either end of the optical link and at present the
signal processing is usually performed electrically.

2. Draw and briefly explain step and graded index fibers.

Step index fibers

The optical fiber considered in the preceding sections with a core of constant refractive index n1 and a
cladding of a slightly lower refractive index n2is known as step index fiber.

This is because the refractive index profile for this type of fiber makes a step change at the core–
cladding interface, as indicated in Fig., which illustrates the two major types of step index fiber.
The refractive index profile may be defined as:

Fig. shows a multimode step index fiber with a core diameter of around 50µm or greater, which is large
enough to allow the propagation of many modes within the fiber core. This is illustrated in Fig. by the
many different possible ray paths through the fiber.
Fig. shows a single-mode or monomode step index fiber which allows the propagation of only one
transverse electromagnetic mode (typically HE11), and hence the core diameter must be of the order
of 2 to 10µm.
The propagation of a single mode is illustrated in Fig. as corresponding to a single ray path only
(usually shown as the axial ray) through the fiber.

The single-mode step index fiber has the distinct advantage of low intermodal dispersion (broadening of
transmitted light pulses), as only one mode is transmitted, whereas with multimode step index fiber
considerable dispersion may occur due to the differing group velocities of the propagating modes.

a) The use of spatially incoherent optical sources (e.g. most light-emitting diodes) which
cannot be efficiently coupled to single-mode fibers.

b) Larger numerical apertures, as well as core diameters, facilitating easier coupling to optical
sources

c) Lower tolerance requirements on fiber connectors

Multimode step index fibers allow the propagation of a finite number of guided modes along the
channel.

The number of guided modes is dependent upon the physical para- meters (i.e. relative refractive index
difference, core radius) of the fiber and the wavelengths of the transmitted light which are included in
the normalized frequency V for the fiber.

Mode propagation does not entirely cease below cutoff. Modes may propagate as unguided or leaky
modes which can travel considerable distances along the fiber. Nevertheless, it is the guided modes

which are of paramount importance in optical fiber communications as these are confined to the fiber
over its full length.
The total number of guided modes or mode volume Ms for a step index fiber is related to the V value
for the fiber by the approximate expression Which allows an estimate of the number of guided modes
propagating in a particular multimode step index fiber.

Graded index fibers

Graded index fibers do not have a constant refractive index in the core* but a decreasing core index n(r)
with radial distance from a maximum value ofn1 at the axis to a constant value n2 beyond the core
radius a in the cladding. This index variation may be represented as:

where  is the relative refractive index difference and α is the profile parameter which gives the
characteristic refractive index profile of the fiber core. Equation (1.50) which is a convenient method
of expressing the refractive index profile of the fiber core as a variation of α, allows representation of

the step index profile when α = ∞, a parabolic profile when α = 2 and a triangular profile when α = 1.
This range of refractive index profiles is illustrated in Figure 1.15
The graded index profiles which at present produce the best results for multimode optical propagation
have a near parabolic refractive index profile core
with  ~~2. Fibers with such core index profiles are well established and consequently
when the term ‘graded index’ is used without qualification it usually refers to a fiber with this profile.
For this reason in this section we consider the waveguiding properties of graded index fiber with a
parabolic refractive index profile core.

A multimode graded index fiber with a parabolic index profile core is illustrated in Figure 1.16. It may
be observed that the meridional rays shown appear to follow curved paths through the fiber core.

Using the concepts of geometric optics, the gradual decrease in refractive index from the center of the
core creates many refractions of the rays as they are effectively incident on a large number or high to
low index interfaces.

This mechanism is illustrated in Fig. where a ray is shown to be gradually curved, with an ever-
increasing angle of incidence, until the conditions for total internal reflection are met, and the ray
travels back towards the core axis, again being continuously refracted.

Multimode graded index fibers exhibit far less intermodal dispersion than multimode step index fibers
due to their refractive index profile.
However, the near axial rays are transmitted through a region of higher refractive index and therefore
travel with a lower velocity than the more extreme rays. This compensates for the shorter path lengths
and reduces dispersion in the fiber.

3. Define group delay. Mention its significance with expressions.

The transit time or group delay τg for a light pulse propagating along a unit length of fiber
is the inverse of the group velocity υg . Hence:

The group index of a uniform plane wave propagating in a homogeneous medium has been determined
as:

However, for a single-mode fiber, it is usual to define an effective group index* Nge By:

Where υg is considered to be the group velocity of the fundamental fiber mode. Hence, the specific
group delay of the fundamental fiber mode becomes:

Moreover, the effective group index may be written in terms of the effective refractive index neff
defined in Eq. (1.56) as:
Furthermore, approximating the relative refractive index difference as (n1 − n2)/n2, for a weakly
guiding fiber where Δ<<1, we can use the approximation :

Where Ng1 and Ng2 are the group indices for the fiber core and cladding regions respectively.
Substituting Eq. (1.65) for β into Eq. (1.67) and using the approximate expression given in Eq. (1.66),
we obtain the group delay per unit distance as:

The dispersive properties of the fiber core and the cladding are often about the same and therefore the
wavelength dependence of can be ignored. Hence the group delay can be written as:

The initial term in Eq. (1.68) gives the dependence of the group delay on wavelength caused when a
uniform plane wave is propagating in an infinitely extended medium with a refractive index which is
equivalent to that of the fiber cladding. However, the second term results from the waveguiding
properties of the fiber only and is determined by the mode delay factor d(Vb)/dV, which describes the
change in group delay caused by the changes in power distribution between the fiber core and cladding.
The mode delay factor is a further universal parameter which plays a major part in the theory of single-
mode fibers. Its variation with normalized frequency for the fundamental mode in a step index fiber is
shown in Figure .

The Gaussian approximation

The field shape of the fundamental guided mode within a single-mode step index fiber for two values of
normalized frequency is displayed in Figure.
As may be expected, considering the discussion in Section 2.4.1, it has the form of a Bessel function
(J0(r)) in the core region matched to a modified Bessel function (K0(r)) in the cladding. Depending on
the value of the normalized frequency, a significant proportion of the modal power is propagated in the
cladding region, as mentioned earlier. Hence, even at the cutoff value (i.e. Vc) only about 80% of the
power propagates within the fiber core.
It may be observed from Figure 1.22 that the shape of the fundamental LP01 mode is similar to a
Gaussian shape, which allows an approximation of the exact field distribution by a Gaussian function.*
The approximation may be investigated by writing the scalar wave equation in the form:

where k is the propagation vector defined in Eq. (1.33) and n(x, y) is the refractive index of the fiber,
which does not generally depend on z, the coordinate along the fiber axis. It should be noted that the
time dependence exp(jωt) has been omitted from the scalar wave equation to give the reduced wave
equation† in Eq. (1.69). This representation is valid since the guided modes of a fiber with a small
refractive index difference have one predominant transverse field component, for example Ey. By
contrast Ex and the longitudinal component are very much smaller.

The field of the fundamental guided mode may therefore be considered as a scalar quantity and need
not be described by the full set of Maxwell’s equations. Hence Eq. (1.69) may be written as:

where φ represents the dominant transverse electric field component.

The near-Gaussian shape of the predominant transverse field component of the fundamental mode has
been demonstrated for fibers with a wide range of refractive index distributions. This proves to be the
case not only for the LP01 mode of the step index fiber, but also for the modes with fibers displaying
arbitrary graded refractive index distributions.
4 . Explain the wave equations for a cylindrical fiber in detail.
Cylindrical fiber

The exact solution of Maxwell’s equations for a cylindrical homogeneous core dielectric waveguide* involves
much algebra and yields a complex result. Although the presentation of thismathematics is beyond the scope of this
text, it is useful to consider the resulting modal fields. In common with the planar guide (Section 1.3.2), TE
(where Ez = 0) and TM (where Hz = 0) modes are obtained within the dielectric cylinder. The cylindrical
waveguide, however, is bounded in two dimensions rather than one.
Thus two integers, l and m, are necessary in order to specify the modes, in contrast to the single integer
(m) required for the planar guide.

For the cylindrical waveguide we therefore refer to TElm and TMlm modes. These modes
correspond to meridional rays (see Section 1.2.1) traveling within the fiber. However, hybrid modes
where Ez and Hz are nonzero also occur within the cylindrical waveguide. These modes, which result
from skew ray propagation (see Section 1.2.4) within the fiber, are designated HElm and EHlm
depending upon whether the components of H or E make the larger contribution to the transverse (to
the fiber axis) field. Thus an exact description of the modal fields in a step index fiber proves somewhat
complicated.

Fortunately, the analysis may be simplified when considering optical fibers for communication
purposes. These fibers satisfy the weakly guiding approximation where the relative index difference Δ1.
This corresponds to small grazing angles θ in Eq. (1.34). In fact is usually less than 0.03 (3%) for
optical communications fibers. For weakly guiding structures with dominant forward propagation,
mode theory gives dominant transverse field components. Hence approximate solutions for the full set
of HE, EH, TE and TM modes may be given by two linearly polarized components.

These linearly polarized (LP) modes are not exact modes of the fiber except for the fundamental
(lowest order) mode. However, as in weakly guiding fibers is very small, then HE– EH mode pairs
occur which have almost identical propagation constants. Such modes are said to be degenerate. The
superpositions of these degenerating modes characterized by a common propagation constant
correspond to particular LP modes regardless of their HE, EH, TE or TM field configurations. This
linear combination of degenerate modes obtained from the exact solution produces a useful
simplification in the analysis of weakly guiding fibers.

The relationship between the traditional HE, EH, TE and TM mode designations and the LPlm
mode designations is shown in Table 1.1. The mode subscripts l and m are related to the electric field
intensity profile for a particular LP mode (see Figure 1.11(d)). There are in general 2l field maxima
around the circumference of the fiber core and m field
 maxima along a radius vector. Furthermore, it may be observed from Table that the notation for
labeling the HE and EH modes has changed from that specified for the exact solution in the cylindrical
waveguide mentioned previously.
 Figure 1.11 The electric field configurations for the three lowest LP modes
illustrated in terms oftheir constituent exact modes: (a) LP mode designations; (b)
exact mode designations; (c) electric field distribution of the exact modes; (d) intensity
distribution of Ex for the exact modes indicating the electric field intensity profile for
the corresponding LP modes

The subscript l in the LP notation now corresponds to HE and EH modes with labels l + 1 and l − 1
respectively. The electric field intensity profiles for the lowest three LP modes, together with the
electric field distribution of their constituent exact modes, are shown in Figure .

5. Explain the phenomenon of total internal reflection using Snell’s law with figures
and calculations.

Total internal reflection

To consider the propagation of light within an optical fiber utilizing the ray theory model it is necessary
to take account of the refractive index of the dielectric medium. The refractive index of a medium is
defined as the ratio of the velocity of light in a vacuum to the velocity of light in the medium.

A ray of light travels more slowly in an optically dense medium than in one that is less dense, and the
refractive index gives a measure of this effect. When a ray is incident on the interface between two
dielectrics of differing refractive indices (e.g. glass–air), refraction occurs, as illustrated in Figure
1.2(a). It may be observed that the ray approaching the interface is propagating in a dielectric of
refractive index n and is at an angle φ to the normal at the surface of the interface. If the dielectric on
the other side of the interface has a refractive index nwhich is less than n1, then the refraction is such
that the ray path in this lower index medium is at an angle to the normal, where is greater than . The
angles of incidence and refraction are related to each other and to the refractive indices of the
dielectrics by Snell’s law of refraction, which states that:
It may also be observed in Figure 1.2(a) that a small amount of light is reflected back into the
originating dielectric medium (partial internal reflection). As nis greater than n, the angle of refraction
is always greater than the angle of incidence. Thus when the angle of refraction is 90° and the refracted
ray emerges parallel to the interface between the dielectrics, the angle of incidence must be less than
90°. This is the limiting case of refraction and the angle of incidence is now known as the critical angle
φc, as shown in Figure 1.2(b). From Eq. (1.1) the value of the critical angle is given by

At angles of incidence greater than the critical angle the light is reflected back into the originating
dielectric medium (total internal reflection) with high efficiency (around 99.9%). Hence, it may be
observed in Figure 1.2(c) that total internal reflection occurs at the inter- face between two dielectrics of
differing refractive indices when light is incident on the dielectric of lower index from the dielectric of
higher index, and the
angle of incidence of the ray exceeds the critical value. This is the mechanism by which light at a
sufficiently shallow angle (less than 90° − may be considered to propagate down an optical fiber with
low loss.

Figure 1.3 illustrates the transmission of a light ray in an optical fiber via a series of total internal
reflections at the interface of the silica core and the slightly lower refractive index silica cladding. The
ray has an angle of incidence φ at the interface which is greater than the critical angle and is reflected at
the same angle to the normal.

The light ray shown in Fig. is known as a meridional ray as it passes through the axis of the fiber core.
This type of ray is the simplest to describe and is generally used when illustrating the fundamental
transmission properties of optical fibers. It must also be noted that the light transmission illustrated in
Figure 1.3 assumes a perfect fiber, and that any discontinuities or imperfections at the core–cladding
interface would probably result in refraction rather than total internal reflection, with the subsequent
loss of the light ray into the cladding.

It may be observed from the field configurations of the exact modes that the field strength in the transverse
direction (Ex or Ey) is identical for the modes which belong to the same LP mode.

Hence the origin of the term ‘linearly polarized’.

Using Eq. (1.31) for the cylindrical homogeneous core waveguide under the weak guidance conditions
outlined above, the scalar wave equation can be written in the form

where ψ is the field (E or H), n1 is the refractive index of the fiber core, k is the propagation constant
for light in a vacuum, and r and φ are cylindrical coordinates. The propagation constants of the guided
modes β lie in the range:

where n2 is the refractive index of the fiber cladding. Solutions of the wave equation for the cylindrical
fiber are separable, having the form:

where in this case ψ represents the dominant transverse electric field component. The periodic
dependence on φ following coslφ or sin lφ gives a mode of radial order l. Hence the fiber supports a
finite number of guided modes of the form of Eq. (1.43).

Introducing the solutions given by Eq. (1.43) into Eq. (1.41) results in a differential equation of the
form:

For a step index fiber with a constant refractive index core, Eq. (1.43) is a Bessel differential
equation and the solutions are cylinder functions. In the core region the solutions are Bessel functions
denoted by Jl.

A graph of these gradually damped oscillatory functions (with respect to r) is shown in Figure 1.12(a).
It may be noted that the field is finite at r = 0 and may be represented by the zero-order Bessel function
J0. However, the field vanishes as r goes to infinity and the solutions in the cladding are therefore
modified Bessel functions denoted by Kl.
These modified functions decay exponentially with respect to r, as illustrated in Figure 1.12(b). The
electric field may therefore be given by:

Where G is the amplitude coefficient and R = r/a is the normalized radial coordinate when a is the
radius of the fiber core; U and W, which are the eigenvalues in the core and cladding respectively,* are
defined as: