See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/238082593

Production of electricity from geothermal heat

- efficiency calculation and ideal cycles

Article · January 2003

CITATIONS READS

4 69

1 author:

Pall Valdimarsson
Reykjavik University
12 PUBLICATIONS 97 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by Pall Valdimarsson on 30 January 2014.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

International Geothermal Conference, Reykjavík, Sept. 2003 Session #1

Production of electricity from geothermal heat

– efficiency calculation and ideal cycles
Prof. Pall Valdimarsson,
Dr. Scient. Ing., Professor, University of Iceland
Email: pallv@hi.is

Abstract
Production of electricity from heat requires a heat engine working between two heat
reservoirs, a heat source and a heat sink. The Carnot efficiency is defined for the
reversible heat engine working between two reservoirs of infinite heat capacity and
constant temperature. Geothermal heat source is a stream of water, either in the liquid
phase or as liquid-steam mixture of any quality. The heat capacity of the heat source is
thus finite, and the source temperature is not constant in the heat addition process of the
heat engine. Same applies for the heat rejection of the heat engine, usually the cooling
fluid available has some strict limitation on the possible temperatures, and rejection to a
sink at a constant temperature is practically almost impossible. This paper analyzes
electricity production when the heat source and the heat sink do not have a constant
temperature. The maximum production efficiency is defined and calculated, both for
pure electricity production (E) and Combined Heat and Power (CHP) generation. The
maximum obtainable efficiencies are calculated for typical values for geothermal
application. It is stated, that the Carnot efficiency should not be used as a reference for
such power production, but the real maximum efficiency based on the process.

Keywords: geothermal, electricity production, heat engine, Carnot efficiency.

1 Introduction
Energy can be transferred in two ways, as work and as heat. Geothermal utilization
involves conversion of the energy source, geothermal heat, into the more valuable
form of work or electricity. The second law of thermodynamics limits the conversion
of heat into work. The most efficient work-producing engine possible is the
reversible heat engine, or the Carnot engine.
The highest conversion efficiency possible is thus the Carnot efficiency. But the
question of the definition of the efficiency arises, which parts of the rejected heat are
to be considered lost, and which are products, heat that can be sold from the power
station?
Figure 1 is an input-output diagram for a power plant.

Heat Electricity
Power
Heat

Cooling fluid input Cooling fluid output

Figure 1: Block diagram of a generic power plant.

S01 Paper080 Page 41

International Geothermal Conference, Reykjavík, Sept. 2003 Session #1

The temperature of the entering cooling fluid is taken to be the environmental

temperature, the lowest temperature which can be obtained, as well as defining the
thermal sink temperature for the Carnot engine efficiency.
This process can be seen as a non-conserving heat exchange process between the
source stream and the cooling fluid stream. Figure 2 is a block diagram for a non-
conserving heat exchanger representing a power plant.

W Electricity output
Heat input Heat output
Th Ts
chmh
Tc Power plant T0
ccmc
Cooling fluid output Cooling fluid input

Figure 2: Block diagram of a heat exchanger equivalent to a power plant.

ch Source fluid heat capacity

mh Flow rate of source fluid
Th Source fluid inlet temperature
Ts Source fluid outlet temperature
cc Cooling fluid heat capacity
mc Cooling fluid flow rate
Tc Cooling fluid outlet temperature
T0 Cooling fluid inlet temperature (Environmental temperature)

In the following this system will be analyzed in order to gain a better understanding of
the conversion of low temperature heat into electricity.

2 Analysis
The streams in and out of the system have four flow properties: mass, heat capacity,
enthalpy and exergy. The mass conservation is obvious, no mixing of the source and
cooling streams is assumed. The heat capacity is important for the characteristics of
the heat conversion, and will be treated here as a heat capacity flow, the product of
fluid heat capacity and flow rate. The product of the enthalpy relative to the
environmental temperature and the flow rate defines the heat flow in and out of the
system. The exergy will give information on the work producing potential of the
system, and is calculated in the same way as the enthalpy. Reference textbooks such
as Cengel (2002) give basic information on exergy and its definition, but here the
analysis is as well based on Kotas (1985) and Szargut (1988). Þórólfsson (2002) and
Valdimarsson (2002) apply these methods on specific geothermal applications. In this
paper the focus is on the general conversion efficiency calculation.

S01 Paper080 Page 42

International Geothermal Conference, Reykjavík, Sept. 2003 Session #1

2.1 Flows
The heat ( Q& ) and exergy ( X& ) flows are given by:

Q& h = c h m& h (Th − T0 ) (1)

Q& s = ch m& h (Ts − T0 ) (2)

Q& c = cc m& c (Tc − T0 ) (3)

⎡ ⎛ T ⎞⎤ ⎛T ⎞
X& h = ch m& h ⎢(Th − T0 ) − T0 ln⎜⎜ h ⎟⎟⎥ = Q& h − ch m& hT0 ln⎜⎜ h ⎟⎟ (4)
⎣ ⎝ T0 ⎠⎦ ⎝ T0 ⎠

⎡ ⎛ T ⎞⎤ ⎛T ⎞
X& s = ch m& h ⎢(Ts − T0 ) − T0 ln⎜⎜ s ⎟⎟⎥ = Q& s − ch m& hT0 ln⎜⎜ s ⎟⎟ (5)
⎣ ⎝ T0 ⎠⎦ ⎝ T0 ⎠

⎡ ⎛ T ⎞⎤ ⎛T ⎞
X& c = cc m& c ⎢(Tc − T0 ) − T0 ln⎜⎜ c ⎟⎟⎥ = Q& c − cc m& cT0 ln⎜⎜ c ⎟⎟ (6)
⎣ ⎝ T0 ⎠⎦ ⎝ T0 ⎠

The energy (1. law) and exergy (2. law) balances are:

Q& h − Q& s − Q& c = W& (7)

X& h − X& s − X& c = W& rev or

⎛T ⎞ ⎛T ⎞
Q& h − Q& s − Q& c − ch m& hT0 ln⎜⎜ h ⎟⎟ + cc m& cT0 ln⎜⎜ c ⎟⎟ = W& rev (8)
⎝ Ts ⎠ ⎝ T0 ⎠

The energy balance is valid for all processes, ideal and real. The exergy balance gives
only information on the reversible work, or the largest amount of work that can be
obtained from the power plant.
If the power plant is ideal, then:

⎛T ⎞ ⎛T ⎞
W& rev = W& or − ch m& hT0 ln⎜⎜ h ⎟⎟ + cc m& cT0 ln⎜⎜ c ⎟⎟ = 0 (9)
⎝ Ts ⎠ ⎝ T0 ⎠

Then the heat capacity flow ratio for a reversible power plant is:

⎛T ⎞
ln⎜⎜ h ⎟⎟
cc m& c
= ⎝ s⎠
T
Crev = (10)
ch m& h ⎛T ⎞
rev
ln⎜⎜ c ⎟⎟
⎝ T0 ⎠

S01 Paper080 Page 43

International Geothermal Conference, Reykjavík, Sept. 2003 Session #1

2.2 Efficiency
Efficiency is the ratio of benefit to cost. In order to be able to define efficiency, the
inputs (cost) and outputs have to be defined. In a low temperature heat conversion
process, two cases regarding the stream m& s are possible, depending on if the heat
contained in that stream can be sold to a heat consuming process.

Case E
Electricity is the only output of the power plant. The heat contained in the stream m& s
is rejected to the surroundings.
Product : W&
Input : Q& h

Rejected : Q& s and Q& c

First law efficiency:

W& Q& h − Q& s − Q& c (Th − Ts ) − C (Tc − T0 )

η I ,E = & = = (11)
Q h Q& h Th − T0

First law maximum efficiency:

⎛T ⎞ ⎛T ⎞
Q& s + Q& c + c h m& hT0 ln⎜⎜ h ⎟⎟ − c c m& c T0 ln⎜⎜ c ⎟⎟
W& rev X& − X& s − X& c ⎝ Ts ⎠ ⎝ T0 ⎠
η I ,max,E = = h = 1−
Q& h Q& h Q& h

⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
(Th − Ts ) − T0 ln⎜⎜ Th ⎟⎟ (Tc − T0 ) − T0 ln⎜⎜ Tc ⎟⎟
= ⎝ Ts ⎠ − C ⎝ T0 ⎠
(Th − T0 ) (Th − T0 )
⎛T ⎞ ⎛T ⎞
ln⎜⎜ c ⎟⎟(Th − Ts ) − ln⎜⎜ h ⎟⎟(Tc − T0 )
= ⎝ 0⎠ ⎝ Ts ⎠
T
(12)
⎛T ⎞
ln⎜⎜ c ⎟⎟(Th − T0 )
⎝ T0 ⎠

Second law efficiency:

W& Q& − Q& − Q& Q& − Q& − Q&

η II , E = & = & h & s &c = h s c
Wrev X h − X s − X c ⎛T ⎞ ⎛T ⎞
Q& h − Q& s − Q& c − ch m& hT0 ln⎜⎜ h ⎟⎟ + cc m& cT0 ln⎜⎜ c ⎟⎟
⎝ Ts ⎠ ⎝ T0 ⎠

=
(Th − Ts ) − C (Tc − T0 ) (13)
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎛ ⎞⎞
(Th − Ts ) − T0 ln⎜⎜ Th ⎟⎟ − C ⎜⎜ (Tc − T0 ) − T0 ln⎜⎜ Tc ⎟⎟ ⎟⎟
⎝ Ts ⎠ ⎝ ⎝ T0 ⎠ ⎠

S01 Paper080 Page 44

International Geothermal Conference, Reykjavík, Sept. 2003 Session #1

Case CHP
Combined heat and power production. The stream m& s has to be kept at a given
temperature, required by the consumer. Each of the products (heat and power) has its
own load characteristics and duration. The heat contained in the stream m& s cannot be
sold completely, as the heat consuming process has its own efficiency. But this is the
matter of the heat consuming process, and is therefore not a matter in this study of the
primary power plant. Seen from the power plant, the whole stream m& s is sold to the
heat consuming process, and it is the responsibility of the heat consumer to utilize that
heat as far down as possible, preferably all the way down to T0 .
The efficiencies for the CHP process are thus electrical power generation
efficiencies. All the heat contained in the stream m& s is considered a by-product, and
does not enter the efficiency calculation.
Product : W& and Q& s
Input : Q& − Q& h s

Rejected : Q& c
First law efficiency:

W& Q& h − Q& s − Q& c (Th − Ts ) − C (Tc − T0 )

η I ,CHP = & = = (14)
Qh − Q& s Q& − Q&
h s T −T h s

First law maximum efficiency:

⎛T ⎞ ⎛T ⎞
Q& c + ch m& hT0 ln⎜⎜ h ⎟⎟ − cc m& cT0 ln⎜⎜ c ⎟⎟
W& X& − X& − X& ⎝ Ts ⎠ ⎝ T0 ⎠
η I ,max,CHP = & rev & = h & s & c = 1 − & &
Qh − Qs Qh − Qs Qh − Qs

⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
(Th − Ts ) − T0 ln⎜⎜ Th ⎟⎟ (Tc − T0 ) − T0 ln⎜⎜ Tc ⎟⎟
= ⎝ Ts ⎠ − C ⎝ T0 ⎠
(Th − Ts ) (Th − Ts )

⎛T ⎞
ln⎜⎜ h ⎟⎟(Tc − T0 )
= 1− ⎝ s ⎠
T
(15)
⎛T ⎞
ln⎜⎜ c ⎟⎟(Th − Ts )
⎝ T0 ⎠

Heat ratio is the ratio of sellable heat to work produced:

S01 Paper080 Page 45

International Geothermal Conference, Reykjavík, Sept. 2003 Session #1

rheat =
Q& s
=
Q& s
=
(Ts − T0 )
W Qh − Qs − Qc (Th − Ts ) − C (Tc − T0 )
& & & &
⎛ ⎞
(Ts − T0 ) ln⎜⎜ Tc ⎟⎟ (16)
rheat ,rev = ⎝ T0 ⎠
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
(Th − Ts ) ln⎜⎜ Tc ⎟⎟ − (Tc − T0 ) ln⎜⎜ Th ⎟⎟
⎝ T0 ⎠ ⎝ Ts ⎠

Second law efficiency is the same in both cases:

W& Q& − Q& − Q& Q& − Q& − Q&

η II , E = & = & h & s &c = h s c
Wrev X h − X s − X c ⎛ T ⎞ ⎛T ⎞
Q& h − Q& s − Q& c − ch m& hT0 ln⎜⎜ h ⎟⎟ + cc m& cT0 ln⎜⎜ c ⎟⎟
⎝ Ts ⎠ ⎝ T0 ⎠

=
(Th − Ts ) − C (Tc − T0 ) (17)
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎛ ⎞⎞
(Th − Ts ) − T0 ln⎜⎜ Th ⎟⎟ − C ⎜⎜ (Tc − T0 ) − T0 ln⎜⎜ Tc ⎟⎟ ⎟⎟
⎝ Ts ⎠ ⎝ ⎝ T0 ⎠ ⎠

3 Results
To illustrate the preceding analysis, an example is taken of a power plant, where
cooling fluid is available at T0=30°C. The source temperature Th is varied between
100 and 150°C. The source fluid outlet temperature is assumed to be Ts=80°C, and is
varied in order to see its influence. Similarly the cooling fluid outlet temperature is
assumed to be Tc=45°C, and is varied as well to see its influence.
Maximum electrical generation efficiency

T s=80°C
T 0=30°C
0.25

Carnot
] 0.2
[-
y CHP T c=30°C
c
n CHP T c=45°C
ei 0.15
ci
ff
e
.
x 0.1 no CHP T c=30°C
a
M
no CHP T c=45°C
0.05

0
100 110 120 130 140 150
Source temperature T h [C]

Figure 3: Maximum electrical generation efficiency for T0=30°C and Ts=80°C.

The CHP case shows that the maximum generation efficiency decreases by around
2% by having realistic cooling fluid temperature, as compared to the ideal case, where
the temperature is constant. The increase in the maximum efficiency is only around

S01 Paper080 Page 46

International Geothermal Conference, Reykjavík, Sept. 2003 Session #1

0.5-1% for the other case, but then all heat contained in the stream m& s is considered
wasted.
Maximum electrical generation efficiency
T c=45°C
T 0=30°C
0.25

Carnot CHP T s=70°C

] 0.2
[-
y
c
n
ei 0.15
ci CHP T s=80°C
ff
e
.
x 0.1 no CHP T s=70°C
a
M
no CHP T s=80°C
0.05

0
100 110 120 130 140 150
Source temperature T h [C]

Figure 4: Maximum electrical generation efficiency for T0=30°C and Tc=45°C.

The influence of the temperature of the heat extraction stream has greater influence on
the case with no CHP. This is obvious, as this heat is lost and worthless in that case.
Already a reduction from 80°C down to 70°C increases the efficiency by some 2.5%.

Reversible heat and heat capacity ratio

18
T s=80°C
16
T 0=30°C
14
T c=45°C
12
Reversible heat ratio rrev
] 10
[-
oi
t 8
a
R
6

2
Reversible heat capacity ratio Crev
0
100 110 120 130 140 150
Source temperature T h [C]

Figure 5: Reversible heat and capacity ratios for T0=30°C and Tc=45°C.

The ratio of the cooling fluid heat capacity flow to the primary fluid heat capacity
flow is calculated here assuming that the conversion process is reversible. As the
source temperature gets higher, the more flow of the cooling fluid is needed in order

S01 Paper080 Page 47

 International Geothermal Conference, Reykjavík, Sept. 2003 Session #1

to stay reversible. At low temperatures the heat ratio tends towards infinity,
indicating that no useable work can be produced.

4 Conclusion
The analysis has shown that the Carnot efficiency is not valid as a reference for
electrical power generation from low temperature sources. The energy and exergy
contained in the stream m& s has to be considered waste, if this energy cannot be sold
as heat. The only valid reference for the efficiency of a pure electricity plant is thus
the maximum first law efficiency for Case E. If the heat in the stream m& s can be sold,
the whole stream is a by-product of the power plant, and how that stream is utilized
by the customer is no matter of the power plant itself. The maximum electrical
production efficiency in this case is presented as Case CHP.

Acknowledgments
This work has been partially funded by the RANNÍS, the Icelandic Centre for
Research. VGK Consulting Engineers, Reykjavik deserve thanks for interest,
assistance and support.

5 References
Cengel; Boles (2002). Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach, McGraw-Hill
2002, ISBN: 0071216898.
Kotas, T. J. (1985). The exergy method of thermal plant analysis, Butterworths,
Academic
Press, London.
Szargut, J., Morris, D. R., Steward and F. R (1988). Exergy Analysis of Thermal,
Chemical,
and Metallurgical Processes, Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
Þórólfsson, G. (2002). Bestun á nýtingu lághita jarðvarma til raforkuframleiðslu.
(Optimization of low temperature heat utilization for production of electricity), MSc
thesis, University of Iceland, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering.
Valdimarsson, P. (2002). Cogeneration of district heating water and electricity from a
low temperature geothermal source, Proc. Of the 8th International Symposium on
District Heating and Cooling, NEFP and the International Energy Agency,
Trondheim, August 14- 16, 2002, ISBN 82-594-2341-3.

S01 Paper080 Page 48

View publication stats