UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION, WINNEBA

COLLEGE FOR DISTANCE AND e-LEARNING

ADMINISTRATION AND MANAGEMENT

OF UPPER PRIMARY SCHOOLS

Written by:

Juliana Dinko, MPhil.

Kwame Frimpong, MPhil.
Francis Nyantakyi, MPhil.

Edited by

Kwame Odei-Tettey, PhD.

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COURSE DESCRIPTION
The course is designed to expose student teachers to the conceptual, theoretical, and practical
issues in basic school administration and management with special reference to Ghana. It examines
the meanings and purposes of basic school administration and management and the specific duties
of the basic school head teacher. The course seeks to help student teachers to understand and apply
the principles of the various schools of administrative thought and assist student teachers to
understand and apply concepts and issues in leadership including gender and inclusivity to ensure
effective administration of basic schools. It seeks to provide a sound knowledge and understanding
of the concepts of communication and decision making, and demonstrate how teachers and other
stakeholders could be effectively involved in decision making process in basic schools.
Furthermore, the course seeks to provide opportunities to student teachers to observe, report and
analyse practical administrative, management and leadership styles. These will enable student
teachers to take up leadership positions in the future to ensure effective supervision and
administration of basic schools. It will also equip student teachers with skills to manage transition
of learners from Early Grade to Upper Primary Schools. The course will help student teachers to
understand and demonstrate that collaborative, partnership and team work are essential approaches
to be welcomed by all teachers. Teaching differentiated interactive techniques (including pyramid
and panel discussions, role play, audio-visual and tactile analysis, diamond nine, shower thoughts)
and assessment procedures (individual and group projects, reports and presentations, case studies,
assessment inventories and digital/manual portfolios will be employed in the learning process to
enable student teachers apply the various administrative and management principles and theories
in the classroom and the basic school as a whole (NTECF, NTS 2d, 3e, 3k, 3p, 3l, p.18).
The course is divided into six (6) Units as follows:
UNIT 1: Nature of Basic School Administration and Management
UNIT 2: The School as an Organization and Duties of Head teachers of Inclusive Basic Schools
UNIT 3: Schools of Administrative Thoughts and Their Educational Implications
UNIT 4: Leadership in Inclusive Basic Schools
UNIT 5: Communication, Decision Making and Supervision in Inclusive Upper Primary
Schools
UNIT 6: School Climate, School-Community Partnership & Contemporary Issues in Basic
Schools

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 COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES AND INDICATORS

Course Learning LEARNING INDICATORS

Outcomes (CLO)
On successful
completion of the course,
you would be able to:

1. Demonstrate 1.1 Provide a clear evidence of understanding of the concepts

knowledge and administration and management.
understanding of the 1.2 Show evidence of understanding and application of the
nature and functions of functions (POSDCoRB) of administration and management.
administration and 1.3 Provide clear evidence regarding the understanding of the
management (NTS 1e, uniqueness of Upper Primary School administration.
2a, 3c, 3d). 1.4 Identify the challenges encountered in the administration of
inclusive Upper Primary Schools.
2. Demonstrate 2.1. Show an evidence of understanding of the meaning and
knowledge and types of organisation.
understanding of the 2.2 Provide evidence of understanding of what makes the basic
reasons for classifying school a formal organisation.
the basic school as a 2.3 Show a clear evidence of understanding of the specific
formal organisation, duties of the inclusive Upper Primary basic school head
and the duties of head teacher.
teachers of inclusive 2.4. Provide evidence of understanding the role of the head
Upper Primary teacher in mobilising resources for the administration of
Schools (NTS, 3e). inclusive Upper Primary Schools.
3. Critically review the 3.1 Provide evidence of understanding of the different schools
various schools of of administrative thought.
administrative thought 3.2 Provide a clear evidence of application of the principles of
and their applications schools of administrative thought to the school or
to the educational educational settings.
setting (NTS 1a)
4. Demonstrate 4.1. Exhibit evidence of understanding of the concept of
knowledge and leadership, and identify the theories of leadership.
understanding of the 4.2. Provide a clear evidence of understanding and application
concept of leadership, of the styles of leadership.
and apply the theories 4.3. Provide clear evidence of understanding leadership
and styles of qualities that relate to their experiences.
leadership in achieving
cordial school-

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 community 4.4. Show a clear application of appropriate strategies adopted
relationships (NTS,1d) by head teachers of inclusive basic schools to achieve
cordial school-community relationship.

5. Exhibit understanding 5.1. Show a clear understanding of the concepts

and application of communication, decision-making, and supervision.
communication, 5.2. Provide evidence that they understand the need for effective
decision-making and communication, decision-making and supervision in
supervision in the inclusive classrooms and schools.
administration of 5.3. Identify the various barriers to effective communication,
inclusive basic schools decision-making and instructional supervision in inclusive
(NTS 1e, 2d, 3f). classrooms and schools.
5.4. Show evidence of understanding the strategies that promote
effective communication and decision making in inclusive
classrooms and schools.
5.5. Provide a clear understanding and application of the criteria
for appraising teachers
6. Exhibit knowledge and 6.1. Show evidence of understanding of the concept of inclusive
understanding of school climate and its types.
school climate and 6.2. Provide a clear evidence of understanding the importance
school-community and determinants of school climate.
partnership (NTS 1e, 6.3. Provide evidence of understanding the meaning, types and
1f, 1g, 2f, 3h, 3o). principles of school-community partnership.
6.4. Show a clear understanding of the need for effective
school-community partnership and ways to achieve it.
6.5. Demonstrate a clear application of the appropriate strategies
for effective delegation and handling of conflicts in
inclusive basic schools and the community.
6.6. Provide a clear evidence of understanding of the role of
GES, SMC, Board of Governors, PTA, in fostering cordial
inclusive basic school-community partnership.
7. Demonstrate 7.1. Identify the major National Teachers’ Standards that relate
understanding of to their experiences.
professional ethics and 7.2. Show evidence of understanding of how teachers could
values that portray become good models in the school and community.
teachers as good role
models in the school
and community (NTS
1c, 1d, 1f, 1g, 2a, 2c,
3n, 3o).

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TABLE OF CONTENT PAGE
Unit 1: Nature of Basic School Administration and Management 7
Section 1: School Administration and Management 8
Sections2: Meaning and Educational Implications of POSDCORB 14
Section 3: Unique Nature of the Administration of Inclusive Upper Primary 19
Section: 4 Challenges in the Administration of Inclusive Upper Primary Schools 23

Unit 2: The School as an Organization 27

Section 1: Meaning, Types and Characteristics of Organisations 28
Section 2: Formal and Informal Organisations 33
Section 3: Features of an Inclusive Basic School as a Formal Organization. 38
Section 4: Duties of the Head teacher in Inclusive Basic Schools 42
Section 5: Role of the Head teacher in Mobilising Resources 48

Unit 3: Schools of Administrative thoughts and their Educational Implications 54

Section 1: Scientific Management Approach and its School Implications 55
Section 2: Administrative Management Approach and its School Implications 60
Section 3: Bureaucratic Approach and its Implications 65
Section 4: Human Resource Approach and Its School Implications 71
Section 5: Theories X, Y and Z, and Their School Implications 75
Section 6: Theory Z Mangement 81

Unit 4: Leadership in Inclusive Basic Schools 86

Section 1: Conceptual Issues in Leadership 87
Section 2: Definitions and Importance of Leadership. 92
Section 3: Curriculum Leadership and Instructional Leadership 95
Section 4: Leadership Theories 103
Section 5: Forms of Leadership and Sources of Leadership Power 110
Section 6: Attributes of a Good Leader of Inclusive Upper Primary Schools 117

Unit 5: Communication, Decision Making and Supervision in Inclusive 128

Upper Primary Schools
Section 1: Meaning and Types of Communication 129
Section 2: Channels of, and Barriers to Communication 135
Section 3: Meaning and Importance of Decision Making 141
Section 4: Meaning and the Need for Supervision 147
Section 5: Challenges of Supervision 154

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Unit 6: School Climate and School-Community Partnership 160
Section 1: Types, Importance and Determinants of Inclusive School Climate 162
Section 2: Meaning, Types and Principles of School and Community Relationship 166
Section 3: The Need for Effective Relationship between Basic Schools and the Community 171
Section 4: The Role of Stakeholders in fostering cordial school-community partnership 176
Section 5: Contemporary Issues in Basic School Administration (I) 182
Section 6: Contemporary Issues in Basic School Administration (II) 192

References 199

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 UNIT ONE
NATURE OF BASIC SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION AND MANAGEMENT
Hello, Our Cherished Student Teacher. You are heartily welcome to the First Unit of the
course module Administration and Management of Inclusive Upper Primary Schools. In
this unit our focus is to understand the meaning of administration and management and the
functions of inclusive school administrators and management. We will also look at the
nature of administration of inclusive Upper Primary School and the challenges involved.
We hope that you will find the discussion useful for your work as teachers and headteachers
of basic schools. Get your writing materials ready and let us get started.

This unit consist of three (3) sections as follows:

SECTION 1: Administration and Management
SECTION 2: Meaning and Educational Implications of POSDCORB
SECTION 3: Unique Nature of the Administration of Inclusive Upper Primary
SECTION 4: Challenges in the Administration of Inclusive Upper Primary Schools

THE UNIT LEARNING OUTCOMES AND INDICATORS ARE:

Course Learning LEARNING INDICATORS

Outcomes (CLO)
On successful completion of
the course, you would be
able to:
1. Demonstrate knowledge 1.11.1. Provide a clear evidence of understanding of the
and understanding of the concepts administration and management.
nature and functions of 1. 1.2. Show evidence of understanding and application
administration and of the functions (POSDCoRB) of
management (NTS 1e, 2a, administration and management.
3c, 3d). .3. 1.3. Provide clear evidence regarding the
understanding of the uniqueness of Upper
Primary School administration.
1.11.4. Identify the challenges encountered in the
administration of inclusive Upper Primary
Schools.

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UNIT 1 SECTION 1: SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION AND MANAGEMENT
We welcome you, dear Student Teacher to the First Section of the First Unit of this course
module. In this section, we will explore the meaning of the concepts Management,
Administration, Educational Management and Educational Administration. We will also be
looking at how similar or different these concepts are. We encourage you to pay attention
and contribute to the discussion by sharing your lived experiences with the class.

The Section Outline is made of the following sub-sections

• Management and Administration defined
• What is Educational Administration?
• What is School Management?
• Differences between Administration and Management
• Similarities between of Administration and Management

Learning Outcome Indicators

On successful completion of
this section, you will:
1. Demonstrate knowledge 1. Describe Management in your own words
and understanding of the 2. What is Educational Management?
nature and functions of 3. Explain the concept Administration.
administration and 4. List three differences between educational
management (NTS 1e, 2a, management and educational administration
3c, 3d). 5. List two similarities between educational
management and educational administration

As teachers and teachers to be, you might have heard and or used the term management in
your conversations or write ups; what is your understanding of Management? As teachers,
are we managers too? If so, what do we manage?

Management and Administration defined

What is Management?
The word "management" comes from the Italian verb "maneggiare," which meant to handle
or to "train horses." The word "maneger," in French implies, to manage and economize
when leading. Therefore, the etymological meanings of management are: handling,
directing, guiding economically, and leading.
Management, according to Adesina (1990), is the organization and mobilization of all
human and material resources within a given system for the accomplishment of stated

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system objectives. Similar to this, Trewarth and Newport (1982) define management as the
process of organizing, carrying out, and overseeing an organization's operations in order to
coordinate the material and human resources necessary for the successful and efficient
achievement of goals.
Finally, according to Sherleker (1984), management is the direction, leadership, and control
of a group of people's actions toward a common goal.
Management can be said to be a plan of action and its direction by a co-operative group
moving towards a common goal. It is the art of getting things done through and with
formally organized groups.
Management in the school context, can be linked to strategies for cutting down on learners
arriving late to the school. For instance,
• The headteacher can discuss the issue with the other teachers and come to a
consensus that lateness must be stopped.
• He can also come up with effective techniques, such as explaining to the learners
the consequences of being late and what they can do to get to school early. He can
also discuss how some teachers show up to work early.
• Finally, he might consider creating a system of rewards for learners who arrive at
school early.
Specifically, Management is a process that consists of planning, organizing, actuating, and
controlling in order to decide and achieve stated objectives by the employment of human
beings and other resources.

As a process, management consist of three components:

Management is a social activity - Since people are the most essential factor among the
others, management is concerned with fostering relationships between individuals. It is the
responsibility of management to make interpersonal interactions fruitful and useful for
achieving organizational objectives.
Management is an integrating process - Management is responsible combining people,
physical, and financial resources in order to accomplish organizational goals. So it serves
a crucial purpose in bringing many components into harmony.
Management is an ongoing activity - It is a process that never ends. It is concerned with
consistently identifying issues and finding appropriate solutions. It is a continuous process.

Now that we have explained management, let us consider some explanations of the term
Administration.

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What is Administration?
The process of systematically allocating and coordinating the human and material
resources available to any organization with the aim of achieving its predetermined
objectives is known as administration.
Nwankwo (1987) defined administration as the methodical and careful arrangement and
use of resources (both human and material), opportunities, and situations for the
accomplishment of a given organization's specific goals. According to Miewald (1978),
administration is the process by which formal goals are accomplished through concerted
human effort. According to Segiovanni et al. (1980), administration is the practice of
collaborating with others to effectively achieve organizational goals. According to the
definitions given above, an administrator enables others to perform work instead of
performing it themselves.

Can we then say that your head teacher is an administrator? You see, although your head
teacher does not teach home economics, they enable the Home Economics teacher to teach
by giving them the needed resources such as text books, chalk, TLM, knowledge and
guidance. In the same vein, district directors of education receive regular reports from the
schools through their assistant directors, and head teachers without having to go to the
schools personally.

Activity 1.1.1
Kindly take a piece of paper and write your own explanation of administration. Do this
without referring to the module.
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That was a good attempt. You may now refer to the module to see if you got it right.

Let us proceed and look at Educational Management. Is this your first time of hearing this
concept? We do not hope so. Whichever is the case, read a number of definitions from
some renowned authorities.

What is Educational Administration?

The process of assembling personnel and resources for efficient and successful teaching
and learning in the classroom is known as educational administration. Enhancing teaching

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and learning is the primary objective of educational administration. Various authorities
have defined the concept differently. Let us consider a few of them.

Nwankwo (1987) defined educational administration as the methodical arrangement of

educational programmes, materials, and human resources that are accessible and their
cautious use under predetermined rules or policies to attain educational objectives.
The use or application of the theories and principles of administration to address
educational issues can also be referred to as educational administration.

Drost (1971) claims that Educational Administration is concerned with the school's overall
direction. It incorporates the instructional head's direct supervision, the business manager's
expertise, the curriculum coordinator's expertise, and the expertise of other staff specialists.
The issues with education are the focus of educational administration. There are a wide
range of issues with schooling. They range from getting to know the parents to buying
things.

The process of keeping a school in good operating order is known as educational

administration, and it is relatively straightforward to understand. It is a method of resource
management that supports the efficient growth of organizational capabilities and human
traits. It includes all methods and steps required to run an organization effectively and make
it perform to its fullest potential. Planning, funding, organizing, leading, monitoring,
inspecting, and evaluating are some of the tasks involved in educational administration.
Setting up educational goals, reviewing them, providing feedback, and evaluating them are
all responsibilities of educational administration.
In order to achieve the goal, management considers planning, staffing, recruiting, leading,
and controlling the organization. The primary task of educational management is the
allocation of human, financial, technological, and natural resources.

What is Educational Management?

The concept Educational Management defies a universal definition as various authors
have described it differently. Let us consider some of the definitions here.
According to Ali and Abdalla (2017) the term "educational management" refers to the
application of management theory and practice to the sphere of education or educational
institutions. Fundamentally, educational management is the accurate application of
management ideas in the disciplines of education. According to Ngugi (2011), it is obvious
to see that management and educational administration are two practical subjects of study.
Nwankwo (2015) describes educational management as the process involved with applying
methods, concepts, and practices to establish, develop, and carry out the objectives of
education's goals, policies, plans, and procedures.

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Management in education, according to Dash (2000), entails choosing the objectives of an
educational institution and the actions to be taken to attain these objectives.

It is clear from the numerous definitions that educational management is involved with the
creation and planning of educational policies or programs with the intention of achieving
educational objectives. In order to accomplish stated educational goals or objectives,
educational management can also be thought of as the act of organizing, directing,
coordinating, and assessing human and material resources.

Activity 1.1.2
Dear Student Teacher, we now want you to work with your colleagues next to you and
write down your own descriptions of Educational management and Educational
Administration and share with the whole class.
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Good! We hope you enjoyed the exercise. Now, read on the differences and similarities
between the two concepts

Differences between Educational Management and Educational Administration

• When discussing educational issues, the terms educational management and
educational administration are frequently used. Although they could appear to be the
same thing, there is a clear distinction between the two. For instance,
• Management works with and through people to achieve organizational goals.
Administration, on the other hand, is more focused on managing the tasks necessary
to manage the educational institution.
• The function of educational administration includes putting up educational policies,
review, feedback, and assessment goals. On the other side, educational management is
the activity that organizes and directs the institution's human resources in order to
successfully accomplish its goals and objectives.
• While educational management at the school level, operates at the bottom of an
educational organization, educational administration operates at the top, for instance
at the Ghana Education Service Headquarters.
• While educational management is in charge of putting these policies and programmes
into action, educational administration is in charge of developing them.

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• Administration is believed to be concerned with non-profit organizations like churches
and other volunteer organizations, whereas management is considered to be involved
with profit-making institutions like banks, companies, etc.
• Management of educational institutions implies being accountable for the smooth
operation of a system that involves other participants. In contrast, educational
administration creates laws, regulations, and policies that direct decision-making. It is
more focused on developing comprehensive objectives, plans, and policies.

Similarities between educational Administration and educational Management

Although some people may argue that administration and management are entirely
different concepts, there are a few areas that both concepts overlap.
• Educational Administrators direct and oversee the operations of educational
institutions in addition to setting goals, standards, and norms. Every manager in an
educational institution is responsible with both the operational and administrative
management functions.
• Educational Administration includes educational management as a subset.
• The accomplishment of goals is important to both Educational Administrators and
Managers.
• Both educational management and administration are applied fields. Both of them have
their roots in ideas of organizational, business, and management administration.

In this section, the definition of the terms "management" and “administration” were
explored. It has also explained how educational management works. We defined
educational management as the process of organizing, directing, coordinating, and
evaluating human and material resources in order to achieve stated educational goals or
objectives. We also provided an explanation of educational administration as the
methodical planning of the programs and materials that are accessible for education and
the cautious application of them methodically within established rules or policies to attain
educational goals.
We hope you enjoyed the discussion. Do find time to assess yourself through the self-
assessment test. See you in the section where we will be looking at………………

Self-Assessment Test
1. In not more than four lines, describe Management in your own words
2. What is Educational Management?
3. Explain the concept Administration.
4. List three differences and two similarities between educational management and
educational administration.

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UNIT 1 SECTION 2: MANAGEMENT FUNCTIONS OF THE BASIC SCHOOL
HEAD
Dear Student Teacher, you are most welcome to the Second Section of the First Unit in this
module. In the just ended section, we familiarized ourselves with the concepts of
administration and management. In this section, we will be explaining to you the
management functions of the Upper Primary School Head teacher. We know that you have
so much to share on this topic so we shall make the section very interactive. Feel free to
share your experiences.
The Section Outline is made of the following sub-sections
• Meaning of the acronym POSDCORB
• Explanations of the management functions (POSDCORB)
• Educational Implications of POSDCORB

Learning Outcome Indicators

On successful completion of
this section, you will:
1. Demonstrate knowledge 1. Write the full meaning of the acronym
and understanding of the POSDCoRB
nature and functions of 2. Explain each of the management functions
administration and correctly.
management (NTS 1e, 2a, 3. Write tree educational implications of
3c, 3d). POSDCoRB as school management functions

Hello, our dear Student Teacher, have you come across the acronym POSDCoRB before?
What is the full meaning of this acronym?
Activity 1.2.1: Brainstorm
Before you read on, turn to your colleague next to you and share your understanding of the
acronym then write it in your jotter for discussion later.
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Now, compare your thoughts with what we have here. Did you get it right? No worries,
read on.

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Meaning of the Acronym POSDCoRB
The functions of organizational managers such as the head of an educational institution are
essential for the survival and attainment of goals and objectives. PODSCoRB is an
acronym that explains the work of organizational administrators and managers. It stands
for Planning, Organising, Staffing, Directing, Coordinating, Reporting and
Budgeting.
To enable you have a clear understanding of the nature of educational management roles,
we will describe each alphabet in the acronym POSDCoRB.
Planning: Planning entails anticipating the future and figuring out in broad terms what
needs to be done and how to do it in order to achieve organization goals. Planning in
schools may entail carefully establishing the goals and objectives to be achieved as well as
establishing the school's policies, rules, and implementation procedures. Additionally, it
might entail examining the subjects to be taught, taking into account the availability of
teachers and teaching aids, and creating a schedule to ensure the smooth implementation
of the policies and programs.
Organization: Organization refers to the division of labour through given responsibilities,
the coordination of assigned tasks, and most importantly, the accomplishment of stated
objectives. It involves dividing work structure of the school into various administrative
sections or components and assigning personnel to each for efficiency. In a basic school
setting for instance, the headteacher can carry out this duty by designating an assistant
headteacher, heads of department, housemasters, school prefects, sports and sanitation and
providing the necessary resources. The organization also decides how the executive
interacts with the staff members working in each administrative division and department.
Staffing: This involves the hiring, training, and upkeep of new staff as well as the
maintenance of conducive working environment. In the basic school system, this entails
hiring and assigning staff members, looking out for their welfare, overseeing and
evaluating their work, as well as offering them chances for professional progress, among
other things. For instance, as the headteacher, you must guarantee that you have hired
instructors who have the necessary credentials for the school. To ensure their contentment
at work, you should also assist them in finding housing and give them all the tools they
require. The personnel should be permitted or encouraged to take classes and receive in-
service training in order to continuously advance their professional skills and abilities,
which is equally crucial.

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Directing: Obviously, the manager is in charge of setting direction; as the one with ultimate
accountability, they are also held accountable for it. In actuality, this implies that the
management retains oversight of all duties. Additionally, the manager not only supervises
but also inspires his staff. He or she instructs them on how to carry out their duties, offers
them encouragement, and motivates them to take on particular difficulties.
Coordination: An organization's center of gravity is coordination. It involves the
integration of several components of connected work. It is feasible to accomplish a single
goal by breaking a task down into distinct branches based on efficiency. Again, without
coordination between the work done by several branches or divisions, the work cannot be
completed as a whole.
Reporting: It involves keeping those to whom the school head is responsible informed as
to what is going on. The reporting is supposed to periodically or on a regular basis tell the
organization's officials on how the administrative organization is run through records,
research, and inspection, as well as holding them accountable for one's actions. In schools,
this includes maintaining logbooks, visitor's books, class and attendance registers, and
inventories of school goods. It also include writing reports on enrollment, learner’s
performance, school infrastructure, and successes and failures for the school board,
local/district education oversight committee, etc. All correspondence pertaining to learners
and teachers that they need to be aware of must be disclosed to them in a timely manner.
Budgeting: This includes all of the financial planning, accounting, and control that go
along with creating a budget. It could be categorized as finance and business management
in schools if it entails creating the school budget and submitting an annual estimate to the
MOE through the district education office. In order to accomplish the school's objectives,
it also entails managing and overseeing school purchases, setting up an internal accounting
and control system (e.g., ensuring that all purchases are accompanied by receipts), and
supplying finances to keep the school office working efficiently.
Activity 1.2.2
Explain any two of the management functions of the headteacher in your own words in
your jotter and bring it to the next face-to-face for discussion.
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I hope that was not a difficult task for you to do. Great! We are making progress.

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Dear Student Teacher, what in your opinion are the implications for the headteacher of a
Upper Primary School whose is guided by POSDCoRB in doing the work? Are they likely
to face any setbacks? Do share your thoughts.

Educational Implications of POSDCORB

Every organisation needs a structured framework to guarantee maximum output, minimal
waste, and increased margins. Educational institutions are not exempted from this context.
One key management technique that enables workers and employees to be managed in a
way that is advantageous to a firm is POSDCORB. This idea aids organizations in breaking
the job into various processes and aids in maximizing the value of each person. These
POSDCORB processes and phases assist the human resource team in meeting a company's
needs.
Base on the POSDCORB principle, the planning phase in educational management is key
and entails doing a thorough investigation of the number of people required, the nature of
work, the size of the team, etc. This will enable management to maximize both human and
material resources available to them. Knowing the nature of the task and the personnel
available will facilitate effective decision-making to achieve set targets. the implication
here is that the head teacher would have to engage his staff in the planning process so as to
get their support for implementation.
To achieve planned activities and goals, organization as a whole cannot be ignored.
School heads who follow the principle of organisation would be able to effectively harness
resources that are needed to execute the school plans. This implies that the manager must
collaborate well with both internal and external stakeholders to gather the needed resources
for the school.
The head teacher alone cannot run the school hence, there is the need to apportion
responsibilities to staff and coordinate their activities for effective results. The implication
here is that the school head must have the competence in the various task areas to be able
to monitor and supervise for efficiency. This also demands that staff present reports of
tasks preformed to the head teacher. The head of school however has the responsibility of
ensuring that staff has the competencies required to perform the tasks and write good
reports.

In the school context, not every staff can take initiative to execute plans as such when the
head teacher provides clear directives quality results would be achieved. However, staff
should be willing to take directives from the head.

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 In this section we explained to you the management functions of the headteacher of
Primary School and its implications for the running of the school. We hope you would find
the information useful in your work and even as you relate with your school head and the
teachers working under you whichever the case may be.

Try the self-Assessment questions and report any challenge you may have.

Self – Assessment Test

1. Write the full meaning of POSDCoRB
2. Explain organization and reporting as functions of your headteacher
3. State any two educational implications of POSDCoRB in school management

18
UNIT 1 SECTION 3: Unique Nature of the Administration of Inclusive Upper
Primary Schools

Dear Student Teacher, we are in the third Section of the First Unit. You are cordially
welcome to. We hope that the information presented to you in the previous sections are
meaningful to you. In the first part of this section, we will discuss the characteristics of
inclusive Upper Primary School administration. We know you have a lot of experiences to
share regarding the topic. Get ready.
The Section will focus solely on
• Features of an Inclusive School Administrator
• Features of the Inclusive Upper Primary Schools

Learning Outcome Indicators

On successful completion of this
section, you will:
1. Demonstrate knowledge and 1. Identify at least 4 features of an inclusive
understanding of the nature school administrator
and functions of administration 2. Describe 4 features of the inclusive Primary
and management (NTS 1e, 2a, School administrator.
3c, 3d).

The word inclusion is not strange to you. You might have heard or used it before. What
does it mean to you in the context of education? What about inclusive school, what are
they? Take your jotter and write your understanding of these terms before you read on
Meaning of Inclusion
Inclusion in education, is the process of promoting participation of all learners in schools
irrespective of the differences in background, abilities or impairments. It involves changing
school cultures, rules, and procedures so they can accommodate the variety of children in
the area. Inclusive schools involve children with special needs in general classrooms and
allow these learners to interact and socialize with their peers in general education (Jackson
et al., 2000; Hussain, 2017).
Nature of Administration of Inclusive Upper Primary Schools
To succeed in creating and maintaining an inclusive school is dependent on the nature of
the administration of the school. This stems from the fact that the needs of an inclusive
school very much differ from any ordinary or regular school since the diversity among
learners is wider. School administrators are considered key actors responsible for
operating and directing all administrative functions of inclusive schools successfully and
effectively. They have significant responsibilities in maintaining the effective internal

19
functioning of inclusive school systems, representing the school in the community, and
implementing educational policies with precision
For effective administration of an inclusive basic school the following features are
inevitable (Leithwood & Jantzi, 2008).
a. Knowledge of learners needs
Inclusive school administrators have the skills, knowledge, and qualities to meet the
challenging requirements of providing varied services that meet the needs of diverse
learners populations. For instance, they are aware of the requirements of inclusive
schools which they effectively established to support teachers and the larger school
community.
b. Inclusive administrative practices
According to Hoppey and McLeskey (2013) inclusive school administrators adapt
inclusive practices and strategies to change the culture of the schools and develop
learning communities in their schools through performing their traditional roles
(POSDCoRB Thus, administrators consciously include everyone in their plans, organize
variety of resources for the benefit of all staff and learners, ensure that the staffing is
gender balance and culturally inclusive, direct and coordinate activities that ensure equal
participation by all budget for inclusive activities.
c. Focus on quality learning outcomes
Ultimately, inclusive basic school administrators have an indirect but significant
influence on learners’ learning by fulfilling their diverse needs and abilities and
legislating and establishing school policies and systems that are inclusive of all.
d. Develop a learning organization
The college-level training is not adequate for teachers to manage inclusive classrooms.
They need ongoing support through professional development programmes, supervision,
monitoring, and motivation to perform well in a changing work environment such as an
inclusive school.
These mean that, the inclusive school administrators provide continuous professional
development connected to the actual practice of staff within the school environment. To do
this effectively, the administrator of an inclusive school establishes protocols and
procedures such as compulsory continuous professional development programmes in the
school calendar. Administrators of Upper Primary Schools act as role models to improve
the ethical and professional growth of their teachers and other professional staff they work
with. This enables staff to meet regularly and share ideas on best practices in order to
improve learners learning outcomes.

20
e. Work with families, communities and other stakeholders
There are many components to successful inclusive education, from trained inclusive
teachers and accessible schools to the right kind of policies and action plans at the national
level. However, without getting the support of the local communities as well as changing
attitudes where there is stigma about disabilities, there will never be true change
(McGeown, 2020 p11).
Children's lives are only partially revealed to instructors when they first meet them in the
classroom. The teacher might not be aware that the learners has so much chores at home,
feels lonely because they have no friends, misbehaves to avoid reading task, or enjoys
painting. Working in groups allows for the sharing of knowledge and skills, which supports
youngsters who feel excluded for whatever reason. By collaborating with parents, the
School Management Committee, Parent Teacher Association and the District Education
Officials, inclusive school administrators acknowledge the multiple challenges that
children with disabilities and other vulnerable group’s experience. This enable
administrators to adapt appropriate strategies to enhance improved learning among all.
f. Inclusive Responsive Monitoring
The development of an inclusive school should be seen as a long-term, incremental process.
Different efforts might be tried by school administrators and instructors, but they might not
be as successful as they had hoped and need to be modified. Organizations can learn by
tracking the results of various efforts and considering the reasons why some concepts are
more successful than others. Inclusive school administrators employ both formal
(achievement statistics, attendance, interviews, questionnaires, and lesson observations)
and informal (informal conversation with stakeholders and samples of children's work)
monitoring techniques to ascertain the level of learning progress and need for modification.

Create an inclusive school environment

Effective inclusive school administrators create a conducive environment for everyone to
feel welcome and belonging to the school community. They can achieve these through
the following ways:
i. Awareness creation: In inclusive schools, administrators provide factual
information about diversity through sensitization and awareness creation
programmes for staff and learners to understand and value diversity and the need
for inclusion. This helps to challenge misconceptions resulting from a lack of
awareness of disabilities and what causes them.
ii. Removal of physical barriers: this activity includes building ramp and walkways
to ease mobility and thus to make the physical environment friendly and safe for all
learners.

21
 iii. Demonstrate inclusive behaviours such as acceptance and respect for all
irrespective of the difference in backgrounds.
iv. Work to remove unfavorable attitudes toward inclusion: Inculcate positive
attitudes to diversity among learners and staff. There are many different and
complex causes of disability, and many of them start with birth complications
(World Health Organisation [WHO], 2018). The teachers and administrators of an
inclusive school must have a positive outlook on diversity. All learners will benefit
from this in their quest to appreciate diversity and individuality.
v. Encourage teachers to use interactive teaching approaches: Teachers use of
interactive approaches in teaching gives learners the chance to interact and
understand one another rather than focusing on challenges and/or differences. In
this regard, inclusive school administrators play crucial roles in ensuring a positive
attitude towards diversity and inclusion.
vi. Creating an inclusive ethos: The values and attitudes of the staff members at a
school shape its "ethos." Ethos" and "culture" cannot be imposed from the outside
because they have varied meanings to various individuals. Instead, they "emerge"
from organizational behaviours, responsibilities, and structures. Inclusive school
administrators must establish relevant structures such as school rules, policies and
practices to enhance the inclusion of everyone.

Activity 1.3.1
Kindly take a piece of paper, and without looking into the module, write 5 characteristics
of inclusive school administration. Compare your work with your study partner near you.
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How did you fare in this exercise? We hope you find this section useful. Good!

In this section, you have learned about the nature of inclusive basic school administration.
We indicated that the administration of inclusive schools involve the creation of inclusive
environment, institution of continuous professional development for staff, positive attitude
toward inclusion among others.

Self-Assessment Questions
1. Identify at least 4 features of an inclusive school administrator
2. Describe 4 features of the inclusive Primary School administrator.

22
UNIT 1 SECTION 4: Challenges in the Administration of Inclusive Upper Primary
Schools

Hello, our cherished Student Teacher. You are welcome to the fourth Section of the First
Unit. We discussed the nature of the administration of an inclusive Upper Primary School
in the just ended sections. With a fair idea of the characteristics, we will now discuss
challenges that administrators of inclusive Upper Primary School may encounter. You
might be aware of some of these challenges, and we hope you will not hesitate to share
with us.
The Section will focus solely on
• Challenges confronting Administrators of Inclusive Upper Primary School
Administrator.
• Challenges Classroom Teachers may face during Lesson Delivery.

Learning Outcome Indicators

On successful completion of
this section, you will:
1. Demonstrate knowledge 1. List 5 challenges confronting administrators of
and understanding of the inclusive Upper Primary Schools.
nature and functions of 2. Identify 2 of the challenges that the classroom
administration and teacher may be confronted with during lesson
management (NTS 1e, 2a, delivery.
3c, 3d).

You will agree with the statement that the nature of administration of inclusive schools is
not the same as regular school. Now, given that inclusive school system is a new paradigm,
do you perceive that administrators would face certain challenges? If yes, what are some
of the challenges that come to your mind?

Now read on and compare your thoughts with what we present to you here.

Challenges in the Administration of Inclusive Upper Primary Schools

Inclusive schools involve children with special needs in general classrooms and allow these
learners to interact and socialize with their peers in general education (Jackson et al.,
2000; Hussain, 2017). Notably, all learners benefit from significant, challenging, and
appropriate educational elements and separated teaching methods that address their unique
abilities and needs.

23
There are significant challenges to ensuring that each individual obtains an equal
opportunity for educational progress worldwide (UNESCO, 2019). Learners with
disabilities including those with learning difficulties might be faced with many obstacles
during the transition and adaptation processes in regular school settings. These learners
need special care and treatment as well as modified curriculum and instruction that meet
their needs and expectations. The absence of these modifications may results in several
challenges for these learners in the regular school. Some of the challenges might include
having negative attitudes toward inclusion, lack of qualified educators, insufficient training
courses, and large sizes of classes (Konza, 2008). Thus, inclusive schools that integrate
learners with disabilities with non-disabled learners, the role of school heads remains
critical yet challenging even after the initiation of inclusiveness (Riehl, 2000).

Inclusive school administrators are confronted with a number of barriers in their work
which may include but not limited to the under listed:

a. Lack of teaching and learning materials: The majority of visually impaired

children are unable to benefit from textbooks and other resources provided to
conventional schools. For example, these learners cannot read the resource
materials because the font sizes are too small, but there are no readers with larger
print available for them. Additionally, administrators do not have lenses that
magnify the prints for them. Additionally, the schools do not provide braille paper
and a stylus to help blind kids write.
b. Social and cultural influences: the plight of school administrators is worsened
where cultural barriers and negative attitudes of the family and society toward
disability still dominate the education environment. Superstitious beliefs about
disabilities, derogatory social stereotypes, and parental preferences and
unfavorable attitudes toward their impaired children, are among these.
c. Large classroom size: It is practically difficult, if not impossible, to establish
optimal seating arrangements that support efficient teaching and learning in the
classrooms due to the high learners enrollment. There's a chance that teachers don't
have enough room for learners to work in small groups or perform demonstrations.
Furthermore, it could be difficult for teachers to move around the classroom and
supervise or assist learners as they work.
d. Inadequate and inaccessible infrastructure: Implementing inclusive education
in basic schools is challenged by structural obstacles. Most of the schools have
uneven terrain with no pavement and ramps. The classrooms are on high verandas
and are accessible only through stairs. The schools do not have resource rooms
available to support children with special needs in general classrooms. Facilities
for sanitation and water are either unavailable, insufficient, far away, or
inaccessible to those with disabilities.

24
e. Poor attitude of teachers towards inclusion: some teachers have the perception
that learners with disabilities or special education needs should be educated in the
special schools. Some think that once they did not receive training on teaching
learners with special needs, they cannot support such children in the classroom.
Others complain that it is difficult teaching them and hence, much time may be
spent on them which may prevent their ability to complete the syllabus. This can
lead to regular learners falling back.
f. Teacher lack of competence in inclusive pedagogies: Teachers are unable to use
instructional methods that improve learners’ understanding of the material being
covered in class, particularly, learners with special education needs. The majority
of educators use abstract teaching methods, which are detrimental to children's
learning. Additionally, given that many basic school teachers are not special
educators and they lack knowledge of special needs education, the various teacher
assistance might come unplanned, unstructured, and therefore unlikely to be
satisfactory. Furthermore, due to their various learning preferences, the majority of
learners with special education needs are unable to understand abstract material.
Some people learn best visually, tactilely, or kinesthetically, while others prefer
aural learning. To ensure that everyone can participate in and understand, teachers
must differentiate their instruction. Unfortunately, these were not part of the
training that the majority of teachers got in college and university.
g. Lack of appropriate assessment strategies: An essential process of inclusion is
assessment of children to identify their learning needs and to place them
appropriately so they can receive appropriate support. The basic schools do not
have the equipment for identifying disabilities among learners, such as for the
hearing and visual impaired learners. So, the lack of resources has been
adversely affecting this process.
h. Political factors. The rhetoric of the government and its lack of political
commitment to supporting inclusive education is another challenge facing school
administrators. If government shows commitment by training more special
education teachers to serve as resource persons in the regular schools, and the
needed equipment and materials provided, inclusive administrators would achieve
their planned goals with ease.
i. Financial constrains: Finance is needed to procure resources for the day-to-day
administration of basic schools. For effective administration of inclusive schools,
materials and equipment must be in place to make education for learners (including
learners with special needs) possible. The inability of School administrators to
procure materials and equipment tailored for children with special needs clearly
demonstrate the challenges children with special needs are going through as they
participate in teaching and learning. It is unlikely that children with special needs

25
 will find it simple to engage on an equal footing as their non-disabled peers in the
general classroom without these resources and resource teachers.

Activity 1.4.1
In your own words, write any two hindrances facing inclusive school administration. Bring
this to class next week for discussion.
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Well done! We have come to the end of this section and the unit as well. We hope that the
information provided will assist your work.

We discussed in this section the challenges that administrators of inclusive Upper Primary
Schools are confronted with. Mention was made of inadequate funding, lack of equipment
and materials, teachers’ lack of pedagogical competence and negative attitude towards
diversity and inclusion among others. We encourage you to make time and read more on
this

Self- Assessment Questions

1. List 5 challenges confronting administrators of inclusive Upper Primary Schools.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
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2. Identify 2 of the challenges that the classroom teacher may be confronted with during
lesson delivery.
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26
 UNIT TWO
THE SCHOOL AS AN ORGANISATION: THE BASIC DUTIES OF HEADTEACHERS
IN AN INCLUSIVE SCHOOL.
Dear Student Teacher, you are cordially welcome to the Second Unit of this module. In the
first unit, we discussed school administration and management where we learned the
administrative function and the nature of administration of inclusive Upper Primary
Schools. In this unit we will look at the school as an organization where administrators
operate. You will learn the meaning, types and features of organisations; the difference and
similarities between formal and informal organization; characteristics of an inclusive basic
school and duties of inclusive basic school head. We can assure you of interesting
discussion. We know you will share your lived experiences to make the discussion rich and
lively. Stay tuned.
This unit is made up of the following sections:
SECTION 1: Meaning, Types and Characteristics of Organisations
SECTION 2: Formal and Informal Organisations
SECTION 3: Features of an Inclusive Basic School as a Formal Organization.
SECTION 4: Duties of the Head teacher in Inclusive Basic Schools

COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES AND INDICATORS

Course Learning LEARNING INDICATORS

Outcomes (CLO)
On successful
completion of the
course, you would be
able to:
2. Demonstrate 2.1. Show an evidence of understanding of the meaning and
knowledge and types of organisation.
understanding of the 2.2 Provide evidence of understanding of what makes the
reasons for basic school a formal organisation.
classifying the basic 2.3 Show a clear evidence of understanding of the specific
school as a formal duties of the inclusive Upper Primary Schools basic
organisation, and school head teacher.
the duties of head 2.4. Provide evidence of understanding the role of the
teachers of inclusive head teacher in mobilising resources for the
Upper Primary administration of inclusive Upper Primary Schools.
Schools (NTS, 3e).

27
SECTION 1: MEANING, TYPES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF
ORGANISATION
You are warmly welcome, our dear Student Teacher to the First Section of the Second Unit
in this module. We are beginning the unit with discussion on the meaning of organization,
the school as organisation and characteristics of an organization. We hope that you will
contribute to the discussion as you always did. Relax, and let us move on.

The Outline of this section is constituted thus:

• Meaning of Organisations
• The School as an Organization
• Characteristics of Organisations

Learning Outcome Indicators

On successful completion of this
section, you will:
Demonstrate knowledge and 1. Describe what an organisation is
understanding of the reasons for 2. Describe the school as an organisation
classifying the basic school as a formal 3. List 5 characteristics of organisations
organisation, and the duties of
headteachers of inclusive Upper Primary
Schools (NTS, 3e).

Before we start the conversation we want you to reflect on the term ‘organization’ for a
minute and share your view of what it is with the class. Did you say that it involves all that
is done to achieve institutional goals? You are right. Read on what we have presented here.
Meaning of Organisation
Organisation can be explained as the process of identifying and grouping work to be
performed, defining and delegating responsibility and authority and establishing
relationships for the purpose of enabling people to work most effectively together in
accomplishing objectives. Organisation is therefore an instrument for achieving
organizational goals. The work of each and every person is defined and authority and
responsibility is fixed for accomplishing the same.

INFOPLUS (2017) defines an Organization as the study of the structure, functioning and
performance of organizations or institution and the behaviour of groups and individuals
within them. It is worth noting that organizations thrive to adapt continuously to external
conditions as well as emphasize on internal hierarchical decisions for change. Hence,

28
organizations persistently tend to balance the learning process between equilibrium and
evolution.

It is the structural framework of duties and responsibilities required of personnel in

performing various functions with a view to achieve institutions goals. In other words,
organisation is simply people working together to achieve a common goal. It is a group of
people assembling or congregating under one umbrella and contributes their efforts to
achieve a common goal. The purpose of organisation is to co-ordinate the activities of
various individuals working in the organisation for the attainment of enterprise goals.
Hence, it coordinates different activities for running institutions efficiently so that the
common goal can be achieved.

Activity2.1.1
Kindly take a piece of paper and without referring to the module, write your own
explanation of the term organization.
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You may now refer to the module to see if you got it right. We hope you got it. Now, let
us look at the school as an organization.

With your knowledge of what an organization is, will you say that the school where you
teach is an organization? Why would you say the school is an organization? Share your
opinion with the class before we proceed.

The School as an Organisation

Being a place where formal education takes place, the school is an organisation. The school
is an organization where training and development take place (Turkkahraman, 2015). This
means that the school is a social system comprising of group of people that interact together
to achieve both school and individual goals. In this regard, a school must be a safe and
organized place where clear set of general rules and school discipline are installed. The
school must be supportive so that learners and teachers can focus on learning and teaching
respectively. For example, teachers must have a staff room where they can prepare their
work before a lesson and learners must have good chairs and desks for setting and writing.
The school is one of the most important organisation that human beings have brought.
School involves cooperation, participation, involvement and delegation of activities.
However, the larger the organisation the more formal it is or the more hierarchical it
becomes.
29
The school as an organisation should therefore ensure that all staff members have clearly
defined roles. Organisation is the backbone of management, this means that without an
efficient organisation no management can perform its functions smoothly. In the
management process this organisation stands as a second state which tries to combine
various activities in a school to accomplish pre-determined goals. According to Scott
(2008), a good school looks like a pyramid as illustrated below and has also departments,
committees and subcommittees.

Headteacher

Assistant Headteacher

Heads of Department

Teachers/Instructors

Learners

This hierarchical arrangement exemplifies a context where a head leads other individual
members of the organization. There suggests a positive learner, teacher and head
interrelationship that characterize a healthy school climate which facilitates teachers’
likeness for their school, job, colleagues and their learners, and everyone is driven by a
quest for academic excellence.

Why the school is considered an organization?

According to Eisold (2009), the school can be seen as an organisation because it is
composed of a set of overlapping systems. These systems include the learners who are
expected to be concerned with learning and development; teachers, concerned with
upholding and ensuring professional standards as well as effective teaching; parents whose
focus is on the relationship that exists between the school and the child; and the
administrative body of the school system that is concerned with ensuring the management
of all the systems, including external relations and security.

30
Activity2.1.2: Think-Pair-Share

Now that we agree that that the school is an organization, turn to your study partner next
to you and together write 3 features of an organisation, then share with the whole class.
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That was a good attempt. Now read on and compare with what we have here.

Characteristics of Organisation
Some of the characteristics of organizations are as follows:
1. Division of Work
Organization deals with the whole task of business. The total work of the enterprise is
divided into activities and functions. Various activities are assigned to different persons for
their efficient accomplishment. This brings in division of labour. It is not that one person
cannot carry out many functions. However, specialisation in different activities is necessary
to improve one’s efficiency. Organisation helps in dividing the work into related activities
so that they are assigned to different individuals. In a school setting work can be divided
for teachers in different areas such as culture, entertainment, sports, subject allocation,
debate and drama etc.

2. Co-Ordination
Co-ordination of various activities is as essential as their division. It helps in integrating
and harmonising various activities. Co-ordination also avoids duplications and delays. In
fact, achieving the goals of the various functions in an organisation depend on one another
and the performance of one influences the other. Unless all of them are properly co-
ordinated, the performance of all segments is adversely affected.

3. Common Objective
All organisational structure is a means towards the achievement of the organisations goals.
The goals of the various segments lead to the achievement of major organisations goals.
The organisational structure should be built around common and clear cut objectives. This
will help in their proper accomplishment.

4. Co-operative Relationship
An organisation creates co-operative relationship among various members of the group.
An organisation cannot be constituted by one person. It requires at least two or more
persons. Organisation is a system which helps in creating meaningful relationship among

31
 persons. The relationship should be both vertical and horizontal among members of various
departments. The structure should be designed that it motivates people to perform their part
of work together.

5. Well-Defined Authority-Responsibility Relationships:

An organisation consists of various positions arranged in a hierarchy with well-defined
authority and responsibility. There is always a central authority from which a chain of
authority relationship stretches throughout the organisation. The hierarchy of positions
defines the lines of communication and pattern of relationships.

Dear Learner Teacher, in this section, we described an organization as study of the

structure, functioning and performance of organizations or institution and the behaviour of
groups and individuals within them. We said that the school is an organization in that it
comprises group of people that interact together to achieve both school and individual
goals. Among the characteristics of an organization, we mentioned Division of Labour, Co-
ordination Common Objective and Co-operative Relationship among others.

You can now assess your understanding of the section by answering the questions provided
below.
Self-Assessment Questions
1. Explain the term organisation in your own words
2. Describe the school as an organisation
3. List 5 characteristics of organisations

32
SECTION 2: TYPES OF ORGANISATIONS
Welcome, our dear Learner Teacher to the Second Section of the Second Unit of this course
module. You leaned the meaning, and characteristics of organization in the first section of
this unit. You also learned how a school is an organization. We hope that information will
facilitate your understanding of this section where we will be discussing types of
organization and their differences and similarities. Stay tuned and enjoy the discussion.

The Outline for this Section includes the following:

• What is a Formal Organization?
• What is an Informal Organization?
• Differences between Formal and Informal Organisations
• Similarities between Formal and Informal Organisations

Learning Outcome Indicators

On successful completion of this
section, you will:
Demonstrate knowledge and 1. State the two main types of organisations
understanding of the reasons for 2. Differentiate between formal and informal
classifying the basic school as a organisations
formal organisation, and the duties 3. Write 3 similarities between formal and
of head teachers of inclusive Upper informal organisations
Primary Schools (NTS, 3e).

With the knowledge you have gathered about organization, we believe you should have
some idea about the types of organisations. Would you want to share with the class before
we proceed? Anyway, we want to expose you to the two main organization types, their
differences, and how they relate. So, read on…
Types of Organisations
Organization can be grouped into two main types. These are formal and informal
organisations.

Formal Organisation
A formal organisation is a group of people who have a formal relationship, written policies
and rules and an aim to achieve a common goal. Formal organisations are based on
compliance. In the case of a formal organization, position, authority, responsibility and
accountability of each level are clearly defined. The aim of a formal organisation is the
attainment of a set of goals. This could be anything from profit-making, providing

33
education, the provision of medical assistance to a group of people to governance. In these
settings, each member is assigned their tasks, as delegated by the persons in authority.
Accountability is also a major feature in formal organizations whereby failure to achieve
the set tasks attracts a reaction.

Informal organisations
Informal Organisation arises from the social interaction of people in the organisation. It is
an organisation that is formed when a group of people interact, develop connections and
form an entity via mutual interactions. Similar to formal organisations, informal
organisations also have a structure that depends on the relation, norms and affiliations that
the members have. Members also collaborate based on their capabilities and capacities to
achieve the desired goal. It is possible to have informal organisations nested within formal
organisations. Examples are the tribal and town associations formed in universities in
Ghana.

We hope these brief explanations of formal and informal organisations are clear to you.

Now, let us consider the differences between the two.

Activity2.2.1

Before you read on, think about the two organization types and write down any two
differences between them in your jotter.

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Now, read on and compare your thoughts with what we have here. Hope you got it right.

Differences between Formal and Informal Organisations

There are key differences between formal and informal organizations. Formal
organizations are oriented toward reaching specific goals. Informal organizations are
more oriented toward human psychological needs. Often, formal organizations are more
publicly visible than informal organizations. Informal organizations can form within
formal organizations and also become formal over time.

The primary differences between an informal and formal organization are levels of
structure and hierarchies that determine how members interact. Formal organizations are
more structured and rely on authority based upon chains of command. Informal

34
organizations do not require hierarchies of authority or structured internal processes.
Informal organisations are not formed to reach specific goals like a formal organization.

Authority
Formal organizations have clear hierarchies of leadership. These hierarchies and power
relationships are clearly documented. Authority is appointed from upper levels of the
hierarchy, such as management. For example, only management usually holds the
authority to hire or fire employees.

Informal organizations typically do not follow hierarchies for authority. There is less
emphasis on established authorities or multiple levels of hierarchy. Rather, authority is
equal among all members. An example would be a book club where members are all
equal because they are not pursuing a goal that would require authority.

Structure
Formal organizations are very structured in order to reach stated goals. A formal structure
enables members to work together toward the same objectives. There are established laws
and rules that govern labor and norms within a formal organization. An organizational
organogram would be an example of documented structure.

Informal organizations are often not very structured because their goals might be
temporary or entirely social. There is no need for the extensive requirements of a formal
organisation. However, an informal organisation may become formal over time. A study
group of learners for a term-long course would typically not need a formal structure for
organizing.

Influence
Formal organisations rely on status through predetermined authority roles for influence.
Members of a formal organization look to leadership roles to provide guidance. There is
a clear flow of influence through a formal organization. For example, a subordinate
employee would not hold the same influence as a manager within a company.

Informal organizations tend to have subtler norms that are expressed through customs,
morals or beliefs that are often not written. Members are not pressured to perform by
superiors. Members of an informal organization mostly have equal influence. For
example, a volunteer group might rotate leadership among members on an ad hoc basis.

Members
Formal organizations possesses involve rules and laws regarding behaviours, and the
outcomes of labour. There are also processes in place for hiring, firing and replacing
members. Expectations for each member are outlined and documented. A job description

35
is an example of a formal document describing the specific requirements for the members
of a formal organisation.

Informal organisations provide a psychological or social benefit for members.

Relationships among members are more personal than role-related. Behaviour is
determined by group consensus. For example, social groups will follow norms that are
not explicitly written.

Communications
Formal organisations may have rules regarding the flow of information and
communication. The chain of command will determine how members communicate.
Communication flow is determined by hierarchy. Often, information flows from
leadership down to other members.

Informal organisations do not have specific guidelines for communication. All members
are able to interact with each other without considering hierarchy. Members of informal
organisations communicate freely with one another. An example might be a musical
group where members do not need to inform a specific leader when they will be absent
from a performance.

Purpose
Formal organisations are formed to serve a specific purpose or meet set goals. There is a
constitution or plan and extensive guidelines directing the organisation toward its
purpose. Leadership will regularly review how well goals are being met and plan
accordingly. A formal organization will exist even if specific members leave the
organisation.

Informal organizations serve the needs of individuals and can be created spontaneously
with a purpose that is not well-defined. Goals are not always clear because informal
organizations primarily provide the social needs of its members. An informal
organization might dissolve if certain members leave the organization.

So, these are some of the significant contrasting points between formal and informal
organizations. Nevertheless, both of these organizations work together to achieve short-
term and long-term goals.

Activity 2.2.2
Now that you understand the differences between the two, you can easily identify some
things that are similar in the two types of oraganisation. Please write them on a piece of
paper and read to the class before we continue. Remember not to refer to the module at
this time.

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Did you get it right? No worries, let us read on.

Similarities between Formal and Informal Organisations

1. Both formal and informal organisations bring a group of people with a common goal
together
2. Both organisations also have a structure that depends on the relation, norms and affiliations
that the members have.
3. Members also collaborate based on their capabilities and capacities to achieve the desired
goal.
4. Both formal and informal organizations serve human needs and allow people to build
communities.

In this section, we explained formal and informal organisation and looked at the differences
and similarities between the two. We outlined a number of differences between the two
and indicated that the structure of both formal and informal organization depends on the
relation, norms and affiliations that the members have and that each bring together a group
of people who have a common goal.

Well done! you can now test yourself through the self-assessment questions below, and see
how you are faring.

Self-Assessment Questions

1. What are the two main types of organisations you learned in this section?
2. Write 3 ways by which formal and informal organisations differ.
3. Write 3 similarities between formal and informal organisations.

37
SECTION 3: FEATURES OF AN INCLUSIVE BASIC SCHOOL AS A FORMAL
ORGANISATION
You are most welcome to the Third Section of the Second Unit in this course module. In
the just ended section of this unit, we discussed types of organization and how different or
similar they are. In this section, we want to turn the focus of our discussion on the
characteristics of an inclusive basic school. There are interesting issues to discuss here, so,
relax and enjoy.

The Section Outline is made of the following sub-sections

• Meaning of inclusive school
• Characteristics of an inclusive basic school

Learning Outcome Indicators

On successful completion of this section,
you will:
Demonstrate knowledge and 1. Explain ‘inclusive education’
understanding of the reasons for 2. Explain ‘inclusive school’
classifying the basic school as a formal 3. Identify 5 characteristics of an
organisation, and the duties of inclusive basic school
headteachers of inclusive Upper Primary
Schools (NTS, 3e).

As a teacher, you might have heard or read on inclusive education. What does it mean?
Have you heard of inclusive school before? Take your phones and check the meaning of
these concepts before you read on.

Inclusive school explained

Inclusive education means having children with diverse backgrounds enrolled in same the
same school and learning in the same classrooms. It require the provision real learning
opportunities for individuals and groups who have traditionally been excluded. This
include children with disabilities, children from ethnic minority groups, those from a
particular gender, particularly girls as well as others from poor homes.

At the school level, teachers must be trained in inclusive related issues, buildings must be
refurbished and learners must receive accessible learning materials in order to achieve the
benefits of inclusion. At the community level, stigma and discrimination must be tackled
and individuals need to be educated on the benefit of inclusive education.

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Activity2.3.1: Think-Pair-Square
With the explanation given you on inclusive school, think of the features of a typical
inclusive school. Share your ideas with a colleague next to you. Together with your
colleague, write 4 characteristics you envisage an inclusive basic school to have. Share
your collective thoughts with the whole class.
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You may now read on and note down any concerns you may have.

The following features are necessary if an inclusive school must attain the goal of making
learning meaningful to all learners and achieving improved learning outcomes.

Strong visionary leader

The head of an inclusive school should envisage a school that provides a platform for
manner of children to achieve quality learning outcomes and this must be in this schools’
vision statement. This means that the head must have the knowledge and qualities required
for the effective management of the school for all to benefit. They recognize learners
learning needs and work towards addressing them.
Physical structures are disability-friendly
The physical environment of an inclusive school is disability-friendly. School buildings
such as classrooms are accessible to all as there are ramps alongside staircase. Pavement
and walkways are built for mobility. Playgrounds are safe and free of objects that pose
obstructions in movement. Available washrooms are accessible and have doors and water
supply.
A school culture with a welcoming attitude
This school must create a culture where all learners irrespective of their backgrounds feel
welcome and belonging, are accepted and respected. A culture that is supportive and
appreciates as well as celebrates diversity.
Build an atmosphere of collaboration
An inclusive school cannot be built or maintained by the school alone. There must be
collaboration with relevant stakeholders such as health providers for the purpose of
assessment for disabilities and referrals. The school needs support from non-governmental
organisations to provide needed resources that the government may not be supplying
enough. School personnel make a concerted effort to reach out to all community members,

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leaders and organisations. School personnel actively involve parents, including those of
learners with disabilities and those from diverse backgrounds, in all school activities.
Parents are partners in their children learning which the school facilitates through holding
regular meetings with parents. Religious organisations support the school in many ways.
Hope you can mention how parents and the school community can be useful to inclusive
basic schools.
Democratic system
In an inclusive basic school, the ideas of everyone counts. The fact that no one person
knows it all, requires the leadership to harness the views and opinions of everyone for
effective decision –making. This way, subordinates will feel important for being included
and will in turn own the decisions and commit to its implementation.
Curriculum is inclusive
Learners with special learning needs may receive instruction in the general education
classroom and participate in extracurricular activities with necessary supports. There is a
well-design curriculum that factor the needs of all learners in relation to the curriculum
content, materials, methods and assessment. There are varieties of co-curricular activities
to meet the needs and interests of learners from different socio-cultural backgrounds.
Instruction and Assessment are Differentiated
Classroom instruction are relevant and meaningful to all learners. Teachers adopt
curriculum content and materials to the levels of learners and ensure the participation of
all, through differentiated instruction approaches. Teachers vary their teaching methods to
accommodate all learners’ interests, abilities and learning styles. All learners participate in
state and district assessments with needed or approved adaptations and modifications and
their data are used for accountability purposes and subsequent decision making. Teachers
allow learners to act and express knowledge and skills acquired in different formats.
Staff Trained in Inclusive Pedagogies
Professional development activities are aimed at building capacity by enhancing the skills
of all staff to promote learners’ access to the general education curriculum. All staff
participate in developing and implementing a school-wide behaviour plan. As such, they
must have the skill to do this effectively for all to benefit. The school must provide
opportunity for staff to receive training in inclusive practices, particularly, teachers must
be trained in the use of differentiated and interactive approaches so they can engage all
learners effectively. Teachers also engage in collaborative and team teaching approaches
to ensure that each learner receives the appropriate help when needed.

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Variety of Teaching and Learning Materials
Resources are available throughout the school, not just in specialized settings or classrooms
Effective instruction and learning is greatly influenced by the nature of materials used. In
inclusive classrooms, teachers use materials that are socially and culturally inclusive to
enhance all learners’ learning.
Well done, our cherished Learner Teacher! We have come to the end of this section.
In this section, we discussed the characteristics of an inclusive basic school. We mentioned
Strong visionary leader, disability-friendly infrastructure, a welcoming school culture and
a collaborative school atmosphere among others. We hope that the information in this
section will help you in your work.

Self-Assessment Questions
1. What is ‘inclusive education?
2. Explain ‘inclusive school’ in your own words
3. Identify and explain 5 characteristics of an inclusive basic school

41
SECTION 4: DUTIES OF THE HEADTEACHER IN INCLUSIVE BASIC SCHOOLS
Hello, our cherished Learner Teacher. You are welcome to the Fourth Section of the Second
Unit in this module. In this section, you will learn about the duties of the headteacher of an
inclusive basic school. We believe that your knowledge of the features of an inclusive
school from the forgone section will serve a good foundation for your understanding here.
We encourage you to relate the conversation here with the experiences you have from your
various schools. Relax and enjoy the discussion.
Section outline.
The Section will focus solely on:
Duties of the inclusive basic school head teacher.

Learning Outcome Indicators

On successful completion of this section,
you will:
Demonstrate knowledge and understanding 1. List any 4 duties of the head teacher
of the reasons for classifying the basic of an inclusive school
school as a formal organisation, and the 2. Describe the duties named above
duties of head teachers of inclusive Upper and give practical examples.
Primary Schools (NTS, 3e).

It is possible that some of you are heading schools and many of you teach under various
head teachers. We want you to write down 5 duties your head teacher performs in the school
in your jotter. Compare what you have written with your study partner and note down any
similarities or differences.
Activity: Pair Work
Work with your colleague sitting next to you and write down 3 duties the head teacher of
an inclusive school should perform to ensure improved outcomes.
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That was a good attempt. Now, compare with what we have here as you read on.

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Duties of the Head teacher in Inclusive Basic Schools
The head teacher in an inclusive basic school performs the following functions:
Curriculum, Instruction and Appraisal
The core mandate of the basic school is to provide instructional delivery services to learners
and ensure that all learners are achieving. The most important management task area of the
school head is that of curriculum, instruction and appraisal. By this we mean all the
activities in which staff of the school engage to plan, implement and evaluate an
instructional programme. In simple terms it means developing school programmes,
teaching or taking all learners irrespective of their diversity through such programmes and
evaluating their performance or success through different formats that reflect their
backgrounds. Curriculum, instruction and Appraisal is so central to the school’s operation
that the school head has a crucial administrative role to play.

• In order to fulfill the demands of the diverse school community, the head should first
assist in developing curriculum objectives and choosing curriculum content and
arrangement. The head teacher's involvement may be restricted in Ghana, where the
curriculum is centrally planned and created by the curriculum Research and
development Division (CDRR) in Accra. To the needs and goals of the inclusive
school community, he should be able to connect the school's programmes.
• The management responsibility of the school principal also includes assisting in the
procurement of supplies, tools, and equipment needed to carry out the lesson plan. As
a result, the head should give his teachers the proper timetables, textbooks, lesson plan
notebooks, pieces of chalk, braille, hearing aids, and other pertinent supplies.
• The head should make sure that teachers organize their lessons and deliver them well
so that every learner participates actively and understand. It is also possible to
implement attendance sheets that list the subjects and times of each class period and
require teachers to sign their names each time a lesson is delivered in class. This will
ensure that instructors show up on time and perform their duties. The head teacher also
has the responsibility of evaluating instruction. This entails planning for the
administration, scoring, and record-keeping of assessments such as tests, quizzes, class
activities, and examinations. The head teacher ensures that these assessment are
differentiated so that each learner can demonstrate what they know and can do in
formats they are comfortable in. Keeping a systematic oversight of instructors' work is
another aspect of evaluation, and hence a duty of the head teacher.
• The head is expected to provide for in-service education of the instructional personnel
(teachers) to enable them upgrade and update their knowledge, professional skills
(such as inclusive pedagogies and 21st century skills) and competencies. Apart from
providing in-service training personally in the school, the head can encourage teachers
to attend prescribed and promotion courses as well as attend subject association
meeting.

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Learners Inventory
The management task in this area of learners involve services rendered to learners aimed
at encouraging or supplementing regular classroom instruction.
• The head is expected to institute procedures for orientation of learners. Such
orientation of learners will particularly help new comers to adjust to or cope with their
new environment. One other task of the school administrator relates to establishing
school attendance and inclusion policy and procedures and maintaining a system of
child accounting. Thus, the head has to build some kind of census or enumeration of
learners to know the number of learners admitted into the school or the number who
attend school daily. The admission and attendance registers may therefore be important
tools here.
• The learners in the school are the main focus of management and staff. Services
provided to learners with the intention of supporting or enhancing participatory
classroom learning are part of the management responsibility in this area of education.
• The head is expected to put policies in place for learner orientation. Such learner
orientation will especially assist newcomers in adjusting to or coping with their new
environment. The establishment of school attendance and inclusion policies and
procedures as well as the upkeep of a child accounting system are two additional
responsibilities of the school administrator. The school's head must therefore conduct
some sort of census or enumeration of learners in order to determine the total number
of learners enrolled or the daily attendance rate. Therefore, the admission and
attendance registers may be crucial instruments in this situation.
• The development of policies and procedures for learner safety on school grounds is
another challenge. For instance, it is the responsibility of the head to make sure that
learners are provided with the necessary protection when they arrive at school and do
not flee.
• Other responsibilities include planning and managing extracurricular activities like
sports and games as well as offering counseling and advisory services. Additionally,
there is a requirement to establish organized processes for the ongoing evaluation and
reporting of learners' performance.
• The administration of the school should also have a primary focus on the provision of
welfare services, such as health services. This explains why some schools offer
conduct assessment on learners to identify those with disabilities or are at risk of
disability. They also provide first-aid kits to accommodate learners' health demands.
Additionally, special education should be made available to learners who may have
physical, sensory or mental disabilities.
• Maintaining order in the classroom is another responsibility of the school
administrator. He or she should come up with practical ways to handle disciplinary
matters and settle disputes fairly and without prejudice. A disciplinary committee can
assist in accomplishing this.

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Staff and Personnel management
If the basic schools are to achieve their objectives, the staff members are crucial
stakeholders who must be respected and cared for. The management responsibility for staff
members includes both teaching staff and non-teaching staff. The job of the basic school
head is to choose, inspire, manage, and keep up a competent staff. First, the head should
be able to evaluate the staffing situation at the school and take the appropriate action to
contact the District Directorate of Education (DDE) to seek any more teachers that are
required.
In basic schools in Ghana, teachers are often posted by the district offices of the Ghana
Education Service and the head teacher may have no choice but to accept them. However,
the head may at times have to put in a request for the kind of teachers needed without being
bias or discriminatory in choice. Once an appointment of a teacher to the school has been
concluded, it is the responsibility of the head to create a congenial atmosphere for the
teacher to feel at home.
It is also necessary that new teachers who are posted to the school are given orientation on
the schools’ inclusion strategies, assigned classes and other responsibilities based on their
experiences. For instance, it may not be advisable to place a newly trained teacher without
much experience in class one. Also to ensure that teachers work effectively and have job
satisfaction, the head should ensure that all the needed materials are made available to
teachers. The head teacher should also be conversant with personnel policies so that he can
brief his teachers on such issues as the terms and conditions of service and the code of
ethics for teachers.
Another area that requires the attention of the school is the supervision of his/ her teachers.
The task may involve observing teachers in their classrooms, evaluating their performance
and diagnosing their strength and weaknesses so as to help improve upon their
performance. It is the responsibility of the school head to stimulate and provide
opportunities for professional growth of staff personnel and encourage them to attend
prescribed and promotion courses. It is only when all these are done that the teacher will
be motivated to put up his/ her best.
Physical Facilities
Physical facilities of the school include building, play grounds, and any teaching-related
equipment and these must be disability-friendly. The first administrative task at hand is for
the head teacher to identify the resources that can be mobilized to satisfy the needs of the
school plant. For instance, if there is no football field or washroom in the school, the head
must mobilize community resources to provide such amenities.
More importantly, the head of the school needs to create an effective plan for the upkeep
and operation of the physical infrastructure. Thus, maintaining a safe, orderly, aesthetically

45
pleasing, and ready for teaching and learning school facility is the goal of day-to-day
operation or management of the school facility.
It is also very important for the head to ensure that such facilities are frequently maintained.
This is necessary since in Ghana people lack the maintenance culture and often leave such
physical facilities to deteriorate after long years of neglect.
Financial and Business Management
Another important management responsibility of the inclusive basic school head is
financial management. This involves budget creation, obtaining revenue, and controlling
expenses. Drawing the school budget, which can be viewed as a school programme
articulated in monetary terms, is the responsibility of the school head. The budget
comprises predicting the costs required to sustain the curriculum of the school (including
allocating funds for materials for learners with disabilities) and the anticipated revenue to
pay for those costs.
The primary sources of funding for basic schools include levies like Parents Associations
(PA) include dues, school fees, and income from extracurricular activities like farming. The
head must see to it that these levies and fees are paid and that accurate records are
maintained.
The head must also ensure that school funds are properly accounted for and that spending
is kept under control. In this regard, he or she must keep an eye on school purchases and
ensure that they are supported by receipts. The head should also see to it that money is
given to support the smooth operation of the school office.
Other Management task areas
The head of the school also carries out various other general administrative duties outside
of the management tasks categories mentioned above. Attending school events like
assemblies, plays, athletic competitions; planning and running meetings; and going to head
teacher conferences are a few examples of such general duties. Additionally, it could entail
maintaining learner records, writing reports for the district or local school boards, etc.

We have discussed a good number of duties that is required of an inclusive basic school
head teacher. However, it was not possible for us to cover every task expected of the
inclusive school head. Nonetheless, we believe that the information will assist you in your
work. Do consult other sources for additional information on this.

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 Self-Assessment Questions
1. List any 4 duties of the head teacher of an inclusive school
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2. With practical examples, describe any 3 duties of an inclusive school head.

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SECTION 5: ROLE OF THE INCLUSIVE HEADTEACHER IN MOBILISING
RESOURCES

You are cordially welcome to the fifth and last section of the second unit. You have learned
some of the duties expected the inclusive head teacher of an inclusive basic school. We are
aware that the school head need resources to be able to perform such duties well. In this
section, we shall examine some of the resources available in the school and in the
community. We shall also discuss how these resources can be used effectively to improve
teaching and learning.
Section outline
The Section Outline is made of the following sub-sections
• What is a resource
• Types of resources available in the community
• School and classroom resources
• Preparing resources for classroom teaching and
• The importance of resources to both the school and community.

Learning Outcome Indicators

On successful completion of this
section, you will:
Demonstrate knowledge and 1. What is a resource in the context of a school
understanding of the reasons for 2. List any 5 resources in your community that
classifying the basic school as a can be used to facilitate teaching and learning;
formal organisation, and the 3. Identify 3 types of resources available in the
duties of headteachers of school
inclusive Upper Primary Schools 4. Write 4 benefits of resources to both the
(NTS, 3e). school and the community

Activity2.5.1
As teachers or teachers to be, you should be aware that schools cannot operate without
resources. We want you to spend 3 minutes to think about what a resource is, then list 4
kinds of resources that are available in the school community for use by the school.
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How did you find this teaser? We hope you have good ideas you want to share. Good.
Read on and see if you got things right.

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Now let us first look at what a resource is.
What is a resource?
Etymologically, the term "resource" is related to the word "source". The "re" is a prefix
meaning again. When combined, the two imply something that is trusted to satisfy human
desire. Simply put, a resource is anything valuable that may be used to produce or
provide something, these include people, money, land, cash crops, and other valuable
items can all be used to do or produce anything, making them all resources. Resources
include labour, investment capital, fixed capital assets, technology, cultural and physical
qualities to mention a few.
We hope by this time you acknowledge that resources include the sun, rivers, lakes,
forests, and so on. After reading about resources, you have probably noticed also that
they can be divided into two categories can you name them?
Create lists of your human resources and non-human resources for in-person interactions.
Make a list of your human resources, as well as a separate list of your non-human
resources, for in-person discussions.
Types of resources in the school community
It is obvious from our examination of resources that resources can be divided into two
categories: human resources and non-human resources. The human resources refer to
the employees and their expertise while non-human resources refer to material and
financial resources. Each community has specific non-human and human resources.
Each of these resources can be gathered and deployed to the inclusive school's advantage.
Human resource
There are many various types of artisans in our neighborhood, including carpenters,
masons, shoemakers, jewelers, jewelers, drivers, tailors, dressmakers, and mechanics.
How can we utilize these human resources in the inclusive schools? Try to come up with
as many applications for them as you can.
Assume we are building a school structure: how might we utilize the skills and vigor of
these artisans? Assume we also need teachers to impart some of these trades to our
learners. Where do we find them?
What kind of knowledge would you wish to hire these professionals for? Write down
your comments in your jotters.

Let us now identify some of the human resources from your list who can help improve
and support teaching and learning in the inclusive school.

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Some of the inclusive school's curriculum and development programmes could be carried
out for very minimal cost or almost no cost at all if the school is able to connect with such
community resource people.
Assume that the school wants to enrich the learners' education by introducing them to
certain positive cultural values, traditions, and practices. If such a case arises, are there
various community resources that might be contacted to impart their knowledge to the
learners? For instance, local elders may be called to speak to learners on themes like the
history of the town, the history of the neighborhood festival, etc.

Activity2.5.2
Can you think of other curricular activities that community resource persons can be a part
of? For particular curricular needs, identify specific resource person in the community
who may be useful.
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After discussing some of the human resources and their potential applications, let us shift
our attention to non-human resources.
Non-Human Resources
Resources that are not related to people are referred to as non-human resources. Non-
human resources are material goods or things that are present without the presence of
people. People are able to view, interact with, and use them. Material resources are another
name for non-human resources. Examples include seeds, land, sun, and rain. Put the list of
human and non-human resources you wrote earlier side by side now.
Now, assuming that the school decides to build a farm in order to raise money through the
sale of the produce. What kind of resources (human and otherwise) would the school need
to mobilize for this project? Plan how these resources might be combined to form a
cooperative partnership so that they can work together to establish the school farm.
Mobilising Resources for the School
The head teacher of an inclusive Upper Primary School can mobilise community resources
in several ways. These include:
• Organising school drama e.g. School concerts
• Special harvests to raise funds for specific projects and programmes
• Showcase the schools achievements and challenges through the School magazine
• Special levies and special appeals from stakeholders

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• Other special Fund-Raising activities

School and Classroom Resources

Dear Learner Teacher, let us continue the conversation by focusing just on the resources
available to schools. What resources are accessible in the classroom and at the school for
teaching and learning? Take a piece of paper and list any 4 of these resources for discussion.

Now we will discuss them one after the other as follows:

Chalkboard: The most frequent teaching tool in schools and in the classroom continues
to be the chalkboard. The work of the teachers is visible on the chalkboard. Teachers should
make sure the chalkboard surface is smooth, keep writing on it horizontally, maintain a
consistent size and shape for the words and letters they write on it, and write clearly and
boldly. On the blackboard, maps should never be drawn in full detail.
Textbooks, reading materials, workbooks, etc. In both teaching and learning, books are
crucial. When teaching a certain subject, textbooks are highly helpful. Reading books helps
to teach reading and, in the end, supports and sustains literacy. Workbooks offer a wealth
of examples, exercises, quick assignments, and quizzes that support learner learning.
Teachers can accurately assess their learners' or learners’ performance levels using the
exercises in workbooks.
Other teaching and learning materials: A few examples of these are pamphlets,
newspapers, dictionaries and encyclopedias, flash cards, wall sheets, maps, atlases, and
globes. Learners and learners gain a lot more knowledge about the world and its countries
thanks to the maps, atlases, and globes. The soil, vegetation, precipitation, rivers, lakes,
minerals, and regions where certain case crops are grown are all covered in their study of
global geography. Encyclopaedias and dictionaries also assist in developing vocabulary
and broadening the information base of learners.

Check out the classroom supplies at whatever school you visit. Make a list of these
materials and ask the teachers how they are utilized. We shall discuss this at our next face-
to-face meeting.

Preparing Classroom Resources for Teaching

Schools may not always have the funds to purchase materials for instruction and learning.
We discussed how to mobilize community resources to develop the school and the
community in the early part of this section. We also considered the specific categories of
resources that can be obtained from within the neighborhood.

We will now concentrate on the classroom and examine the methods teachers might use to
produce low-cost or no-cost resources for teaching and learning.

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 The following local things, among others, can be utilized to construct teaching and learning
resources for the classroom: stones, bottle tops, pieces of plywood, pieces of fabric,
polythene bags, pieces of sticks, grains, newspaper cut-outs, clay, and various types of soil.
As teachers, you can guide your learners to creatively turn these local materials into useful
teaching resources.

Are you already thinking about what to make of these resources? That is a sign of the good
teacher in you! Before our next meeting, make time and visit a different school and speak
with the teachers and learners there. Ask them what local resources they use to support
classroom instruction and learning. Make a list of them for discussion with the whole class.

Our cherished Learner Teacher, we now want to concentrate on the significance of

resources for both the school and the community. What in your view is the benefit of
resources to the school and the community?

Importance of Resources to both School and Community

The benefits of resource to the community and the inclusive school include the following:
✓ Both the community and the school can advance through their effective and efficient
utilization.
✓ The inclusive school can continue its teaching and learning activities more conveniently,
quickly, and readily.
✓ The inclusive school can conserve money and raise money, particularly from within the
community, to meet its needs.
✓ In the classroom, efficient teaching and learning are encouraged. When teachers are able
to motivate their learners to be imaginative and creative, learning is enjoyable.
✓ When a school fully utilizes community resources, strong school-community relationships
are established and maintained. The inclusive school starts to be regarded as belonging to
the community, and vice versa.
✓

Our focus in this section was to help you to comprehend the idea of mobilizing school and
community resources. We talked about what resources are, the different kinds of resources
available in the community, classroom and school resources for effective teaching, and
ultimately the significance of resources for both the school and the community. We hope
that this information will assist you in your teaching.
Now, make time to answer the self-assessment questions provided below.

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Self-Assessment Questions
1. What is a resource?
2. What types of resources are there in the community that your school can make use of?
3. List any 4 resources in the school and classroom for teachers’ use.
4. Describe four (4) ways by which resources can be important to both the school and the
community.

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 UNIT 3
SCHOOLS OF ADMINISTRATIVE THOUGHTS AND THEIR EDUCATIONAL
IMPLICATIONS
Dear Learner Teacher, you are cordially welcome to the Third Unit of this module. In this
unit we will discuss Schools of administrative thoughts and their educational implications.
Numerous professionals and specialists from various fields have provided numerous
management approaches, often known as schools of management thought. Schools of
management thought are the numerous approaches to the study of management that have
been put forth by experts from diverse disciplines. It is important to know that these ideas
are essentially various points of view or management best practices that help managers
quickly and successfully to accomplish their organizational goals. Specifically, we will be
looking at the Scientific, Administrative, Bureaucratic Human Resource management
Approaches and their implication for inclusive Upper Primary School. We are hopeful you
will find the information here very useful for your work.
This unit is made up of the following sections:
SECTION 1: Scientific Management Approach and its School Implications
SECTION 2: Administrative Management Approach and its School Implications
SECTION 3: Bureaucratic Approach and its Implications
SECTION 4: Human Resource Approach and Its School Implications
SECTION 5: Theories X, Y and Z, and Their School Implications

Course Learning LEARNING INDICATORS

Outcomes (CLO)
On successful completion
of the course, you would
be able to:
3. Critically review the 3.1 Provide evidence of understanding of the different
various schools of schools of administrative thought.
administrative thought 3.2 Provide a clear evidence of application of the
and their applications to principles of schools of administrative thought to
the educational setting the school or educational settings.
(NTS 1a)

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SECTION 1: SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT APPROACH AND ITS SCHOOL
IMPLICATIONS

We warmly welcome, our dear Learner Teacher to the First Section of the Third Unit in
this module. You are done with the first two units of the module where you learned about
educational Management and Administration and the school as an organization. In this unit,
we will discuss with you some Schools of administrative thoughts and their educational
implications for inclusive Upper Primary Schools. In this particular section, we will focus
on the Scientific Management Approach to School Administration where we will describe
what it means, the principles governing its’ use and implications for inclusive Upper
Primary School. Do pay keen attention and share your ideas.

The Section Outline is made of the following sub-sections

• Meaning of Scientific Management Approach to School Administration
• Principles of Scientific Management Approach
• Advantages and Disadvantages
• Implications for the Inclusive Upper Primary School

Learning Outcome Indicators

On successful completion of this
section, you will:
Critically review the various 1. Describe what scientific management
schools of administrative approach is
thought and their applications to 2. State 4 principles of scientific management
the educational setting (NTS 1a) approach
3. List 2 advantages and 2 disadvantages of
scientific management approach
4. Write 4 implications of the approach for
inclusive Upper Primary Schools

During the latter part of the 19th century, the management techniques started to shift from
a daily problem-solving strategy to a more all-inclusive, comprehensive, long-term
approach to deal with the new managerial issues that had not been encountered before.
While the traditional administrative strategy focuses on the overall organization, scientific
management was more concerned with the productivity of the individual. Instead of
emphasizing work procedures, management principles are developed.

55
Do you think this step was a better approach? Note down your views before you read on.
Let us read on and see if the new approach was a better option.

Scientific Management Approach Explained

One of the key approaches in the area of administrative theory is the scientific management
approach. This theory was developed in response to the second industrial revolution, which
occurred in the latter half of the nineteenth century. With this strategy, an effort is made to
address issues facing complex organizations that have grown as a result of industrial
progress.

According to management theory, scientific management refers to methods used to

establish how a specific task can be completed in an organization. It places priority on a
worker's physical effectiveness (Harris, 2002, p. 377). "Scientific management is a
technique intended at manufacture of nonhuman technology imposing control over humans
or workers in a company," (Ritzer, 2010, p. 22). Today, scientific management is used by
the majority of businesses in the education sector.
Taylor (1911) established that applying the scientific management method to businesses
and institutions could notably improve worker productivity. Prior to the advent of scientific
management, tasks were carried out by specialized, skilled workmen who may have
undertaken lengthy apprenticeships. As a result, decisions about how tasks were carried
out in their specific field were made by them (Rule of Thumb). Scientific management
removed such autonomy and replaced it with breaking down skilled techniques into a series
of uncomplicated tasks that even the unskilled employee could be trained to perform.
Scientific management was characterized largely by methods for distilling work into
discrete, quantifiable tasks:
1. measuring observable outputs,
2. exercising heavy managerial control over workers,
3. minimizing costs by appealing to workers’ economic self-interests, and
4. engaging in systematically derived best practices and planning (Callahan, 1962).

Taylor’s system was swiftly taken up by business and, shortly thereafter, education with
several conditions.

Principles of Scientific Management Approach

The scientific management approach is based on certain principles that are to be achieved
in order to increase labour productivity. They include:
1. developing new standard methods for doing each job: Replacing the old Rule of
Thumb system with scientifically proven work methods. The need for creation of a
true science of work because there is only one "optimal way" to do every task. This

56
 can be done by conducting a thorough analysis of all tasks and replacing the
conventional wisdom technique (the “old rule of thumb”) with a scientific one.
2. scientific selection and training of every workers for optimal output. This entails
choosing the right individual for the right position or task through scientific selection
and the continual development of workers. Management has a responsibility to
examine each employee's personality, character, and performance in order to
determine their potential for growth and development.
3. developing a spirit of cooperation between workers and management. This is to
ensure that work is carried out in accordance with devised procedures. That "all work
will be lost until the work science and scientifically selected men are brought together."
He thought that although employees always wanted to work with management, there
was greater managerial pushback.
4. division of labour and shared accountability: There is emphasized on division of
labor and responsibilities between employees and management, as well as the
importance of shared accountability. In the end, mutual reliance, cooperation, and the
abolition of conflict and misunderstanding will be the outcomes.

Activity3.1.1
Without referring to the module, kindly take a piece of paper and write any two principles
of the scientific approach you just read about.
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That was a good attempt. You may now refer to the module to see if you got it right.

Importance of Scientific Management in Organizations

A number of importance accrue to scientific management in organisations. These include:
1. improvement of the profitability of the organization (school) by having every
employee (teacher) working according to the plan of management.
2. The reduction of the number of steps the employees would take to complete a certain
duty.
3. The specialization and division of labor amongst the employees.
4. Improvement of efficiency in the industry.
5. The breakdown of organizational processes into steps. This increases efficiency and
improves the quality of the products hence increasing productivity.

57
Limitations of Scientific Management in the 21st Century
Scientific management has some limitations. These are discussed below:
1. Taylor’s idea of deskilling the employees demotivates them and denies the highly
advanced and skilled employees their rights. This creates dissatisfaction in the work
place.
2. It has been asserted that money is a basic need for employees and that all social factors
are considered to motivate them. It also seems difficult to implement scientific
management because with specialization of employees in tasks businesses cannot
create competition in the market.
3. Again, with Taylor’s idea, employees are unable to go to the managerial seats. This is
because employees’ skills are ignored by application of specialization (Harris, 2002,
p. 377).
4. It limits the employees with advanced skills. This is because the skills are just wasted
in the highly simplified job operations. This not only denies the opportunity for skill
presentation but also their human rights as individuals.

Activity
Turn to your study partner next to you and share ideas of the possible implications of the
scientific management approach for inclusive schools. Write your thoughts in your jotter
before you read on.
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Compare what you wrote with what we have here. How did you fare?

Implications of Scientific Approach for the Inclusive Upper Primary School

The use of scientific management approach in administration has implications for the
inclusive Upper Primary School according to IvyPanda, (2022). These implications
include:
• A structural framework for management that outlines the roles of various
departments, teams, and individuals who should be employed in the organization.
• The creation of specialization within the organisation so that every person may focus
on a single area of production, increasing profitability. This gives the company a
greater chance to compete on a global scale. This results from the organization's
capacity to harness the efforts of all its constituents.
• Making the workers or employees efficient, to raise productivity. Thus, the
company's production capacity is increased. This aids in achieving all stakeholders'
goals.

58
• Formalising procedure for tracking time and motion inside the company
• School administrators emphasising collaboration and team work
• Administrators ensuring optimal coordination and flexibility by allowing employees
to work in the various departments of the institution.
• The examination of operations at work, and the most effective and efficient ways to
carry out job operations. These are done to increase the production of the
organization.
• Ensuring quality enhancement, which has significantly increased the company's
profitability (Giovanni, 2009, pp. 7-15).
• The need for continuous staff development and improvement in the use of
contemporary methods and techniques
• The lead and responsibility of management for all processes such as planning all steps
and monitoring performance in order to guarantee the effectiveness.
• The rationalisation and division of labour to ensure high productivity

Dear Learner Teacher, we discussed the scientific management approach to school

administration in this section. We said it is about the methods used to establish how a
specific task can be completed in an organization. We looked the merits and demerits of
its use as well as the implication for Inclusive Upper Primary Schools. We shall discuss
other approaches in the subsequent sections. Do take note of how different they may impact
the school system.
Do find time to assess yourself through the self-assessment test. See you in the section
where we will be looking at the Administrative Management Approach and its School
Implications.

Self-Assessment Questions
1. What scientific management approach in administration?
2. Write 4 principles of scientific management approach
3. State 2 advantages and 2 disadvantages of scientific management approach
4. Write 4 implications of the approach for inclusive Upper Primary School

59
SECTION 2: ADMINISTRATIVE MANAGEMENT APPROACH AND ITS
SCHOOL IMPLICATIONS

Hello, our cherished Learner Teacher. Welcome to the Second Section of the Third Unit in
this module. We began the unit by looking at the Scientific Management Approach to
School Administration. We explained the meaning, principles governing its’ use and
implications for inclusive Upper Primary Schools. In this section, we will concentrate on
the administrative management approach and its implications on inclusive basic schools.
Specifically, we shall describe the administrative management as a concept and as an
approach to school administration. We shall also look at its’ implication to for inclusive
Upper Primary school.

The Section Outline is made of the following sub-sections

• Meaning of Administrative Management
• Explain Administrative Management Approach to School Administration
• Principles of Administrative Management Approach
• Implications for the Inclusive Upper Primary School

Learning Outcome Indicators

On successful completion of
this section, you will:
Critically review the various 1. Describe what administrative management is
schools of administrative 2. Explain the administrative management
thought and their approach
applications to the 3. State 4 principles of administrative management
educational setting (NTS 1a) approach
4. Write 3 implications of the approach for
inclusive Upper Primary Schools

Have you heard of or used the term administrative management in conversation or write
up? What does it mean to you? Kindly share your thoughts with the class.

Let us consider our explanation of the term

What Is Administrative Management
Administrative management is a critical organizational function that ensures the
organization operates smoothly. The best administrative management definition alludes to
the importance of information in business, institution and corporate
management. Administrative management involves using people to manage and design

60
information and structure within the organization. In other words, it is the process of
monitoring daily operations to eliminate process interruptions and guarantee continuity.
Administrative management is especially important in today's fast-moving education
environment.
The primary focus of administrative management is information and people. Business
experts and organizational leaders accept that information is an integral component of the
management process. Additionally, people are valuable resources because they leverage
that information to add value to the business. The close correlation between people and
information explains why most managers and working professionals have an aspect of
administrative management within their job description.
Educational institutions must constantly review activities and processes to improve
reliability and efficiency. The business world is dynamic and volatile, meaning that trends,
behaviours, practices, needs, systems, and forces change very quickly. Access and response
to information must be excellent to keep up with this speed of change and maintain a
competitive edge. It is where administrative management comes in.

Activity
You have read our explanation of administrative management, kindly write your own
explanation of the concept in your jotter and read to the class.
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We hope got it right. Good, keep it up!

Administrative Management Approach

Max Weber, Henri Fayol, Mary Parker Follett, and Chester I. Barnard are among the
thinkers who have contributed to this school of thought. These theorists focused on the
significance of comprehending how an organization functioned and investigated the
information flow within an organization. This school of management theory primarily owes
its existence to Henri Fayol.
Fayol was a management practitioner who contributed his expertise to the discussion of
management concepts and functions. The Administrative School of Management adheres
to the traditional management approach, building on and extending the concepts of the
School of Scientific Management as they are approached from an institutional standpoint.
It has made multiple significant advancements in the field of business management science.
Henri Fayol (1841–1925), the founder of the Administrative School and a proponent of

61
Taylorist management, placed a strong emphasis on the study of administrative concerns,
claiming that to manage is to forecast and plan, to organize, to command, to coordinate,
and to control (Fayol, 1916, 1946).
Fayol felt that all managers carried out these duties and that they set management distinct
from the related fields of accounting, finance, and production. Henri Fayol, widely
recognized as the father of modern management, is credited with developing the
administrative management theory. The theory attempts to find the best way to design an
organization. According to Fayol's idea, a successful organization is characterized by;

• A formalized administrative structure.

• Delegation of power.
• Authority based on areas of responsibility.
• A clear division of labor.

Principles of Administrative Management Approach

Fayol creates a set of 12 scientifically grounded "administrative" principles that
successfully support business administration in addition to upholding the universality of
management science (Vagu & Stegăroiu, 2013, p. 127). They include
i. Division of work: Division of work and specialization produces more and better
work with the same effort.
ii. Authority and responsibility: Authority is the right to give orders and the power
to exact obedience. A manager has official authority because of her position, as
well as personal authority based on individual personality, intelligence, and
experience. Authority creates responsibility.
iii. Discipline: Obedience and respect within an organization are absolutely essential.
Good discipline requires managers to apply sanctions whenever violations become
apparent.
iv. Unity of command: An employee should receive orders from only one superior.
v. Unity of direction: Organizational activities must have one central authority and
one plan of action.
vi. Subordination of individual interest to general interest: The interests of one
employee or group of employees are subordinate to the interests and goals of the
organization.
vii. Fair remuneration of personnel where the price of services rendered by
employees — should be fair and provide satisfaction both to the employee and
employer.
viii. Centralization: The objective of centralization is the best utilization of personnel.
The degree of centralization varies according to the dynamics of each organization.
ix. Scalar chain: A chain of authority exists from the highest organizational authority
to the lowest ranks.
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 x. Order: Organizational order for materials and personnel is essential. The right
materials and the right employees are necessary for each organizational function
and activity.
xi. Equity: In organizations, equity is a combination of kindliness and justice. Both
equity and equality of treatment should be considered when dealing with
employees.
xii. Stability of tenure of personnel: To attain the maximum productivity of
personnel, a stable work force is needed.
xiii. Initiative: Thinking out a plan and ensuring its success is an extremely strong
motivator. Zeal, energy, and initiative are desired at all levels of the organizational
ladder.
xiv. Esprit de corps: Teamwork is fundamentally important to an organization. Work
teams and extensive face‐to‐face verbal communication encourages teamwork.
Implications of administrative management approach to inclusive schools
This implies that inclusive school administrators adapt the following strategies that
enhance effectiveness and efficiency. The goal of administrative management theory is to
provide a rational approach to the overall design of an organization.
a. The approach requires a formalized administrative structure.
b. There should be a clear division of labour.
c. Clear delegation of power and authority to administrators relevant to their areas of
responsibilities.
d. An administrator makes sure that every department in the organsation operates
effectively.
e. Administrators serve as a mediator between high management and the workforce.
f. They inspire the workforce and help them achieve the organization's objectives.
g. Administrators need to sharpen their communication skills
h. The need to work on their people management skills.
i. Strive to be an innovative thinker.

Fayol's theory is an applicable and reliable framework for guiding the administration
process. Although the functional approach to management has been questioned and
administrative management has been attacked for being rigid and inflexible, this school of
thought still has an impact on management theory and practice. Many of Fayol's
management concepts are still regarded as applicable when used with the freedom he
encouraged. The functional approach to management is still the most common method of
structuring management information.

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Self -Assessment Questions
1. What is administrative management?
2. In not more than five lines, explain the administrative management approach
3. List 4 principles of administrative management approach

64
SECTION 3: BUREAUCRATIC APPROACH AND ITS IMPLICATIONS
Welcome to the third Section of the Third Unit. We hope that the explanations given in the
first two sections were clear. Please note down any concerns for discussion at our next
meeting. In this section, we shall turn our attention to school of administrative thought –
the bureaucratic approach. We believe that some of you have some experiences to share
on this subject so we want to make the discussion more interactive. Relax and enjoy the
conversation.

The Section Outline is made of the following sub-sections

Bureaucratic Management Approach to School Administration
Features of Bureaucratic Organizations
Benefits of Bureaucratic Approach
Drawbacks of Bureaucracy
Implications of Bureaucratic Approach on Schools

Learning Outcome Indicators

On successful completion of
this section, you will:
Critically review the various 1. Describe the bureaucratic management approach in
schools of administrative your own words
thought and their 2. List 4 characteristics of Bureaucratic organizations
3. Identify 3 benefits and 3 drawbacks of bureaucracy
applications to the
4. Write 2 implications of bureaucratic approach for
educational setting (NTS 1a) inclusive Upper Primary Schools

The word bureaucracy may not be new to you. What does it mean to you and how will you
describe it? Take your jotter and write your thoughts on this. You are allowed to consult
the dictionary of internet.

Now, read our explanation on bureaucracy and bureaucratic management.

Meaning of Bureaucratic Management
The term bureaucracy has been broadly applied to refer to an approach for management
in corporations, institutions and governments. In fact, it is an organizational structure aimed
to achieve wide-ranging administrative tasks by methodically managing the work of many
people.
Bureaucracy can be explained as an organizational structure that has a lot of regulations,
standardized procedures, requirements, and processes. It also has lots of desks, a careful

65
division of labor and responsibility, distinct hierarchies, and professional, almost
impersonal relationships between staff members (Mulder, 2017).
Bureaucratic management can be described as a type of management strategy that
organizes and controls an organization's work using a set of rules and procedures. It's a sort
of management control where the organizational structure lays out everything that needs to
be done in clear, detailed directions.

You may now compare you explanation to ours. How did you fare? Now, let us turn our
attention to the approach of bureaucratic management.
Bureaucratic Management Approach
Max Weber proposed this concept of organization and management. Weber advocated that
bureaucratic organizations establish broad and comprehensive operating procedures for all
tasks of a routine nature (Lutzker, 1982). Bureaucratic management theory is made up of
two significant components. The first element is that bureaucracy involves structuring an
organization into a hierarchy. Secondly, a bureaucratic organization is administered by
precisely defined principles, rules and regulations (Merz, 2011). These bureaucracy
elements enable an organization to accomplish its goals. Simply, bureaucratic organizations
encompass a hierarchy of authority, specialized personnel, consistent principles, rules and
regulations, impersonal relationship and career orientation (Johnston, 2015).

A hierarchy is the structuring of the organization by management levels (Merz, 2011). For
instance, the CEO is above the deputy directors and the various heads of departments. Each
level depends on the other, with the ultimate leader providing the most directives. On the
other hand, the principles and decision making rules are a set of explicit procedures and
policies that determine how an organization should be governed (Johnston, 2015). A lot of
organizations – both public and private - rely on bureaucracy to function appropriately.
Even though it is argued that a bureaucratic organization is inefficient and leads to wastage
of resources, establishing one does help in creating a favourable workplace and ensures a
smooth workflow. The features of bureaucracy tend to acquire a lot of criticism, however,
there are plenty of benefits to this approach, particularly when the structure is established
with an emphasis on equality.

Activity 3.3.1
With your understanding of what bureaucratic management approach is, we want you to
think about some features of this approach, share with your colleague next to you, then
together, you write any tree of your ideas on a piece of paper and read to the class
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66
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
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That was a good attempt! Now read on and compare with what we have provided you.

Features of Bureaucratic Organizations

Bureaucratic organization must have the following characteristics according to Max Weber
(Weber, 1946):
a. Specialization and division of labour: Specific set tasks allow employees to
achieve their own objectives. Thus, every worker did not have to do many jobs, but
an exclusive task that was assigned to that worker. This helped to alleviate multiple
trainings and increase production. In educational institutions teachers are assigned
specific task ranging from teaching specific subjects to leading aspects of school
life such as head of department, sports, culture etc.
b. Rules and Procedures: Written policies help manage and direct the organization.
Managers spend majority of their time on how these policies help to guide and
function in the organization. These procedures would serve as a guide and resource
for the organization. In schools, various policies such as code of ethics for teacher
promote discipline.
c. A well-defined Hierarchy of Authority: Organizations need to have a chain of
command that is shaped like a pyramid. There are levels of supervisors and
subordinates. Each worker will answer to their corresponding superior. This would
assist in having a direct line of communication and better efficiency in the
organization. For instance, head teachers, assistant head teachers, etc. exist to give
schools chain of command and authority
d. Formal Communication: All decisions, rules, regulations, and behaviours are
recorded. This information and communication will be shared in terms of the chain
of command. Hence, everything is documented and accounted. There is no question
in what needs to be done, because it is written down.
e. Detailed Job Descriptions: The organization has clear and concise definitions,
directions, and responsibilities of each position. Each worker is aware of their tasks
and how to accomplish them.
f. Employment Based on Expertise: The organization will assign workers in
positions that would fit their competencies. Hence, workers will be placed in the
organization where they can maximize production. In schools staff are assigned
teaching task based on professional competence.
g. Impersonal Environment: Relationships need to be impersonal and separate so
that workers’ personal thoughts or feelings would not affect bias or decisions.
Workers just need to work and they do not need to interact with others.
Interpersonal relationships may jeopardize the organization’s outcomes. The

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 impersonal environment is about decision making which emphasize on rules and
statutes rather than personal affiliations.
h. Impersonal relationships between managers and employees: Managers should
establish an impersonal relationship with staff members to prevent personal bias
and partiality from influencing choices.
i. Competence: In order to encourage ability and merit as the major qualities of a
bureaucratic organization, competence, not "who you know," should be the basis
for all decisions made in regards to hiring, job assignments, and promotions.
j. Records: Good record keeping should be the hallmark of a bureaucratic
management approach. There is need to maintain complete files regarding all its
activities.
k. Career orientation: A bureaucratic organization chooses its employees based on their
skills. This facilitates the placement of the appropriate individuals in appropriate roles,
maximizing the use of human capital. In a bureaucracy, a career can be developed based
on knowledge and experience. It provides lifetime employment as a result. The proper
division of labor within a bureaucratic organization also enables personnel to specialize
further, allowing them to become authorities in their respective fields and substantially
enhance performance.

Benefits of Bureaucracy
The benefits of the bureaucracy are:
1. Generating structures that help to keep employees productive and safe. It builds rigid
regulations and policies that must be adhered to promote the welfare of an organization or
the safety of all stakeholders. (Johnston, 2015)
2. Facilitates adherence to the required responsibilities. People who work under such
approach often have a better way of handling their duties, have more self-guidance, very
progressive, and embrace creativity in ways that enhance the general good than those who
do not support bureaucracy.
3. Bureaucrats have higher levels of understanding, personal responsibility, intellectual
capability and self-control when compared to non-bureaucrats (Daft, 2021).
4. That it is characterized by job specialization, which enables people to have well-defined
rules for productivity (Johnston, 2015).
5. Everything is governed through a chain of directives in a way that facilitates equality and
teamwork within the structure.
6. When the bureaucratic approach is implemented effectively, the impersonal nature of
interactions that are established leads to a number of benefits (Labolo, 2013). It results in
a structure where equality is emphasized and stressed.

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 Activity3.3.2
Write any three characteristics and three advantages of bureaucratic approach in school
administration on a piece of paper. Do this without first referring to the module.
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Now, compare your answer to what is in the module and see how you performed.

Dear Learner Teacher, can you now think about the possible disadvantages of using this
approach? Write them down before we continue the discussion.

Drawbacks of Bureaucracy

Many scholars, theorists, and experts rarely have anything good to argue about the
bureaucratic approach, and their arguments may hold some certainty.

1. Bureaucratic rules and regulations seem to be obstructive when unexpected situations

occur.
2. Bureaucratic power is extremely autocratic, and strict observance to rules may prevent the
implementation of appropriate measures required to accomplish organizational objectives
(Labolo, 2013)
3. This type of organizational structure consumes massive resources and time. The fact is that
competent employees will continue demonstrating their best and if their incompetence
declines, the bureaucratic approach allows them to remain at that position (Ramesh, 2020).
4. Due to the applicable regulations and laws in a bureaucratic setting, there is less autonomy
to act or make personal decisions (Merz, 2011). Everything within a bureaucratic
organization is dictated by the set rules or laws. (Jones et al., 2016).

Implications of Bureaucratic Approach on Inclusive Schools

• If challenges are noted, then it becomes easier to solve them before the entire
organization or institution is affected by the issue
• Friendships do not influence the decisions that are made.
• This creates an environment where every person has the same opportunity to
prosper.
• The shear slow nature in resolving challenges makes it difficult to resolve
emergency situations
• Having so many rules and regulations controlled by a centralized authority only
slow an organization's ability to achieve the anticipated goals..

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 • If an employee or any other person violates the rules, even in situations that are
right to do so, they may find themselves experiencing tough repercussions, such as
job suspension or contract termination

Dear Learner Teacher, we are done with this section on bureaucratic management approach.
We were able to look at the meaning, approach and characteristics of Bureaucratic
Management. We also discussed the advantages and disadvantages in its’ use. We hope that
you enjoyed the discussion. Kindly assess your understanding by attempting all the self-
assessment questions.

Self-Assessment Questions
1. What is Bureaucratic Management?
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2. Identify 4 characteristics of bureaucratic organization

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…………………………………………………………………………………………………

3. List 3 merits and 3 demerits of using the bureaucratic management approach in an inclusive
school
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…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………

70
SECTION 4: HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT APPROACH FOR
INCLUSIVE SCHOOLS MANAGEMENT

You are warmly welcome, our cherished Learner Teacher to the Fourth Section of the Third
Unit in this module. In the previous sections of this unit, we discussed with you three
Schools of administrative thoughts and their educational implications for inclusive Upper
Primary Schools. We talked on the Scientific, administrative and bureaucratic Management
Approaches to School Administration. In this section, we will focus on the human resource
approach. Kindly pay keen attention and share your ideas.

The Section Outline is made of the following sub-sections

• Meaning of Human resource management
• Human Resource Management Approach
• Characteristics of the Human Resource Management Approach
• Implications for the Inclusive Upper Primary School

Learning Outcome Indicators

On successful completion of
this section, you will:
Critically review the various 1. Explain human resource management
schools of administrative 2. Describe Human Resource Management
thought and their applications Approach
to the educational setting (NTS 3. Identify 5 characteristics of the Human
1a) Resource Management Approach
4. Write 3 implications of the Human Resource
Management Approach for Inclusive Upper
Primary Schools

Have you realized that every organization, no matter how big or little, utilizes different
types of resources to operate? And that resources such as cash, assets, and materials used
achieve organizational goals are dormant unless they are put to use by humans? Yes. For
these financial and or material resources to bring the desired outcomes, people (human
resource) must put them into use. We hope you are beginning to see the importance of the
human resource management approach to inclusive schools management.

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What is Human resource management?
Human resource management is a systematic and well-thought-out approach to
managing employees in a business or organization effectively and efficiently so that they
give the organization a competitive edge. It is created to maximize worker performance in
support of an employer's strategic goals (Johnason, 2009) With a focus on systems and
rules, human resource management is largely concerned with the management of people
inside businesses (Collings & Wood, 2009). It is the process of hiring individuals,
providing them with the necessary training and compensation, creating policies pertaining
to them, and creating retention plans.
Human Resource Management Approach
The human resource approach, also known as the human relation approach, places a strong
emphasis on the formal organization and its structure, but more importantly it pays
attention to the social dynamics at work and employee behaviour. This approach places a
lot more emphasis on the workers themselves and their requirements. Human Resource
Management makes sure that the workplace has all necessary safety precautions for
employees, and improves staff confidence. Consequently, it decries treating staff like
robots, and rather enjoins school administrators and managers to be aware of the feelings
and emotions of employees.

Characteristics of the Human Resource Management Approach

There are a number of key interventions and practice used in HR management at systemic
or organizational level to improvements in the overall management of the teaching
workforce (Klerck, 2009). These are explained below for your comprehension.
a. Recruitment
A human resource manager must make sure that teachers who possess the qualifications
needed to instruct a certain course are hired. Recruitment also involves creating an action
plan with a focus to find and eliminate major barriers to better hiring, retention, and
professional dedication. The strategies for hiring teachers must take into account the fact
that the majority of prospective teachers are chosen from the nations higher educated labour
population. Therefore, managers need to make sure that only the teachers who are needed
are hired in order to support institutional goals.
b. Teacher Deployment
Teacher deployment is the processes of posting and assigning teachers to various schools
and duties. Assuring the efficient deployment of teachers throughout the country is a
crucial task for HR management in educational systems. In order to give all children an
equal opportunity to learn, learner-teacher ratios should be more or less constant across all
schools, although in some nations this does not happen (UNESCO 2019). In the inclusive
Upper Primary Schools, it the responsibility of the headteacher to allocate courses to
teachers based on their areas of specialization. Teachers are therefore assigned subjects that

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 they can handle. In the primary schools the headteacher assign teachers to the various
classes. It is advisable to post experience teachers to lower classes and in the kindergarten.
Heads as a matter of necessity should desist from sending newly trained teachers to the
lower primary and kindergarten except those trained as early childhood practitioners.

c. Teacher professional development

Human resource management practice by headteachers should seek to oversee strategies
to improve teachers’ professional knowledge and competence by:
✓ improving pre- and in-service teacher practicums.
✓ by improving the supervision of new teachers by school administrators, encouraging
reflection on trainees' teaching practice experiences, expanding opportunities for peer-to-
peer exchange and support, and expanding access to videos and other digital resources that
demonstrate effective teaching
✓ facilitating ongoing professional development programmes aimed at enhancing subject-
matter knowledge and pedagogical skills according to need, including the onboarding of
new teachers, consistent professional support provided in schools, ongoing in-service
training tailored to needs assessments, and peer support.
✓ developing standards for measuring professional development based on a teacher's
competency and effectiveness in enhancing learner learning and improving the school
(Bashir et al. 2018; World Bank 2018).
d. Teacher welfare
School leadership support associated with enhancing the abilities and motivations of the
teaching workforce needs to be individually targeted and repeated, with follow up
coaching, often around a specific pedagogical technique. Furthermore, head teachers
should support teachers in other areas such as assisting newly posted teachers to find
accommodation with support from PTA/SMC, providing a congenial atmosphere within
the school environment for teachers to feel accepted and valued is important tool for
eliciting from teacher their best effort
e. School Conditions
While a qualified teacher with subject-matter and pedagogical knowledge and skills is
necessary for effective education, there are a number of favorable conditions that are
thought to support effective teaching and learning, and which in turn help to raise learner
achievement levels and the motivation and commitment of the teaching workforce (Bashir
et al., 2018). The status of school working conditions should therefore be considered as
one part of human resource management. Across the school, these conditions include:

• A manageable learner-teacher ratio (no more than 50 learners per teacher)

• Basic services, such as toilets and electricity
• Access to textbooks for reading and mathematics
• A school climate free from abuse and violence.

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Implications of Human resource practices to Schools
Some implications of the human resource practices to schools are:
• It helps prevent and resolve problems or disputes between employees and
management.
• It helps administrators to focus on creating and enforcing policies that are fair and
consistent for everyone in the workplace.
• It implies that people strive for recognition and praise rather than merely financial
gain.
• There is harmonization of terms and conditions for all employees
• There is a shift from collective bargaining to individual contracts
• It ensures mutuality and teamwork
• It brings the drive to win the hearts and minds of employees to get them identify with
the organisation

Hello, our dear Learner Teacher. We have come to the end of this section. We learned the
meaning of human resource management and described the human resource management
approach. We also identified some characteristics of the human resource management to
include recruitment, teacher professional development, teacher deployment, teacher
welfare and school conditions. We concluded the section by looking at the implications of
the approach for inclusive Upper Primary Schools.

Now, make time to provide answers to the self-assessment questions. Do not forget to note
down any concerns for discussion at our next face-face meeting. You are encouraged to do
further reading to enrich your understanding.

Self-Assessment Questions
1. What is the meaning of human resource management?
2. In your own words and in not more than 4 lines, describe Human Resource Management
Approach
3. Identify 5 characteristics of the Human Resource Management Approach
4. Write 3 implications of the Human Resource Management Approach for Inclusive
Upper Primary Schools

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 SECTION 5: THEORY ‘X’ & THEORY ‘Y’ MANAGEMENT

Dear Learner Teacher, we warmly welcome you to the Fifth Section of the Third Unit. We
have discussed the human rights management approach in the section before this. In this
section, we want to turn our concentration on McGregor’s Theories X and Y. We shall
observe how the nature of staff in a school influences school administrators approach to
management. We know that you have a lot of lived experiences from your schools and we
encourage you to share with us. Now, get your jotter and pen ready and let us begin the
discussion.

The Section Outline is made of the following sub-sections

• Theory X management and assumptions
• Theory Y management and assumptions
• Dealing with Theory X and Managers
• Demerits of Theories X and Y
• Implications for the Inclusive Upper Primary School

Learning Outcome Indicators

On successful
completion of this
section, you will:
Critically review the 1. Describe McGregor’s Theory X management
various schools of approach
administrative thought 2. List 4 assumptions each of Theory X and Y
and their applications to 3. Identify any ways to deal with Theory X manager
the educational setting 4. Write 3 demerits of using Theory Y approach to
(NTS 1a) management
5. Write 3 implications of Theories X and Y for
managers of inclusive Upper Primary Schools

As teachers and prospective teachers, you must have heard about Theory X and theory Y
in administrative work. Have ever found out what they are talking about? Kindly share
your thoughts on these theories to the class.
The X and Y Theories of Management
Douglas McGregor, an American social psychologist, in his 1960 book 'The Human Side
of Enterprise' proposed his famous X-Y theory. The theories refer to two styles of
management – authoritarian (Theory X) and participative (Theory Y) and explains how
managers perceive and address employee motivation. Each of the two opposing

75
motivational methods assumes that the manager’s role is to organize resources [material
and human] to best benefit the company. However, beyond this commonality, the attitudes
and assumptions they embody are quite different.
McGregor's X-Y theory is a salutary and simple reminder of the natural rules for managing
people. According to McGregor, those managers who believe that team members dislike
their work and have little motivation, will likely use an authoritarian style of management
which has a very "hands-on" approach and usually involves micromanaging people's work
to ensure that it gets done properly. McGregor called this approach Theory X. On the other
hand, managers who believe that their subordinates take pride in their work and see it as a
challenge, such managers will more likely adopt a participative management style because,
they trust their people to take ownership of their work and do it effectively by themselves.
McGregor called this approach Theory Y.

Theory X Management
Theory X managers often take a pessimistic view of their people, and assume that they are
naturally unmotivated and dislike work. As a result, they think that team members need to
be prompted, rewarded or punished constantly to make sure that they complete their tasks.
In organizations that are managed this way work can be repetitive, and people are often
motivated with a "carrot and stick" approach. Performance appraisals and remuneration are
usually based on tangible results, such as sales figures or product output, and are used to
control staff and "keep tabs" on them.

According to McGregor (1960), organizations with a Theory X approach tend to have

several tiers of managers and supervisors to oversee and direct workers. Authority is rarely
delegated, and control remains firmly centralized. Managers are more authoritarian, and
they actively intervene to get things done. Although Theory X management has largely
fallen out of fashion in recent times, big organizations may find that adopting it is
unavoidable due to the sheer number of people that they employ and the tight deadlines
that they have to meet.

Assumptions of Theory X
Theory X management assumes that:
• Work is inherently distasteful to most people, and they will attempt to avoid work
whenever possible.
• Most people are not ambitious, and they have little desire for responsibility, hence
they prefer to be directed.
• Most people have little aptitude for creativity in solving organizational problems.
• Motivation occurs only at the physiological and security levels of Maslow’s hierarchy
of needs.

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• Most people are self-centered and as such, they must be closely controlled and often
coerced to achieve organizational objectives.
• Most people resist change.

Assumptions of Theory Y

• Employees can perceive their job as relaxing and normal. They exercise their physical
and mental efforts in an inherent manner in their jobs.
• Employees may not require threat, external control and coercion to work, but they can
use self-direction and self-control if they are dedicated and sincere to achieve the
organizational objectives.
• If the job is rewarding and satisfying, it will result in employees’ loyalty and
commitment to organization.
• An average employee can learn to admit and recognize the responsibility. In fact, he
can even learn to obtain responsibility.
• The employees have skills and capabilities. Hence their logical capabilities should be
fully utilized. In other words, the creativity, resourcefulness and innovative potentiality
of the employees can be utilized to solve organizational problems.

Characteristics of X-Theory manager [authoritarian]

Perhaps the most noticeable aspects of McGregor's X Theory is found in the behaviours of
autocratic managers and organizations which use autocratic management styles. The
characteristics include but not limited to:
• Issues deadlines and ultimatums
• Issues threats to make people follow instructions
• Unconcerned about staff welfare, or morale
• One-way communicator
• Does not invite or welcome suggestions
• Poor at proper delegating as they think giving orders is delegating
• Distant and detached

Activity3.5.1
Now, take your jotter and write 2 assumptions each of theories X and Y for discussion later.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
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That was a good attempt. Now think of how you can work with a Theory X manager.

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How to Manage an X-Theory Boss
It is not easy working for an X theory boss but there are ways of managing them upwards
and in a manner that avoids confrontation (unless you are genuinely being bullied) and
delivering results are key tactics.
✓ Since theory X managers are results-oriented, you need to orientate your discussions
and dealings with them around results - what you can deliver and when.
✓ They are facts and figures oriented - so cut out the incidentals, be able to measure and
substantiate anything you say and do for them, especially reporting on results and
activities.
✓ They generally don't understand or have an interest in human issues, so don't try to
appeal to their sense of humanity or morality.
✓ Set your objectives to meet their organisational aims and agree on these with the
managers
✓ Demonstrate that you are managing yourself and producing results

Theory Y Managers
Theory Y managers have an optimistic, positive opinion of their people, and they use a
decentralized, participative management style. This encourages a more collaborative, trust-
based relationship between managers and their team members. People have greater
responsibility, and managers encourage them to develop their skills and suggest
improvements. Appraisals are regular but, unlike in Theory X organizations, they are used
to encourage open communication rather than control staff. Theory Y organizations also
give employees frequent opportunities for promotion.

This style of management assumes that workers are:

• happy and work on their own initiative.
• more involved in decision making.
• self-motivated to complete their tasks.
• enjoy taking ownership of their work.
• seek and accept responsibility, and need little direction.
• view work as fulfilling and challenging.
• solve problems creatively and imaginatively.

Theory Y has become more popular among organizations. This reflects workers' increasing
desire for more meaningful careers that provide them with more than just money. It's also
viewed by McGregor as superior to Theory X, which, he says, reduces workers to "cogs in
a machine," and likely demotivates people in the long term. It might seem that the optimal
approach to human resource management would lie somewhere between these extremes.
However, McGregor asserts that neither approach is appropriate, since the basic
assumptions of Theory X are incorrect.

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Theory X and Theory Y in the Workplace
Most managers will likely use a mixture of Theory X and Theory Y but may find that you
naturally favour one over the other. You might, for instance, have a tendency to
micromanage or, conversely, you may prefer to take a more hands-off approach. You may
use a Theory X style of management for new starters who will likely need a lot of guidance,
or in a situation that requires you to take control such as a crisis. But you wouldn't use it
when managing a team of experts, who are used to working under their own initiative, and
need little direction. If you did, it would likely have a de-motivating effect and may even
damage your relationship with them.

The Disadvantages of Theory X and Theory Y

Both theories have their challenges. The restrictive nature of Theory X, for instance, could
cause people to become demotivated and non-cooperative if the approach is too strict. This
may lead to high staff turnover and could damage management reputation in the long term.
Conversely, if you adopt a Theory Y approach that gives people too much freedom, it may
allow them to stray from their key objectives or lose focus. Less motivated individuals may
also take advantage of this more relaxed working environment by shirking their work.

Implications of Theory X and Theory Y

The implications of theory X and Y include:
▪ Before the inclusive Upper Primary School head decides the type of approach to adapt,
they must strive to know their staff attitude towards work
▪ In inclusive Upper Primary School where staff are reluctant to institutional changes,
Theory X approach is encouraged.
▪ The tight control and supervision by X managers imply that staff are not encouraged
to be innovative.
▪ Theory Y Inclusive Upper Primary School managers must create and or encourage a
school environment which provides opportunities to staff to take initiative and self-
direction.
▪ The Y managers should give staff opportunities to contribute to organizational well-
being through decision making.
▪ Theory Y managers must ensure decentralization of authority and encourage teamwork
▪ Theory Y managers must harmonizes and match staff needs and aspirations with that
of the school.

We have so far discussed McGregor’s X and Y theories of management. We have looked

at the position and assumptions of each theory and how they operate individually. We also
looked at how manager can blend the two theories to achieve optimum results and the
implications of the theories to an inclusive basic school. We hope that the discussions are
useful to you.

79
 Now, you can assess yourself through the questions provided as follows:

Self-Assessment Questions
1. In not more than four line, describe McGregor’s Theory X management approach
2. List 4 assumptions each of Theory X and Y
3. Identify any ways to deal with Theory X manager
4. Write 3 demerits of using Theory Y approach to management
5. Write 3 implications of Theories X and Y for managers of inclusive Upper Primary
Schools

80
 SECTION 6: THEORY ‘Z’ MANGEMENT

Welcome to the Sixth and last Section of the Third Unit. In the fifth unit we learned about
McGregor’s Theories X and Y. we observed that each of them had some limitations. In this
section, we shall be discussing Ouchi’s Theory Z which tried to work on the flaws of
Theories X and Y. we shall consider the Theory Z’s assumptions about workers and
organization, the features of Theory Z managers and limitations that come with its use. We
can promise you an interesting conversation so stay glued.

The Section Outline is made of the following sub-sections

• Theory Z management
• Theory Z assumptions about works and organisation
• Features of Theory Z Managers
• Demerits of Theory Z
• Implications for the Inclusive Upper Primary School

Learning Outcome Indicators

On successful completion
of this section, you will:
Critically review the 1. Describe Ouchi’s Theory Z management
various schools of approach
administrative thought and 2. List 4 assumptions of Theory Z about workers
their applications to the 3. Identify any 5 features of Theory Z
educational setting (NTS 4. Write 3 demerits of using Theory Z approach to
1a) management in inclusive Upper Primary School
5. Write 3 implications of the approach for inclusive
Upper Primary Schools

Now that you have ideas of the X and Y Theories of management, what in your view is the
Theory Z about? Could it be supporting or opposing X and Y? Reflect a moment and
discuss your thoughts with your study partner next to you.

THEORY Z Management
In 1981, William Ouchi, of Japanese heritage wrote his book Theory Z: How American
Business can meet the Japanese Challenge. Theory Z represents a humanistic approach to
management. It is a break-away from McGregor's Theory Y. Whiles Theory Y is a largely

81
psychological perspective focusing on individual dyads of employer-employee
relationships, Theory Z changes the level of analysis to the entire organization.
According to Ouchi, (1981), the theory Z promotes stable employment, high productivity
and high morality and employee satisfaction. Theory Z organizations exhibit a strong,
homogeneous set of cultural values that are similar to clan cultures - homogeneity of
values, beliefs, and objectives. Although Theory Z organizations exhibit characteristics of
clan cultures, they retain some elements of bureaucratic hierarchies, such as formal
authority relationships, performance evaluation, and some work specialization. Proponents
of Theory Z suggest that the common cultural values should promote greater organizational
commitment among employees.
Theory Z Managers makes certain assumptions about workers.
1. They seek to build cooperative and intimate working relationships with their
coworkers. In other words, employees have a strong desire for affiliation.
2. Workers expect reciprocity and support from the company. According to Theory Z,
people value a working environment in which things like family, culture, and traditions
are considered to be just as important as the work itself.
3. Not only do workers have a sense of cohesion with their fellow workers, they also
develop a sense of order, discipline, and a moral obligation to work hard.
4. Given the right management support, workers can be trusted to do their jobs to their
utmost ability and look after for their own and others' well-being.

Activity 3.6.1
Dear Learner Teacher, we now want you to work with your colleague next to you and write
down your own description of Theory Z managers. Share this with the class.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………

That was a good attempt. Keep it up!!

Theory Z also makes assumptions about company culture. If a company wants to realize
the benefits described above, it need to have the following:
1. A strong company philosophy and culture: The company philosophy and culture
need to be understood and embodied by all employees, and employees need to believe
in the work they're doing.
2. Long-term staff development and employment: The organization and management
team need to have measures and programmes in place to develop employees.

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 Employment is usually long-term, and promotion is steady and measured. This leads
to loyalty from team members.
3. Consensus in decisions: Employees are encouraged and expected to take part in
organizational decisions.
4. Generalist employees: Because employees have a greater responsibility in making
decisions and understand all aspects of the organization, they ought to be generalists.
However, employees are still expected to have specialized career responsibilities.
5. Concern for the happiness and well-being of workers: The organization shows
sincere concern for the health and happiness of its employees and their families. It
takes measures and creates programmes to help foster this happiness and well-being.
6. Informal control with formalized measures: Employees are empowered to perform
tasks the way they see fit, and management is quite hands-off. However, there should
be formalized measures in place to assess work quality and performance.
7. Individual responsibility: The organization recognizes the individual contributions
but always within the context of the team as a whole.

Characteristics of Theory Z are as follows:

The characteristics of theory Z include:
1. Mutual Trust: According of Ouchi, trust, integrity and openness are essential
ingredients of an effective organisation. When trust and openness exist between employees,
work groups, union and management, conflict is reduced to the minimum and employees
cooperate fully to achieve the organisation’s objectives.
2. Strong Bond between Organisation and Employees: Several methods can be used to
establish a strong bond between the enterprise and its employees. Employees may be
granted lifetime employment which leads to loyalty towards the enterprise. During adverse
business conditions shareholders may forgo dividends to avoid retrenchment of workers.
Promotions may be slowed down.
As against vertical movement of employees greater emphasis should be placed on
horizontal movement which reduces stagnation. A career planning for employees should
be done so that every employee is properly placed. This would result in a more stable and
conducive work environment.
3. Employee Involvement: Theory Z suggests that involvement of employees in related
matters improves their commitment and performance. Involvement implies meaningful
participation of employees in the decision-making process, particularly in matters directly
affecting them. Such participation generates a sense of responsibility and increases
enthusiasm in the implementation of decisions.
4. Integrated Organisation: Under Theory Z, management is also focused on sharing of
information and resources rather than on chart, divisions or any formal structure. An
integrated organisation puts emphasis on job rotation which improves understanding about
interdependence of tasks. Such understanding leads to group spirit.

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5. Coordination: The leader’s role should be to coordinate the efforts of human beings. In
order to develop common culture and class feeling in the organisation, the leader must use
the processes of communication, debate and analysis.
6. Informal Control System: Organisational control system should be made informal. For
this purpose emphasis should be on mutual trust and cooperation rather than on superior-
subordinate relationships.
7. Human Resource Development: Managers should develop new skills among
employees. Under Theory’ Z, potential of every person is recognized and attempts are
made to develop and utilise it through job enlargement, career planning, training, etc.

Activity 3.6.2
We have come far in this section. Let us see how much knowledge you have gained. Kindly
take a piece of paper and write any 4 characteristics of Theory Z management. Share this
with your study partner near you.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
We hope you are happy with what you did. Good! Let us now turn our attention to the
limitation of this management approach

Limitations of Theory Z:
Theory Z is associated with the following limitations:
• Provision of lifetime employment to employees to develop a strong bond between
organisation and employees may fail to motivate employees with higher level needs.
It merely provides job security and may fail to develop loyalty among employees.
• Participation of employees in the decision-making process is very difficult. Managers
may dislike participation as it may hurt their ego and freedom. Employees may be
reluctant to participate due to fear of criticism and lack of motivation. Even if they sit
along with management they may contribute little unless they understand the issues
and take initiative.
• Since the theory does not prescribe any particular organizational hierarchy, it could
lead to chaos at the workplace
• It allows for employees to be disloyal to the company, even after getting job security
• It may not be possible to develop a common culture in the organisation because people
differ in their attitudes, habits, languages, religions, customs, etc.
• Theory Z is based on Japanese management practices. These practices have been
evolved from Japan’s unique culture. Therefore, the theory may not be applicable in
different cultures.

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Implications for Inclusive Upper Primary Schools

• Top managers serve as facilitators rather than decision-makers.

• A reduction in conflicts and increase in cooperation results in high productivity
• An employee may leave the organisation when better employments are offered to
him by some other enterprise.
• Involvement of all employees may also slow down the decision-making process.
• When employees become disloyal at a point, they begin to focus on their individual
interests over the organisations’ goals.

In this last section of unit 3, we looked at Ouchi’s Theory Z management approach. We

learned about the theory’s assumptions about employees, and about the organization. We
also looked at the features of Theory Z managers and some flaws. We want to conclude by
saying that theory Z does not provide complete solution to motivational problems of all
organisations operating under different types of environment. Nonetheless, it serves as both
a theory of motivation and a philosophy of managing.

Congratulations our cherished Learner Teacher. We have come successfully completed this
unit too.
Try your hands on the following questions and see how much understanding you have on
this last section.

Self-Assessment Questions
1. In not more than four line, describe Ouchi’s Theory Z management approach
2. List 4 assumptions of Theory Z about workers
3. Identify any 5 features of Theory Z
4. Write 3 demerits of using Theory Z approach to management

85
 UNIT 4
LEADERSHIP IN INCLUSIVE BASIC SCHOOLS
Hello, our cherished Learner Teacher. We welcome you heartily to the Fourth Unit in this
module. We first want to congratulate you for your contributions that made our discussions
in the forgone units successful. In this unit, our concentration shall be on inclusive school
Leadership. We shall conceptual issues in leadership, some definitions and importance of
leadership in inclusive schools. We shall also discuss curriculum and instructional
leadership, leadership theories and forms and sources of leadership power. We shall end
the unit by looking at the attributes of a good leader. We are hopeful that you will share
your lived experiences to enhance comprehension.
This unit is made of the following sections:
SECTION 1: Conceptual Issues in Leadership
SECTION 2: Definitions and Importance of Leadership.
SECTION 3: Curriculum Leadership and Instructional Leadership,
SECTION 4: Leadership Theories
SECTION 5: Forms of Leadership and Sources of Leadership Power
SECTION 6: Attributes of a Good Leader of Inclusive Upper Primary Schools

COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES AND INDICATORS

Course Learning LEARNING INDICATORS

Outcomes (CLO)
On successful completion of
the course, you would be
able to:
Demonstrate knowledge 4.1. Exhibit evidence of understanding of the concept
and understanding of the of leadership, and identify the theories of
concept of leadership, and leadership.
apply the theories and 4.2. Provide a clear evidence of understanding and
styles of leadership in application of the styles of leadership.
achieving the goals that are 4.3. Provide clear evidence of understanding
defined for inclusive leadership qualities that relate to their
schools. (NTS,1d) experiences. 4.4. Show a clear application of
appropriate strategies adopted by headteachers of
inclusive basic schools to achieve the goals of
inclusive schools.

86
 SECTION 1: CONCEPTUAL ISSUES IN LEADERSHIP
We warmly welcome you, our dear Learner Teacher to the first section of Unit Four in this
module. To begin a unit on leadership in inclusive schools, it is appropriate to have good
understanding of how the concept leadership is defined. There are different opinions about
what leadership is, Hence, different authors describe the concept with different words such
as trait, skill, behaviour, influence, ability and relationship. In this section, we will attempt
to help you understand why each of these attributes are used on leaders. Keep your fingers
crossed, and stay focused.

The Section Outline is made of the following sub-sections

• Leadership as a Trait
• Leadership as an Ability
• Leadership as a Skill
• Leadership as a Behaviour
• Leadership as a Relationship
• Leadership as an Influence

Learning Outcome Indicators

On successful completion of this
section, you will:
Demonstrate knowledge and 1. Identify three ‘attributes’ of the concept
understanding of the concept of leadership
leadership, and apply the 2. Explain leadership as a:
theories and styles of leadership i. Trait
in achieving the goals of ii. Ability
inclusive schools. (NTS,1d) iii. Skill
iv. Behaviour
v. Relationship
vi. Influence

We think that as teachers and teachers to become, you have heard and used the term
leadership in your conversations. What are some of the key words often used in explaining
what leadership is? Note these words down and share with the class before we continue.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………

We think that was a good teaser to begin the section with.

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Let us read on some of the concepts used to define leadership. These concepts put together
constitute the attributes of leadership.

a. Leadership as a Trait
A trait is a consistent set of personality characteristic that appear in many different contexts
(but not all situations). According to Kanodia and Sacher (2016), traits are the recurring
and habitual patterns of thoughts, feelings, behaviour, emotions, or activities that set one
person apart from another. These patterns are assumed to be reasonably dependable and
unique through time and across settings. Traits are the distinguishing qualities or exclusive
collection of characteristics, particularly of an individual's unique nature. The term "trait"
refers to an innate quality that relates to any extreme position on the behavioral dimensions
that are not fixed.

People will therefore view you as a leader if you possess the appropriate leadership
qualities. Behaviors of leaders are governed by traits. Excellent leadership qualities are a
must. The characteristics of effective leaders are referred to as leadership traits.
Some Important Leadership traits include:

• Willingness to Listen
• Perseverance
• Honesty
• Selflessness
• Decisiveness
• Trust
• Integrity.

b. Leadership as Ability
Ability is the trait or talent that a person possesses that enables them to perform a task.
Leadership is the ability of a person to persuade, inspire, and enable others to contribute to
the success of an organization. Leaders are individuals who have the ability to question the
status quo. They typically think outside the box and have their own way of doing things
and solving problems.
A person who possesses leadership abilities, in Duggal's (2022), estimation has the ability
of being a leader. While "ability" is commonly used to describe an inherent talent, it may
also be learned. For instance, some people have the natural ability to be good a leader,
while others learn their leadership abilities via practice and hard work. Outstanding
leadership is a product of an individual's abilities. The ability of an individual or group to
lead others toward the achievement of goals and objectives is referred to as leadership.

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 c. Leadership as a Skill

The capacity and talents that people exhibit to manage operations, direct initiatives, and
direct their subordinates toward a goal are known as leadership skills.
Leadership skills include the capacity to inspire groups of people, assign tasks, take
criticism, and find solutions. When you have leadership skills, you can motivate and rally
others to work toward a common objective. These skill enable you to inspire others,
regardless of your role as a manager, project leader, or team member. Leadership is a blend
of many diverse skills, not just one.
Some valuable leadership skills are:

• Decision-making skills
• Problem-solving
• Communication
• Flexibility
• Creativity
• Relationship building

d. Leadership as a Behaviour
Leadership is a behaviour. It is what leaders do when they hold a position of leadership.
The behavioral dimension looks at how leaders behave toward others in different
circumstances. Leadership behaviours can be seen, in contrast to qualities, aptitudes, and
skills. We can observe a leader's leadership style while they are in charge. Task behaviours
and process behaviours are the two general types of behaviours that leaders most frequently
exhibit, according to research on leadership.
Leaders utilize task behaviours to complete the task at hand whiles they employ
relationship (process) behaviours to make people feel at ease with other group members
and in their current circumstances. Since leadership calls for both task and process
behaviours, it can be difficult for leaders to figure out how to mix both most effectively in
order to accomplish a task.

Activity 4.1.1
Dear Learner Teacher, close your module and take a piece of paper. Write your
understanding of how leadership is a: trait, skill and behaviour
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………

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…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
You must be eager to know whether you got it right, so go ahead and refer to the module.
Now let us move on.
e. Leadership as a Relationship

When leadership is viewed as a relationship, it transforms into a process of collaboration

between leaders and followers. A leader influences and is influenced by followers, and both
the leader and the followers are influenced by the environment in which they live. When
leadership is described in this way, it is made accessible to all. Thinking of leadership as a
relationship implies that leaders must take followers' interests into consideration. Because
leadership is a relationship, a leader must have a thorough understanding of their followers'
interests, beliefs, views, attitudes, and motives.
Usually, a relationship exists between the person leading and the group being led. People
are able to collaborate meaningfully to generate leadership outcomes thanks to their social
interactions with one another. The communication is likely to be task-based and
relationship-oriented in a situation with strong power and authority, such as an entry-level
employee working with the CEO.
The reliance on electronic communication in the current day has caused certain changes in
how leaders develop relationships. Meetings and conversations that happen on the spur of
the moment inspire creativity. The face-to-face interactions foster relationship building in
addition to invention. To be a great leader you need to create a connection with the people
you intend to lead.
f. Leadership as an Influence
Leadership is a process of influence. If you define leadership as an influence process, it
suggests that it is not a quality or skill that a leader possesses, but rather an influence
between a leader and their followers. Since leaders influence followers, influence is
essential to the leadership process. It is therefore not surprising that Ken Blanchard
indicated that "The key to successful leadership today is influence, not
authority." (Todorovic, 2020). Thus, the ability to influence others and modify their
behaviour in a particular way is known as leadership influence. Effective leaders can
employ tactics that aim to change the attitudes, values, and beliefs of others. Leadership is
more akin to a social influence process that maximizes the efforts of others in pursuit of a
common objective. It has its roots in social influence and needs human resources to produce
the desired results. The influence in leaders is the one factor that causes those nearby to
begin following them (Todorovic, 2020).
Todorovic, (2020) discovered six (6) pillars of leadership influence that can improve one’s
leadership and the leadership of others as:

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 • Attitude
• Value
• Connection
• Passion
• Openness
• Time

In this section we looked at concepts of used in defining ‘Leadership’. This will enhance
our understanding of leadership. We learned why leadership is described as a trait, skill,
ability, and influence among others. We hope that this information will form a solid base
for your comprehension of the various definitions give to leadership in section two.

Self-Assessment Questions
1. Explain leadership as a:
i. Trait
ii. Ability
iii. Skill
iv. Behaviour
v. Relationship
vi. Influence

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SECTION 2: DEFINITIONS AND IMPORTANCE OF LEADERSHIP

You are heartily you to the Second Section of the Fourth Unit in this module. In the just
ended section, you were introduced to concepts that describe the nature of leadership. With
such background, we shall in this section, introduce you to various definitions of leadership
and the importance of leadership in basic schools. We are hopeful that, you will be able to
define leadership in your words by the time we end the section.

The Section Outline is made of the following sub-sections

• Definitions of Leadership
• Importance of Leadership

Learning Outcome Indicators

On successful completion of this section, you will:
Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the 1. Define Leadership in your
concept of leadership, and apply the theories and words
styles of leadership in achieving cordial school- 2. Identify 4 importance of
community relationships (NTS,1d) leadership

With your understanding of concepts related to leadership, we believe you are better placed
to give your own definition of leadership. Reflect for 1 minute and share your
understanding of ‘leadership’ to the class.

Good. We hope you did not have any difficulty doing this.
Let us now read the definitions provided for discussion

What is Leadership?
Leadership as a concept defies a single universal definition. Various authors have defined
the term differently. For this reason, we shall share a number of definitions given to
leadership for discussion.
Leadership is the ability to persuade others to seek defined objectives enthusiastically. It is
the human factor which binds a group together and motivates it towards goals. Thus
leadership is the process of influencing the activities of an individual or a group for goal
achievement in a given situation.
Naylor (1999) defined leadership as the process of influencing employees towards the
achievement of organisational goals and organisational excellence. Similarly, Bennis in

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Anyamele (2004) has argued that leadership is a creative enterprise, involving all in
innovating and initiating.
In another scenario, Attridge (2009) explained that leadership is the relatively consistent
pattern of positive behaviour applying to leader-follower interactions which is essential for
promoting employee engagement
On his part, Peretomode (1991) has indicated that in education, leadership is the ability to
inspire the whole system by effectively influencing the behaviours, thoughts, and feelings
of those working within it, and ensure their vision by creating a strategic alignment across
the whole system.
Dugal, (2022) has described leadership as the deliberate planning, visioning, and strategy-
driven production of positive, non-incremental change.
Adaptive decision-making and employee empowerment are two more critical qualities of
a leader. People most frequently associate leadership with one's place in an organization.
However, leadership has nothing to do with management, titles, or personal objectives.
To conclude, leadership is not about a position that one holds; it is a journey and a process.
Leadership is about dealing with people, and the dynamics between those people. Meaning,
the better you can influence people, the higher your leadership ability. Leaders can be found
in every area of life be it business, volunteer work, parenting or teaching.
Activity 4.2.1
Kindly turn to your colleague next to you to discuss and write down 4 importance of
leadership in an inclusive school and share with the whole class.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Now, compare your answer with what we have here as you read through.
Importance of Leadership
Emeritus (2022) highlights the following importance of leadership:

Change makers: Leadership's function is changing. In the past, leaders were thought of as
bosses or managers who adhere to the reward and punishment system. However, they are
increasingly recognized as people who spread change within a group or organization. They
are selfless people who employ abilities like intuition, analytics, and others to stay abreast
of current market trends that support the organization's goals and objectives. They employ
innovative and creative procedure to improve the work environment, procedures and
outcomes.

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Goal-oriented: Leaders are viewed by experts as serving as a link between employers and
employees. Great leadership are thought to create a personal bond with co-workers in order
to define a goal or target that indirectly meets the demands and objectives of the workforce
and the organisation. Staff are inspired and driven to use their limited resources to
accomplish company objectives.
Conflict resolvers: Leaders are skilled at resolving disputes between various stakeholders,
despite the fact that they may not have much influence within their organisation. They are
better able to comprehend others' perspectives and find solutions because they have a
thorough understanding of human behaviour and cognition.
Instigates a positive work environment: Many organisations use leaders who are
perceptive and effective communicators to keep staff. The major reason is that qualified
and talented leaders foster a favourable work environment, boosting employee motivation
and job satisfaction.
Leads organizational development: In any work environment, it is thought that effective
leaders drive organizational development and progress. They have the necessary skill sets
to boost numerous processes, productivity and efficiency, which spurs the expansion and
improvement of organizations. Employing leaders with a variety of abilities that provide a
competitive edge and boost organizational effectiveness and productivity has been
encouraged.

Now that you are aware of the factors that make leadership a crucial component of
organisations, we hope you can assess your school leadership to see if they engage in what
we have discussed here. We want to encourage you to support your school leadership to
succeed in their tasks.

In this section, we looked at various definitions of leadership. We also discussed some

importance of leadership to include: change makers, goal-oriented, conflict resolvers and
organizational development.

Self-Assessment Questions
1. In not more than 3 lines, write your own definition of Leadership
2. Identify 4 importance of leadership

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 SECTION 3: CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTIONAL LEADERSHIP

Our cherished Learner Teacher, you are warmly welcome to the Third section of this Unit
in the module. You learned various definitions of leadership in section two and we hope
that you can now give your own definition of leadership. In this section, we shall turn our
attention to various forms of leadership such as curriculum leadership and instructional
leadership. We shall also look at gender and leadership as well as the difference between
leadership and management. You cannot afford to miss the discussions on these issues. Get
ready with your jotter and pen and let us have a conversation.

The Section Outline is made of the following sub-sections

• What is Curriculum Leadership?
• What is Instructional Leadership?
• Gender and Leadership
• Differences between Leadership and Management

Learning Outcome Indicators

On successful completion of this
section, you will:
Demonstrate knowledge and 1. Describe Curriculum Leadership
understanding of the concept of 2. Explain what Instructional
leadership, and apply the theories and Leadership is
styles of leadership in achieving the 3. Explain Gender and Leadership
goals of inclusive schools (NTS,1d) 4. Differentiate between Leadership
and Management

What is curriculum?
Curriculum is often mentioned anytime education comes under discussion. It thus suggests
that curriculum and education are intricately interwoven. Like many other concepts in
education, curriculum has been described in many ways; it therefore defies one acceptable
definition. This is attributable to the fact that it has been perceived by different people from
different fields of specialization. For instance, what a politician means by it may be
different from that of an industrialist or an educationist.
Though, no single definition for curriculum has been widely accepted, the use of those that
cater for all educationally valuable and worthwhile activities have been preferred. Some of
such definitions are that;

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• The curriculum is the sum total of all educationally valuable experiences that learners
undergo under the guidance of a school or other training institutions (Adentwi, 2005).

• All the learning which is planned and guided by the school whether it is carried on in
groups or individuals, inside or outside the school (Kerr, 1968).

• A plan or programme of all experiences which the learner encounters under the
direction of a school (Tanner & Tanner, 1995).

• It is the totality of the experiences of children for which schools are responsible
(Gatawa, 1990).

Curriculum is crucial to the educational process because it involves choosing and

presenting knowledge, molding character, establishing attitudes, and forming behavioural
patterns in the learner. It can be viewed as the plan for education and what the inclusive
school wants learners to gain from the resources provided to them.
There are many ways to categorize curricula. We have the Official curriculum, the formal
curriculum and "hidden curriculum" just to name a few.
What is Curriculum Leadership?

Curriculum leadership involves collaboration with many different people to ensure that the
curriculum is aligned both horizontally and vertically. The primary duty of school
leadership is the establishment of the curriculum. The curriculum establishes all other tasks
in a school, whether they are performed by the department head, the team leader, the
principal, the assistant principal for curriculum, or the top classroom teachers (Wiles, 200).
Curriculum leadership focuses on providing guidance and assistance for the creation,
implementation, and evaluation of curricula. It establishes the objectives that the official
curriculum should work toward and makes clear the assumptions and interpretations that
are made in the hidden curriculum. The curriculum leader makes sure that any decisions
regarding the curriculum are made with the learners' learning in mind. In this way, the
leader encourages the school community and gives teachers the authority to define
precisely what is expected of the learner. Curriculum leadership involves paying attention
to curricular programmes, schemes of work, materials, objectives, assessment and even
lesson plans.
Functions of Curriculum Leader
The curriculum leader establishes the goals, determines the tasks, creates the plans,
executes the plans, and then assesses the outcome. These duties clearly call for the
curriculum leader to adopt a collaborative strategy by assembling teams of individuals with
the necessary skills to contribute to the curriculum work in an efficient manner. The
curriculum leader is always required to give all the details about the development and

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implementation of the curriculum. As a result, he or she must guarantee good team
communication.
The curriculum leader should routinely oversee and coordinate the work being done
utilizing the review and validating technique.
Central to the roles of curriculum leaders is to ensure improvement in the performance and
learning experiences of all learners irrespective of any differences.
The maintenance of the curriculum is another crucial duty of the curriculum leader. When
the curriculum is introduced in the basic schools it must function. To guarantee that the
school implements the curriculum as intended, there are certain tasks and responsibilities
for the school head to carry out as a curriculum leader. Among the roles of the leader in
maintaining the curriculum are:
• keep the school community abreast with national and international curriculum
initiatives
• ensure that staff comply with legal policies and guidelines affecting the curriculum
• conduct regular review performance and learning of learners
• Encourage continuous learning among staff by institutionalizing Professional Learning
Community (PLC)
• develop job description and hire qualified staff

Activity 4.3.1
Now you understand what curriculum leadership is. Before you read on, kindly share your
thoughts on the meaning of instructional leadership and state 3 roles of a of instructional
leaders.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
That was a good attempt. Now, you can read on and compare your answer to what we have
for you on instructional leadership.
Instructional Leadership
In an effort to improve academic and non-academic school results as well as close
achievement disparities between different learner subpopulations, government
policymakers, and the general public are calling for increased public school accountability
and assessment (Heck & Moriyama, 2010).

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The public has begun to pay more attention to school performance as a result of school
authorities' interest in educational accountability.

Instructional leadership is highly concerned with teaching and learning, including the
professional development of teachers as well as learner progress (Southworth 2002). The
emphasis in Bush and Glover's (2002) formulation is on the influence process's direction:
The focus of instructional leadership according to the authors is on the interactions between
teachers and learners as well as on teaching and learning. The impact of leaders is directed
through instructors at learner learning. Instead of the influence process itself, the direction
and impact of influence are emphasized.
There are two fundamental ideas in instructional leadership, one of which is specific and
the other generic (Sheppard, 1996). These are:
a. The narrow definition of instructional leadership include activities like doing classroom
observations that are directly relevant to teaching and learning.
b. The broad definition of instructional leadership involve all the leadership initiatives
that indirectly impact learner learning, such as shaping school culture and timetabling
practices. These could be seen as qualities of leadership that affect the standard of the
curriculum and instruction given to learners.

Hallinger and Murphy (1985, 1986) has created a comprehensive model of instructional
leadership which had three broad areas as:
➢ Defining the school's mission
➢ Overseeing the instructional programme and
➢ Fostering a conducive learning environment
These three major areas of the instructional leadership construct are further delineated into
ten (10) sub areas as follows:
i. Defining the school's goals
ii. Disseminating those goals
iii. Coordinating the curriculum
iv. Overseeing and evaluating instruction
v. Keeping track of learners' progress
vi. Preserving instructional time
vii. Offering rewards to teachers
viii. Offering rewards for learning
ix. Fostering professional development
x. Maintaining high visibility.

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Now let as look at how the three broad areas are sub-divided into the ten specific leadership
tasks.
Defining the school’s mission is the first broad area. This was created to reflect the
headteachers’ accountability for jointly creating a context-based vision for the school,
making sure other school stakeholders are aware of it, and making sure teaching and
learning activities are in line with the vision. Framing the school’s goals and
communicating the school’s goal are the two sub-divisions. These two leadership
techniques highlight the importance of the headteachers in developing a distinct school
vision with a strong emphasis on improved learner learning.
Overseeing the instructional programme. the second major area which suggests that the
headteacher will be involved in supervising, monitoring, and assessing instruction- and
curriculum-based activities in the school. The headteacher is responsible for curriculum
coordination, instruction supervision and evaluation, and tracking of learners’
progress. In the contemporary school system, where coordination, supervision, and
evaluation are crucial to enhancing the quality of learning outcomes, these functions of the
headteacher are recognized as the major leadership responsibilities.
Fostering a conducive learning environment is the third broad area which emphasize the
significance of establishing and sustaining a school atmosphere that supports instructional
strategies and fosters teachers' professional growth. Protecting instructional time,
fostering professional development, maintaining high visibility, giving rewards for
teachers, and offering incentives for learners are the five leadership roles that go into
creating a positive learning environment. These leadership responsibilities are thought to
be extremely powerful practices of the school head.
Let us now turn our focus on yet another interesting subject; gender and leadership.
What comes to your mid when you hear the ‘gender and leadership’. Hope you are not
thinking of women and girls in leadership positions. Well, read carefully the information
below and write your ideas in your jotter for discussion late.
Gender and Leadership
A lot of nations, including Ghana, have made efforts to encourage gender parity in
leadership and decision-making. Data reveals that women continue to be underrepresented
in academic and administrative leadership and decision-making roles in universities and
basic schools across Ghana despite the policies and actions adopted. A major goal of gender
equality programmes in organizations, including educational institutions, is to improve
gender balance in leadership and decision-making.

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 According to the European Institute for Gender Equality (EIGE, n.d.), a school's leadership
that prioritizes the success of all employees and learners should show curiosity about.

• How females and males are equitably represented in decision-making at the top of the
organisation, across departments and administrative functions.
• What types of barriers (structural, institutional and individual barriers) prevent females
and males from being represented in decision-making and leadership positions.
• What targets could be set to promote gender balance in leadership and decision-making
roles across the institution.
• Which strategies could be employed to achieve set targets and who should lead the process.

Gender Responsive School Leadership

✓ Leadership and management demonstrate gender responsive leadership and management
skills through school policies and guidelines (E.g. unbiased school policies and rules)
✓ Ensure that teachers use gender responsiveness in teaching and learning process
(pedagogy, interaction, language and assessment)
✓ Ensure that non-teaching staff adopt non-discriminatory practices towards female and
males in their various work areas
✓ Capacitate all learners to demonstrate acceptance and respect for both sexes in their
everyday practice (selection of leaders, assignment of chores, challenging traditional
gender roles etc.)
✓ Encourage co-curricular activities (such as gender club) for continuous interaction and
learning among learners
✓ Develop/adapt sexual harassment policy and effectively implement to foster learners’
safety and security.
Activity 4.3.2
Now, close your book and take your jotter and a pen. Work with your study partner next
to you and write 4 things a leader should do to make a school gender responsive.
Compare your work with another pair close to you. Collectively share your points with
the whole class.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
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…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
That was a good exercise and we guess you enjoyed working with your colleagues. Let us
now turn our attention to leadership and management.

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Differences between Leadership and Management
Both management and leadership roles are attainable simultaneously. However, keep in
mind that just because someone is a great leader, it doesn't necessarily follow that they will
also be a great manager, or vice versa (Dugal, 2022).

What characteristics separate these two roles? Kindly turn to your study partner next to you
and discuss and put your thoughts together on this.

We will now discuss those variables that separate leadership from management.

Dugal (2022) identified the following differences between leadership and management:
Differences in mandate
Controlling an organization, a group or group of people in order to accomplish a specific
goal is the responsibility of management. Leadership on the other hand, is the capacity of
a person to persuade, inspire, and enable others to contribute to the success of an
organization.
Differences in Vision
Leaders are regarded as Visionaries. They outline the techniques to advance organizational
development by considering the current state of their organization, their desired future
state, and the team's role in getting them there. In contrast, managers work to realize
organizational objectives by putting into practice procedures like staffing, organizational
structuring, and budgeting. The planning, organizing, and implementation tactics used to
accomplish the goals set by leaders are directly related to the vision of the manager.
Organizing vs Aligning
Managers use tactical strategies and coordinated efforts to accomplish their aims. Long-
term objectives are divided into manageable chunks, and resources are arranged to achieve
the desired result. However, rather than how to delegate tasks to others, leaders are more
focused on how to align and influence people. They accomplish this by helping people
visualize their role in a larger context and the potential for future growth that their actions
may provide.
Differences in Queries
Leaders often ask what and why questions. They challenge and question the right to
overturn decisions that might not be in the best interests of the team. When the organization
encounters a difficulty, a leader will take the initiative and ask, “Why did this occur?” and
"What did we learn from this?" On the other hand, Managers are not compelled to evaluate
and examine failures. Their job description places a strong emphasis on asking How and
When, which helps them make sure that plans are executed properly. They would rather
maintain the current situation and make no effort to change it.

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 Position vs Quality
While the term "leader" has a more unclear connotation, "manager" is a role that often
refers to a specific job inside the structure of an organisation. Your deeds bring about
leadership. If your actions motivate people to perform to their highest potential, you are a
leader. What is your title or position doesn't matter. A manager, on the other hand, holds a
position that entails a set of predetermined duties.

Well done, dear Learner Teacher, for completing this section successfully. We looked at
who a curriculum leader is and what they do. Additionally, we described instructional
leadership and their roles. We went further to look at gender and leadership and we outlined
some differences between leadership and management.
We hope you enjoyed the discussion, and that the information given here is useful to you.
Please, do not forget to try your hands on the self-assessment questions.

Self-Assessment Questions
1. What is your understanding of Curriculum Leadership?
2. Describe what Instructional Leadership is.
3. How would you explain gender and leadership?
4. Identify 3 differences between leadership and management.

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SECTION 4: LEADERSHIP THEORIES (TRAIT, BEHAVIOURAL,
SITUATIONAL)
Dear Learner Teacher, welcome to the Fourth Section of the Fourth Unit in this module.
With your understanding of what leadership is and some roles of leadership in inclusive
schools, we want to introduce you to some leadership theories in this section. We shall help
you to understand what leadership theories are, some types of leadership theories and how
they operate in the school system. Kindly get your writing materials to take down some
key point for later revision.

The Section Outline is made of the following sub-sections

• What are Leadership Theories?
• The Trait Theory of Leadership
• Behavioural Theory of Leadership
• Situational Theory of Leadership

Learning Outcome Indicators

On successful completion of this section,
you will:
Demonstrate knowledge and 1. Explain what leadership theories are.
understanding of the concept of 2. Explain trait theory of leadership
leadership, and apply the theories and 3. Describe the behavioural theory of
styles of leadership in providing leadership
4. Describe situational theory of
effective leadership to inclusive
leadership
schools. (NTS,1d)

From your other studies you might have been become aware of what a theory is. Here, our
focus is on leadership theories. What ideas do you have regarding this? Kindly note down
your thought on this in your jotter for discussion later.

What are Leadership Theories?

Leadership researchers have set out to determine why successful leaders come in such a
wide variety. In order to develop practical and comprehensive leadership theories, they
examine questions such as whether leaders are born that way or develop via practical skills,
about the leadership styles that people value most, and so on. Leadership theories provide
detailed, well-researched, and reasonable ideas about what characteristics define good and
effective leaders. To generate broad theories on the topic, theorists research various
leadership philosophies as well as specific leaders. There are various leadership theories,
just as there are various types of leaders. A few are:

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• Trait theory
• Behavioural theory
• Situational theory
• Great Man theory
• Contingency theory
• Transactional theory
• Transformational theory
• Relationship theory

For the purpose of our discussion, we will focus on a few of them. We however encourage
you to read on the others that would not be covered in our discussion. You could share your
concerns at our next face-face meeting.
A. Trait theory of Leadership

According to the trait theory of leadership, certain inherent characteristics frequently

produce effective leaders. A person may possess these traits without necessarily possessing
significant leadership abilities.

The basic tenet of the trait approach to leadership is the notion that outstanding leaders
possess natural leadership qualities rather than skills that can be acquired. People enter this
world already possessing all the qualities necessary to excel as leaders. Furthermore,
according to the trait theory, outstanding leaders cannot be created or trained.

Despite the fact that the 20th century was devoted to studying traits, two surveys conducted
by Stogdill (1948) provide a comprehensive overview of this methodology in terms of the
following eight traits: intelligence, attentiveness, insight, responsibility, initiative,
persistence, self-confidence, and sociability (Northhouse, 2016). The average person in
a leadership capacity according to the author, differs from the average group member.

Northhouse’s five major leadership traits are briefly explained below.

1. Intelligence
Some issues to examine under intelligence are:
• Intellectual ability is positively related to leadership
• Leaders tend to have higher intelligence than non-leaders.
• If the leader’s IQ is very different from that of the followers, it can have a
counterproductive impact on leadership.
2. Self-Confidence
• Leadership involves influencing others, and self-confidence allows the leader to feel
assured that his or her attempts to influence others are appropriate and right

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 3. Determination
• People with determination are willing to assert themselves, are proactive, and have the
capacity to persevere in the face of obstacles.
• Being determined includes showing dominance at times and in situations where
followers need to be directed.
4. Integrity
• Leaders with integrity inspire confidence in others because they can be trusted to do
what they say they are going to do.
• They are loyal, dependable, and not deceptive. Basically, integrity makes a leader
believable and worthy of our trust.
5. Sociability
• Sociability is a leader’s inclination to seek out pleasant social relationships.
• Leaders who show sociability are friendly, outgoing, courteous, tactful, and
diplomatic.
• They are sensitive to others’ needs and show concern for their well-being.

The characteristic approach understanding trait theory places all of the attention on the
leader and ignores the situation or the followers. Comparing the trait approach to other
theories, such as situational leadership or leader-member exchange (LMX) theory, is
therefore easier theoretically. The trait approach primarily focuses on the characteristics or
traits and who possesses them. This strategy emphasizes the need for a leader to possess a
specific set of qualities in order to have effective leadership. The key to the leadership
process is the leader and her or his personality (Germain, 2008).
Activity 4.4.1
Kindly take a piece of paper and write 3 major leadership traits you know and 2 strengths
of using this approach. Turn to a colleague near you and share your ideas with each other
and then with the whole class.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
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…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………

That was a good attempt. Let us move on and look at the strengths of this approach.

Northhouse (2016), identified the following strengths and weaknesses of the trait approach
in the 7th edition of his book-“Leadership Theory and Practice”.

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Strengths of Trait Approach
Trait theory has a number of strength. These include:
➢ It builds on the premise that leaders are distinctive.
➢ Unlike all other leadership theories, Trait Theory may use up to a century of
research to confirm the approach.
➢ Trait Theory provides benchmarks for identifying leaders.

Weaknesses of Trait Approach

The weaknesses of this approach are:
➢ It’s leader-centric, and only focuses on the leader, not the follower or the situation.
➢ Some findings are ambiguous and subjective leading to uncertainty in the validity
of the approach.
➢ Much of the Trait Theory research fails to look at how specific traits influence
leadership outcomes such as performance, productivity, and employee satisfaction
➢ Since traits are innate, it becomes impossible for training and development
purposes.

Most of the time, traits can be used to identify effective leadership in a particular
circumstance, but traits by themselves often do not adequately explain what effective
leadership is. There is no perfect collection of traits that can be discovered, despite the fact
that well-known leaders from around the world exhibit distinctive leadership character
traits. As a result, it appears that the best leaders possess an untold uniqueness inside them.
It might be the attitude.

Dear Learner Teacher, let us now turn our focus to yet another interesting leadership theory,
the behavioural.
B. Behavioral theory

In contrast to innate abilities, the behavioural theory of leadership emphasizes how a

person's environment shapes him or her into a leader. Conditioning is one of the key ideas.
It makes the claim that an individual will be more likely to behave or lead in a particular
way as a result of how the environment reacts to conduct. According to the belief, anyone
can lead if they exhibit leadership qualities.
The management perspective of "behavioural leadership theory" judges leaders by the
behaviours they exhibit at work. According to proponents of this notion, mastering a
particular set of behaviours is all it takes to be an effective leader. Learning about
behavioural leadership theory can be helpful if you are looking to improve your leadership
effectiveness or introduce a new leadership style.

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According to the behavioural leadership theory, a leader's effectiveness is determined by
their behaviour rather than by their inherent qualities. The theory contends that leaders are
created, not born, as such anyone who can learn and apply specific characteristics can
become an effective leader.
The behavioural leadership theory has a lot of relevance in the inclusive upper primary
school system. For instance, the theory's evaluation standards can be used to assess any
professional leader, including headteachers, heads of department and even classroom
teachers. According to this view, all leaders are capable of growing and learning as a result
of embracing positive habits and putting them into practice at work. The notion of
behavioural leadership also exhorts leaders to be conscious of their own behaviour and
understand how it impacts the output and morale of their team.
Types of behavioural leaders
There are several key styles of behavioral leadership. Each one involves a different sets of
behaviour and could be more or less successful in different work settings. The types of
behavioural leaders are:
People oriented
Task-oriented
Status-quo
Indifferent
Dictatorial
Opportunistic
Sound and
Country club
Activity 4.4.2
Close your books and turn to your study partner near you. Discuss together and come out
with what situational leadership is. Write 4 feature s of a situational leader and share with
the entire class.
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You can now compare your answers to what is in the module.

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 C. Situational theory

The situational theory of leadership contends that the finest form of leader is one that can
change their approach depending on the circumstance. They may react to a situation by
giving orders, coaching, persuading, taking part, delegating, or in any other way they deem
appropriate.
A situational leader is one who chooses the optimal method of leading by taking into
account the particulars of each situation or scenario and the level of experience of their
followers. In this type of leadership, the leader's management abilities are only partially
important; Instead, the ability to adapt to the workplace and develop leadership skills is the
most important requirement. A leader's capacity to adjust to the demands of the team also
enables the team and the leader to share the same corporate objectives. The situational
leader keeps a close eye on interactions and maintains ongoing engagement to keep the
leader informed of the organization's progress toward success.

Situational leadership is a style of leadership in which team members' needs or the

workplace environment are taken into account while modifying the leader's style. The
contingency school of thinking, which contends that a leader's behaviour is dependent on
the situation, gave rise to situational management. This approach suggests that a leader
should alter the needs of the team or the workplace in order to improve leadership abilities.
Adapting to situational leadership requires a variety of abilities, including:
• Informing
• Selling
• Participating and
• Delegating.
✓ When monitoring the team's performance and frequently conveying their goals,
leaders put this skill into practice by informing or telling.
✓ When a leader wants to motivate a team to perform better, they use the selling skill.
✓ The situational leader uses the participation skill to encourage staff to fulfill
assigned responsibilities.
✓ Giving assistance on completed task is a component of delegation.
The successful use of the above named abilities to enable a leader to adjust
appropriately in every given situation is a prerequisite for the situational leadership
model.

Characteristics of Situational Leaders

The following are some of the characteristics that are observed of situational leaders:
They are effective in giving directions. The instructions given determine whether the
teams in organizations are successful. A competent situational leader encourages

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effectiveness through tight supervision of an organization's operations and successfully
accomplishing duties.

They are flexible: Situational leadership requires a leader to be adaptable because it

involves ongoing leadership adaptation to fit the present work environment.

Participation is encouraged: Situational leaders identify areas of team competency where

the team still needs to hone the confidence and disposition required to execute the work by
utilizing participative leadership abilities. The leader demonstrates how they can use their
work completion skills. Encouragement is the key to a team's independence and efficiency.

They are adept to delegation. A facilitator can assess each participant's skills and provide
work based on their independence in completing tasks. As the leader engages more people,
delegation is improved through leadership change.

They are capable of ongoing coaching. Situational leaders can encourage the team's
growth and independence by ongoing evaluation of the team and new working conditions.

They are honest about what they learn. Situational leaders aim to adapt to the team's
needs and new working environment. Instead of concentrating on a leadership style that is
advantageous to them, honesty helps to make their adaption easier and more effective when
they are in charge of leading and assigning tasks.

Our concentration in this section was on leadership theories. We learned what leadership
theories are, as well as some leadership theories such as trait theory, behavioural theory
and situational theory of leadership. We also looked at the characteristics of each of these
theories. We hope you now have some appreciation of these theories and that you can use
any of them at certain points in your teaching carrier. Do test yourself with the questions
provided below and let us discuss your performance at the next face-to-face meeting.

Self-Assessment Questions
1. What are leadership theories?
2. Write short notes on the following theories of leadership:
i). Trait theory

ii). Behavioural theory

iii). Situational theory

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SECTION 5: FORMS OF LEADERSHIP
Welcome our cherished Learner Teacher to the Fifth Section of the Fourth Unit in this
module. You have learned a lot on leadership in this unit. In the just ended section you
were taken thorough leadership theories where you learned about trait, behavioural and
situational leadership theories. In this section, we shall turn our focus on forms of
leadership such as transactional and transformational leadership. We shall also discuss
sources of leaders’ power. We encourage you to pay keen attention and share your ideas
and lived experiences with us.

The Section Outline is made of the following sub-sections

• Transactional Leadership
• Transformational Leadership
• Sources of Leadership Power (Reward, Coercive, Expert, Referent, Legitimate /
Traditional)

Learning Outcome Indicators

On successful completion of this section,
you will:
Demonstrate knowledge and 1. What Transactional Leadership is.
understanding of the concept of 2. Describe Transformational Leadership
leadership, and apply the theories and 3. Identify 3 Sources of Leadership
Power
styles of leadership in providing
effective leadership in inclusive
school(NTS,1d)

There are various forms of leadership. We shall discuss a number of them here. We want
to begin with transactional leadership. What comes to your mind about this form of
leadership? Kindly share your thoughts with the class.
Transactional Theory
Transactional theory of leadership, commonly known as "management theory," is a system
of incentives and sanctions. It sees effective leadership as being hierarchical and results-
driven. Transactional leaders reward people who achieve goals and punish others who do
not, placing an emphasis on discipline and order above creativity.
Instead of encouraging broad change, transactional leaders focus on the short term by
providing rewards for specific behaviours. Those that employ this management approach
could additionally micromanage to make sure their standards are adhered to.

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Every type of leadership includes a strategy for inspiring workers. With transactional
leadership, employees are motivated through a system where they receive rewards for
achieving predetermined goals or tasks. This system is widely used and well-known. One
fundamental type is the commission-based compensation or performance-based bonuses
offered to sales personnel based on the quantity of closed transactions. The motivation is
given in the form of money since the boss or company wants the employee to ensure sales.
Both the leader and the follower are content with this transaction of performance for
payment.

Characteristics of Transactional Leadership

Transactional leadership is imbued with the following characteristics:

• Focused on short-term goals

• Support structural policies and procedures
• Follow rules and do things correctly
• Flexible
• Very left-brained
• Have the tendency to be trendy.
• Changed Opposition.
• Revel inefficiency

Benefits of Transactional Leadership

Transactional leadership is useful to organisations in the following ways:
• Provides a vague structure for large organizations, systems require repetitive and
infinite renewable environments.
• Quickly achieved short-term goals.
• The prize and the fine are defined for the workers.
Challenges with transaction’s leadership
Organisations run by transactional leaders may encounter the following challenges:
• Employees are rewarded only at practical levels such as money or money.
• Creativity is limited because the goals and intentions are already set.
• Private initiatives are not rewarded.

We can observe how you are enjoying the discussion on transactional leadership, however,
we want to pause here and consider another leadership style which may be of interest to
you – transformational leadership.

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Activity 4.5.1
How will you describe transactional and transformational leadership in your own words?
Kindly put your ideas on a piece of paper and share with the whole class.
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Transformational Leadership
The transformational theory of leadership, commonly known as "relationship theory,"
suggest that, effective leadership results from a strong bond between team members and
the leader. Through their energy and passion, transformational leaders encourage and
inspire. They serve as an example for their teams, promoting teamwork, diplomatic
communication, and effective delegation (Herrity, 2021).
A leader that practices transformational leadership according to Herrity, (2021) inspires and
motivates their team to bring about positive change within their organization. This
leadership approach can boost team morale, encourage quick invention, improve dispute
resolution, lower attrition, and build a sense of team ownership. Through the process of
transformational leadership, followers and leaders can both become more motivated and
morally upright.
The following are what a capable transformative leader do. They:

• Provide encouragement
• Sets clear goals
• Provides recognition and support
• Models fairness and integrity
• Provokes positive emotions in others
• Inspires people to achieve their

Through transformational leadership, both the leader and their team develop their skills
and qualities as individuals. To benefit from this model, a leader must understand the steps
involved in the process as well as how transformational leadership can benefit the entire
team. Transformational leaders focus on intellectual stimulation, idealized influence,
inspirational motivation and individual consideration.

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Characteristics of transformational leaders
Some of the most common characteristics among successful transformational leaders
include

• Mutual respect
• Organizational skills
• Creativity
• Responsibility
• Integrity.

Now, turn to your elbow partner to your right and discuss how the leader demonstrates
each of the above characteristics in the discharge of their duties. Share your findings with
the larger group.

It is vital to intellectually challenge those you lead, consider each of their individual ideas
carefully, motivate them and serve as a positive role model. For example, you should be
willing to do whatever it is you require of your team.
You need to have an inspiring and crystal-clear vision for the future of your team if
transformational leadership is to be successful. Some of the fundamental beliefs and skills
of the people being led may be reflected in the purpose of transformational leaders.
The leader can assist people in determining how they can contribute to the leader’s vision
for the organisation once the leaders’ purpose is well communicated to them. It is also
possible that transformative leaders can assist teams that are having difficulty cooperating
and emphasizing their shared mission.

Activity 4.5.2
Where do leaders get their power from? Without opening your module, discuss with your
colleague sitting next to you and come out with any 3 sources of leaders power.
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That was a good attempt. You may now compare your thoughts with what we have here.

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Sources of Leadership Power
Success in leadership depends on the effective use of power, but what really is power? Are
influence, coercion, control, and authority other names for "power"? Being a leader
includes having authority, so it is crucial for leaders to know what kind of power they are
wielding.
Famous social psychologists John R. P. French and Bertram Raven carried out a study in
1959 and came to the conclusion that there are five different types of leadership power.
These are:
• Coercive power
• Expert power
• Legitimate power
• Referent power and
• Reward power

Is Authority the same as Power?

As we continue to discuss different sorts of power, you will observe the connection
between a leader's authority and power. The capacity to exert influence or control over
others is known as power. The ability to command and demand compliance from others is
known as authority. Authority originates within the organisation and give leaders the ability
to exercise power. A leader's authority allows him or her to direct others' behaviour in the
course of their work. Because of the leader's power, these decisions are carried out.
Leaders combine five sources of power in appropriate ways to achieve both short- and
long-term goals (French & Raven, 1959).
.
Legitimate Power:
When the authority of the organization is acknowledged, the leader gains this power. It is
derived from the organization's policies. For instance, it is only when the authority is
acknowledged in the roles they hold can parents, teachers, managers, police, etc. have
legitimate power.

Expert Power:
This power comes from one's knowledge, talent, and expertise. This is the strength of
knowledge and expertise of particular kinds that is crucial in completing the task. A person
has expert power as a result of their professional expertise or knowledge. Professional
workgroup leaders, including those in education, engineering, finance, human resources,
and other fields, heavily rely on this kind of influence to succeed. With more knowledge
and experience, one can influence others to believe their leader's judgements and
conclusions. Although a leader may not be an expert in every discipline, when necessary,
they may surely enlist the assistance of experts in those fields.

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Charismatic Power:
The desire for one individual to admire another is the power of attraction or devotion. A
leader who possesses a high level of this source of power is regarded favorably by
subordinates. A subordinate is attracted to a leader in a favorable way when they identify
with them or when they are affected by their attractiveness. This power stems from a
follower's admiration, identification, or belief in them. This power enables the subordinate
to comprehend and value the boss or leader to the point where one understands and behaves
in accordance with their expectations. Being one's own boss and acting in ways that one
believes the boss will want is beneficial.
Reward Power:
This power is the ability to give rewards in the present or in the future for deserving actions.
This power is founded on the leader's capacity to offer rewards; whether tangible or
intangible. The leader has the power to bestow material benefits on the subordinate, such
as a raise, an office location, paid time off, interesting work assignments, and assistance.
Additionally, the leader might give the subordinate psychological benefits like
compliments, gratitude, approval, and acknowledgment. The subordinate must feel that the
leader may grant rewards since the leader has access to higher power. The charismatic and
legitimate power of the leader can both be enhanced by this reward power. Positive
incentives like cash, promotions, or recognition are frequently used as rewards in
organizations.
Coercive Power or Punishment Power:
This is the power to reprimand or threaten. Fear of the leader is the foundation of this
power. The leader has the power to decide whether undesired job assignments, reprimands,
or dismissals will be given. There will always be instances in an organization where a
leader must use coercive power in trying circumstances. The leader has the power to
impose real sanctions, such as termination, promotion, poor evaluation, unsatisfactory job
assignments, etc. Additionally, he has the option of punishing the subordinate
psychologically by criticizing, avoiding, expressing displeasure, making mocking remarks,
etc. The power of rewards aids in avoiding unfavorable situations. Thus, because of reward
power, the subordinate will feel better about themselves. Additionally, reward power
diminishes as a result of punishment or coercion.
A leader's capacity to achieve outcomes will be harmed by the excessive use of this kind
of power, especially if the leader depends on subordinates to exercise discretion and
judgment at work. Even a subordinate has the potential to retreat, disobey, or turn hostile.

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 In this section we looked at two forms of leadership: Transactional and Transformational
Leadership. We identified Mutual respect, integrity, and creativity as some characteristics
of transformational leaders. We learned that leaders get their power from various sources
including reward, coercive, expert, and legitimate power.

Self-Assessment Questions
Write short notes about the following leadership forms
1. Transactional Leadership
2. Transformational Leadership
3. Write short notes on the following:
i). Reward power
ii).Coercive power
iii). Expert power
iv). Legitimate power

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SECTION 6: ATTRIBUTES OF A GOOD LEADER
Good day, distinguished Learner Teacher. We are happy to welcome you to the Sixth and
final Section of the Fourth Unit in this module. We appreciate you for your cooperation
and contributions so far. In this last section, we shall be discussing the qualities of a good
leader, leadership styles and challenges leaders encounter in inclusive Upper Primary
Schools. As you pay keen attention do share your experiences with us too.

The Section Outline is made of the following sub-sections

• What are the Qualities of a Good Leader?
• Leadership Styles and Skills
• Challenges of Good Leadership in an Inclusive Upper Primary Schools

Learning Outcome Indicators

On successful completion of this section,
you will:
Demonstrate knowledge and 1. List 4 qualities of a good leader
understanding of the concept of 2. Identify and describe the 3 major
leadership, and apply the theories and leadership styles
styles of leadership in providing 3. Enumerate 4 challenges of good
effective leadership in inclusive leadership in an inclusive Upper
schools. (NTS,1d) Primary School

What characterizes a good school leader? How can someone in a leadership role of an
inclusive Upper Primary School become truly effective? Reflect on these questions with
your study partner next to you and note down your observations for later discussion.

What are the Qualities of a Good Leader?

Although there is no one way to lead an inclusive school successfully, there are some
strategies, skills, characteristics, and attitudes that many of the best inclusive school leaders
possess. We want you to share your lived experiences on what makes a good inclusive
school leader.
Let us now consider what some writers say about the traits of good leaders.

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The following traits are common among the most successful inclusive school leaders.

1. They understand the importance of building community

Effective school leaders create and maintain mutually beneficial relationships with the
families in their communities and use those relationships to foster inclusive,
compassionate, and culturally sensitive school communities. It is crucial for school leaders
to be present in their communities and schools, to foster trust, to foster a sense of openness
and shared purpose with parents, staff, community members, and all learners in order to
construct these community networks.
In her book, "Trust Matters: Leadership for Successful Schools," Tschannen-Moran (2004)
explores the role that trust plays in creating communities. She indicated that in schools
where there is high levels of trust:

a. Teachers are motivated and willing to try new strategies because they trust leaders to
support them.
b. Learners are motivated and connected to the school because they trust their teachers.
c. Families are supportive because the headteacher and teachers have built trusting
relationships with them.”

2. They empower teachers and cultivate leadership skills

Great school administrators are aware that they cannot run their institution as a one-man
operation. In addition to fully supporting teachers and staff by encouraging them to
continuously learn, develop, and perhaps most importantly, become leaders themselves,
they are aware of the need to surround themselves with excellent instructors and co-
workers.

Headteachers may establish a healthy atmosphere for educators that will have beneficial
effects for learners by providing professional development opportunities and support
services to teachers as well as by fostering an environment where instructors are free to
experiment, innovate, and lead.

3. They utilize data and resources

According to Wallace Foundation (2012), successful school leaders create continuous
improvement through site-based decision-making using data, including results from
standardized and school-based assessments, with the specific aim of encouraging
opportunities for all children that are equitable and culturally sensitive. The most effective
leaders are able to use data to inform strategic decisions that will benefit their learners.
Effective headteachers strive to get the most out of data by displaying it in ways that convey
"compelling tales," using it to encourage "collaborative inquiry among teachers," and
"learning to ask useful questions" of the information. They see data as a way to identify
problems as well as comprehend its nature and causes.

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4. They have a vision and a plan
The most effective leaders also have vision. They have a target that they can rally their
team behind and a strategy to get there. They can also communicate the vision and
objectives of the school clearly. One of the most crucial traits a leader may possess is vision
because it gives the team as a whole—not just the team leader—motion and direction.
Effective head teachers give the school a clear vision and feeling of direction. They give
priority. They direct staff attention toward what is crucial and prevent it from being diverted
or sidetracked by projects that will have little bearing on kids' academic performance.

5. They create collaborative, inclusive learning environments

Inclusive learning offer learners access to effective and flexible options for achieving
educational objectives in settings where they feel a sense of belonging. Knowing this, the
finest teachers make inclusivity a priority while building secure learning spaces that
support each kid. Leaders that place a high priority on inclusive learning often also think
that everyone has something to offer the larger learning community, thus they promote
cooperation between teachers and learners.

6. They are passionate about their work

Anyone who wishes to be successful and content in their work must have passion. But
since they frequently have a significant impact on the culture and climate of their schools,
school leaders need to be passionate about what they do.

People with passion radiate a contagious energy that has a significant impact on both
teacher motivation and satisfaction as well as learner achievement. "All the knowledge in
the world can't produce a successful leader: what makes the difference is the caring the
leader has for the task and the people who work with him/her.

7. They encourage risk-taking

The majority of instructors are already aware of the fact that failure can be the best teacher.
True effective leaders encourage risk-taking among their subordinates and colleagues by
fostering an environment that rewards not only successful ideas or initiatives but also effort,
regardless of the outcome. "Failure is required for learning, but our relentless pursuit of
results can also discourage employees from taking chances. Leaders must establish a risk-
taking culture to reconcile this dilemma.

8. They lead by example

Leaders that set a great example for their followers set a great example not just for the
learners in their school or district but also for their coworkers and parents. Without respect

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and adoration, a leader will have limited success in leadership. A leader who sets an
example for others will nearly always obtain these things. "Example is not the important
thing in influencing people; it is the only thing," the philosopher and physician Albert
Schweitzer reportedly said.

9. They persevere – staying with a school for at least five years

Change may be disruptive even when it's for the better. "Committed and successful head
teachers who stay in their schools are related with improved school-wide learner
achievement." Head teacher turnover has a detrimental impact on schools, which implies
that head teachers need time to implement significant changes. Thus, the best leaders are
prepared to dedicate themselves to a school and endure in the face of difficulties. After all,
meaningful transformation requires time; it doesn't happen immediately when a vision is
realized. The devotion of a leader demonstrates not just passion but also dedication, which
can have a very significant impact on school culture.

10. They are lifelong learners

Unquenchable passion for knowledge is arguably the most crucial quality that a school
leader can have. Leadership and learning, in the words of John F. Kennedy, "are necessary
to each other." No matter what business they are in, the finest leaders are aware that they
will never know everything. Despite their confidence in their skills, they are modest about
their expertise. They are insatiably curious people who never stop learning and asking
questions.
The Harvard Business Review could not have said it better when they wrote: "It requires a
real sense of personal commitment, especially after you've arrived at a position of authority
and responsibility, to push yourself to grow and challenge conventional knowledge.

Activity 4.6.1
Reflect on the qualities of a good leader for 2 minutes. Share your thoughts with a
colleague near you. Collectively, write down 4 qualities of good leaders and read to the
entire class.
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We hope you enjoyed working together. Good. Let us move on to styles of leadership.

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Leadership Styles and Skills

Leadership requires reshaping an organization, actively choosing from viable options, and
depending on the development of others and organizing them to complete the task.
Leadership styles refer to the approaches and behaviours leaders’ employ to direct,
motivate, and manage subordinates or followers. A leader’s style determines how they
strategize and implement plans while accounting for the expectations of stakeholders and
the well-being of their team.
A good leader is someone who can inspire others to work energetically toward the
accomplishment of collective objectives. Employees are typically expected to work with
whole fervor and devotion, although this isn't always the case. Staff performance will suffer
in the absence of effective leadership. Without a doubt, this makes the services provided
less credible. Poor leadership results in ineffective task delegation and a lack of
commitment to work, which creates the problem.
In the 1930s, psychologist Kurt Lewin created a fundamental framework for leadership,
outlining the three main leadership philosophies of authoritarian, democratic, and
laissez-faire. Many following leadership treatises are based on Lewin's work. Autocratic
leaders make decisions without involving their team members, even if their advice might
be valuable, according to Lewin (1946).
Authoritarian/Autocratic Leadership Style
An authoritarian type of governance known as autocratic leadership places leaders in total
control. You could imagine a headteacher having total, top-down control over the school.
Autocratic leaders expect their subordinates to follow their orders, therefore they make
decisions based on their personal opinions on what is best and often accept very little
feedback from them.
Characteristics of Autocratic Leaders
Are you wondering if you have encountered an autocratic leader or whether you are one
yourself? There are four key traits of autocratic leaders:

1. Focus on results, not the welfare of workers

2. Accept limited to no input.
3. Make all the decisions.
4. Direct their team’s methods and processes.
5. Creates structured and often rigid environments.

The Pros and Cons of Autocratic Leadership

According to McGregor (1960), Theory X leaders are authoritarians who view their
subordinates pessimistically and believe that their teams need to be directed, punished or

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rewarded in order to achieve organizational goals. McGregor’s theory exemplifies some of
the drawbacks of autocratic leadership.

• Degrades trust and morale: Autocratic leadership discourages input, which can
make teams feel like their ideas are ignored and they’re unable to contribute.
• Dependent on the leader: Organizational success is entirely dependent on the leader
and their ideas, which can endanger the stability of the organization.
• Quick decision making: Because the leader has the final say, decisions can be made
and conveyed efficiently, an attribute that becomes handy during a crisis.
• Clearly defined structure: Clear rules and procedures are in place and every
employee knows what to do and how to do it, which can benefit rule-followers, who
thrive when they’re told what to do.

Democratic Leadership Style

There are many different types of leadership, and they are all very different from one
another. If you want your team to participate in problem-solving and decision-making, the
democratic leadership style is optimal.
The word "democracy," which means "government by the people," served as the inspiration
for the name of this management approach. Democratic leaders encourage teamwork, value
other people's opinions, and encourage dialogue that allows a variety of group members to
weigh in on choices. One of the most successful leadership philosophies is democratic
leadership, commonly referred to as participative leadership. With this strategy, the
headteachers’ primary objective is to increase staff engagement in both their job and the
school, as those who are actively involved in both are more likely to remain committed.
Let us look at some essential characteristics of democratic leaders.
Encourage creativity and collaboration: Democratic leaders value the free exchange of
ideas and work to gather a variety of viewpoints. As a result, teams with these leaders
typically exhibit higher levels of invention and creativity. Before making a choice, people
with this style frequently provide opportunities for collaboration, lead brainstorming
sessions, or solicit feedback from all group members.
Request feedback regularly: Democratic leaders solicit feedback and value many
viewpoints. In order to test ideas with the group, they may openly solicit comments on
something or present their proposed solution to an issue and then solicit the group's opinion.
Maintain a “team player” attitude: This type of leader values teamwork inherently and
will actively seek out ways to both direct and support their team as well as encourage others
to share this perspective. In addition to providing direction and assistance, leaders with this

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 style may check in with their subordinates to make sure nothing is preventing them from
finishing their task.
Keep flexibility as priority: This kind of leadership gives the team the freedom to do their
tasks as they see fit. This can be accomplished by giving their team the authority to make
decisions or by putting them in charge in specific circumstances. Even though they delegate
authority to others, these leaders are still responsible for the outcomes of their team, thus
they may set rules or guidelines to keep everyone on task.
Give communication and transparency a top priority. Democratic leaders share
information with their team and maintain open lines of communication. By doing this, a
strong sense of trust is established, strengthening the culture as a whole. This kind of leader
might discuss interesting new initiatives with their team and solicit volunteers before
delegating tasks.
Benefits of Democratic Style

• Leaders significantly influence organizational culture and the workplace. Democratic

leadership fosters high levels of productivity, innovation, team involvement, and a more
welcoming, collaborative workplace.
• Democratic leaders are able to make excellent informed decisions that position the business
and their team for success due to receiving diverse opinions, feedback, and perspectives.
• Additionally, the company is likely to have lower turnover rates as a result of the increased
engagement and satisfaction of employees with their jobs and the business.
Challenges of Democratic Style

• Obtaining feedback from others, coming to an agreement, and facilitating collaboration can
take a lot of time and work. This strategy might not be useful in circumstances when a
choice needs to be taken right away or where these conversations aren't time- or money-
efficient.
• As members of the group are given a lot of liberty and trusted to make wise judgments,
this leadership style is also not suited for circumstances where the business can't afford to
make mistakes.
• Additionally, some group members can lack the knowledge, exposure, or experience
necessary to provide valuable input on certain issues. This, together with the fact that
several team members contributed ideas, may lead to some team members feeling like their
opinions weren't taken into account.

Activity 4.6.2
Hello, our cherished Learner Teacher, kindly take your jotter and without referring to the
module, write 3 characteristics each of autocratic and democratic leadership in the basic
schools

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That was a good attempt. You can now refer to the module and see how well you
performed.

Laissez-Faire Leadership
Laissez-faire is a French proverb meaning "let it be" or "let it alone." Laissez-faire
leadership promotes team members' individuality and creativity, making it a wonderful
leadership style for many different businesses. You can decide if this style of leadership is
appropriate for you and your team by learning more about it. This type of leader often
creates a more relaxed company culture. It's also a good fit for an organisation with a
highly-skilled team. Laissez-faire leaders make employees accountable for their work. This
gives many employees an incentive to do their best work. Because of the high level of trust
associated with this approach, employees working for laissez-faire leaders feel valued.
They get the information they need and use their resources and experience to meet
institutional goals.

Characteristics of Laissez Faire Leader

Laissez-faire leaders can be identified by these characteristics that are common among
them (Indeed, 2022):

a. Able to delegate: Laissez-faire leaders are effective in delegating tasks to the right
team members once they get to know their team's expertise and experience. This way,
productivity is increased.

b. Encourage autonomy: Laissez-faire leaders encourage their team to be independent

and make their own choices. This may build self-confidence and help employees
motivate themselves to be more productive.

c. Offer constructive criticism: Laissez faire leaders offer constructive feedback to

help their team members grow.

d. Take control when needed: Laissez-faire leaders encourage their team to be

independent but can take control when needed. This ensures they can solve any
problems or address concerns as needed.

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 e. Provide resources: To help their team complete their tasks successfully, laissez-faire
leaders provide all the tools and resources their employees need

Advantages of Laissez-Faire Leadership style

The advantages of laissez-faire leadership style include:
● Laissez-faire leaders allow followers to have complete freedom to make decisions
concerning the completion of their work.
● The laissez-faire leader using guided freedom provides the followers with all materials
necessary to accomplish their goals, but does not directly participate in decision
making unless the followers request their assistance.
● Laissez-faire leadership instills a higher sense of responsibility among team members.
● This form of leadership exposes team members to tough business situations, helping
them to gain more experience and grow faster.
● Laissez-faire leadership keeps team members aware of and continuously working
towards the larger picture.
● This form of leadership can boost the commitment of team members to achieve the
desired goals
● Minimal intervention by leaders can also bring out the best in members, encouraging
greater innovation and out-of-the-box initiatives (Wadhwa, 2012)

Disadvantages of Laissez-Faire Leadership Style

The disadvantages of laissez-faire leadership style are:
● If team members do not have adequate experience or the required skills, the
achievement
of targets may be at great risk.
● Important decisions that need to be taken at short notice can go horribly wrong.
● If people are not self-driven and disciplined, laissez-faire leadership can lead to a great
deal of inefficiency.
● The team may become prone to repeating mistakes and may fail to get out of problems
that they encounter during a project.
● Team members may get off track and may not prioritize correctly.

Basically, the overall effect of laissez-faire leadership seems to be negative as they do not
interact with nor builds relationships his/her co-workers. This leads to little or no successful
organization (Wadhwa, 2012; Northouse, 2012).

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Activity 4.6.3
Dear Learner Teacher, now, turn to your study partner sitting next to you and together
write 3 challenges of good leadership in inclusive schools. Then share your thoughts with
the whole class.
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Now, let us try to identify potential challenges that inclusive school leaders could face.

Challenges of Good Leadership in an Inclusive Upper Primary Schools

Leaders of inclusive Upper Primary Schools may encounter the following challenges:
a. Inadequate and unwelcoming physical infrastructure

Most inclusive schools seem to lack accommodations for learners with special needs. Even
where there is adequate accommodation, they are in terrible conditions. Again, many
classrooms in the schools are too small to hold the enormous number of learners enrolled
at the school thereby causing congestion for the class size ranging from 35 to 70 learners.
Most of the school buildings are not accessible to persons using wheelchairs as there are
only staircase and no ramps to ease their movement.
b. Communication

Most inclusive schools struggle because there is no platform, good enough for the various
stakeholders, including learners, staff, administrators, and teachers, to interact effectively.
There is need for headteachers to have a system that can ensure effective communication
amongst all the stakeholders. With such a system in place, headteachers may quickly notify
parents or learners of a forthcoming event and other happenings in the school. Additionally,
parents can privately speak with the headteacher or teachers about their child's
performance.
c. Insufficient knowledge of inclusion

Basic school leaders may not be well informed about the expectations of inclusion and of
inclusive practices. Some headteachers of inclusive Upper Primary Schools may not have
adequate knowledge and understanding of on the needs of learners with special education
needs. In such situations, they are unable to provide any assistance to teachers handling
such learners.

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 d. Inappropriate teaching strategies

Some teachers use instructional methods that do not benefit learners with special education
needs. Some teachers lacked the knowledge and skills necessary to effectively employ the
right teaching methods. This could be because the training they received during preparation
did not include adequate content in inclusive teaching strategies. The majority of teachers
"teach in abstract, which does not help visual and kinesthetic learners.
e. Negative attitude of teachers

It is the wish of inclusive school headteachers to have all learners doing well academically
but this may not always be the case. Some teachers and parents exhibit negative attitudes
towards children with special needs and this is often manifested in the form of abuse and
insensitivity to the needs of the children. Some parents are unwilling to provide educational
materials for the wards with Special Education Needs(SEN) even when they can afford
because they do not trust that their wards can perform well academically.
Most teachers complain that having learners with special needs in their classes make them
unable to finish their lesson plans, which affects the academic standards of other learners.
f. Inadequate resources

Children with special needs required special supports services to facilitate their
participation in the general schools, because it would be difficult for them to cope in the
“normal” classroom teaching without resources. Providing them with special support
services will facilitate their participation and unearth their talents. Unfortunately,
headteachers of Primary Schools may not have the means to provide the needed resources
to enhance their participation and performance. Resources in terms of textbooks with large
prints, braille material and other teaching and learning materials may be difficult to come
by.
g. Teacher appraisal

Another crucial aspect of running a school is monitoring the performance of the teachers.
The importance of properly evaluating teachers cannot be overstated because it can
significantly boost a school's performance. As a result, schools can assess teacher
performance by using the polling feature to distribute an online survey to learners. The
planning of teacher training programmes that can help in enhancing teaching abilities can
be done based on the feedback provided by these teachers.

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Dear Learner Teacher, we have come to the end of this section which is packed with lots
of information for you. We covered in this section, the qualities of good leaders, the 3 main
leadership styles and challenges good leaders face in inclusive schools. It is our hope that
this information will assist you as you work with colleagues and heads of your school,

Self-Assessment Questions
1. Identify a good leader you have met before and write 4 qualities that makes him/her a
good leader
2. Identify and describe the 3 major leadership styles
3. Enumerate 4 challenges that you perceive leaders in inclusive Upper Primary School
may encounter.

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 UNIT 5
COMMUNICATION, DECISION MAKING AND SUPERVISION IN INCLUSIVE
UPPER PRIMARY SCHOOLS
Hello, our dear Learner Teacher, you are cordially welcome to the Fifth Unit of this module.
In this unit we will discuss a number of issues ranging from communication to decision
making and then supervision. You will learn the meaning, types, channels and barriers to
communication, importance of decision making and why teachers should be involved in it.
We shall also look at supervision and the challenges facing it. We can assure you that the
discussion will be interesting. We know you will share your lived experiences to make the
discussion rich and lively. Stay tuned.
This unit is made up of the following sections:
SECTION 1: Meaning and Types of Communication
SECTION 2: Channels and Barriers of Communication
SECTION 3: Meaning and Importance of Decision Making
SECTION 4: Meaning and the Need for Supervision
SECTION 5: Challenges of Supervision
COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES AND INDICATORS

Course Learning LEARNING INDICATORS

Outcomes (CLO)
On successful completion
of the course, you would
be able to:
Exhibit understanding 5.1. Show a clear understanding of the concepts
and application of communication, decision-making, and supervision.
communication, decision- 5.2. Provide evidence that they understand the need for
making and supervision effective communication, decision-making and
in the administration of supervision in inclusive classrooms and schools.
inclusive basic schools 5.3. Identify the various barriers to effective
(NTS 1e, 2d, 3f). communication, decision-making and instructional
supervision in inclusive classrooms and schools.
5.4. Show evidence of understanding the strategies that
promote effective communication and decision making
in inclusive classrooms and schools.
5.5. Provide a clear understanding and application of the
criteria for appraising teachers

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SECTION 1: MEANING AND TYPES OF COMMUNICATION
We heartily welcome you, our dear Learner Teacher to the First Section of the Fifth Unit
of this module. We want to begin this unit with discussion on the meaning of
communication, the need for effective communication, communication process and types
of communication. We hope that you will bring your experiences to bare and contribute to
the discussion as you always did. Relax, take your pen and jotter and let us move on.
The Section Outline is made of the following sub-sections
• Meaning of Communication
• The need for Effective Communication
• Communication Processes
• Types of Communication

Learning Outcome Indicators

On successful completion of
this section, you will:
Exhibit understanding and 1. Explain the meaning of communication
application of communication, 2. State 3 importance of effective communication
decision-making and 3. List 4 steps in the communication processes
supervision in the 4. Name any two types of communication you
administration of inclusive know
basic schools (NTS 1e, 2d, 3f).

The term ‘communication should not be new to you. You might have used it in your
conversations and academic work. How would you explain the word communication?
Write your thoughts on a piece of paper and compare with your colleague near you.
Did you both get it right? Great! Now read on…

Meaning of Communication
The act of transmitting and receiving information through written or oral language, written
or graphic representations (such as infographics, maps, and charts), signs, signals, and
behavior is known as communication. Communication is defined as "the creation and
exchange of meaning," to put it another way.
The Latin term ‘communicare, which meaning to share or make common, is the origin of
the English word "communication" (Weekley, 1967). The process of comprehending and
exchanging meaning is referred to as communication (Pearson & Nelson, 2000). This
definition id helpful to us because we will explore it in-depth throughout this text as if

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emphasise the procedure for efficiently understanding and sharing another person's point
of view.

Now, let us consider the key words in Pearson and Nelson’s definition.

In this definition, "process" is the first important word. The ‘process’ refers to how your
message is received and processed by your audience before a feedback is given. There are
instances when we reflect aloud to the hearing of others. Your audience, may give you
reactions or feedback that makes you rethink what you are saying. Upon listening to their
feedback and reactions to your thoughts, we may consider these and change our thought or
position. You might alter your viewpoint and become more cognizant of what you say.
"To comprehend/understand as used in the definition is to perceive, to interpret, and to
tie our perception and interpretation to what we already know" (McLean, 2003). What
picture comes to mind when a friend tells you a tale about falling off a bike? Your
companion now gestures toward the window, where you can see a motorcycle on the
ground. Understanding the words and the ideas or things they allude to is crucial to
effective communication.
"Exchange /Sharing" in the definition means when two or more people collaborate. When
you collaborate on a report, for example, you are sharing a joint activity. When you express
ideas, feelings, or insights to others during dialogue, you are sharing. If you have an "Aha!"
moment when something finally makes sense, bring thoughts to consciousness or solve a
problem, you can also communicate with yourself (a process known as intrapersonal
communication).
Finally, ‘meaning’ is what we communicate about. The word "bike" can refer to a
motorcycle as well as a bicycle. We can determine the meaning and comprehend the
message by looking at the context in which “bike” is used and by asking questions.

We hope the explanation given is clear to you and that you can explain communication in
your own words. Let us now turn our focus on communication channels. Can you name
some examples of communication channels?
Let us now look at the essence of effective communication in the school system.

The need for Effective Communication

Knowing how to listen intently is a prerequisite for effective communication. It is the
capacity to provide understanding, openness, and constructive criticism in response to what
you hear. Additionally, as a manager, you can build strong bonds with the individuals of
your team by being approachable, self-assured, and communicating effectively
nonverbally.

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Communication is effective when all parties involved feel content and accomplished. The
likelihood of conflict is reduced when messages are conveyed clearly since there is no
possibility for misinterpretation or message modification. When conflict does emerge,
having excellent communication is essential to ensuring that it is handled with respect.
Finding work, keeping a good relationship, and expressing oneself in a healthy way all
depend on one's ability to communicate effectively.

Let us examine some importance of effective communication that you will experience in
the school when you take the time to develop these skills.

1. Building trust: Relationships are strengthened by effective communication. Others are

more likely to trust you to make the best judgments for the group when you listen carefully
and accept multiple points of view. As you set an example for your team, they will come
to trust you to meet your obligations, and you'll give them the confidence to do the same
for you.
2. Preventing or resolving problems: When it comes to resolving problems and averting
future ones, effective communication is crucial. The most important things are to keep your
cool, make sure that everyone is heard, and come up with a solution that works best for
everyone.
3. Providing clarity and direction: You can set clear goals and expectations for your team
when you have good communication skills. This entails identifying useful ways to point
out when something isn't functioning as well as giving constructive comments to help
people get back on track. As a result, disputes and misunderstandings will be reduced
because they will be clear about both their own duties and those of their teammates.

4. Creating better relationships: Relationships with coworkers and friends and family in
your personal life are also improved through effective communication. People might feel
heard and understood when you listen intently and give them thoughtful input. Mutual
respect is then fostered by this.

5. Increasing engagement: People become more engaged with their work when they feel
more secure in their work and in their comprehension of what they must perform. By
placing a high priority on good communication, employers may raise team members
engagement and, as a result, satisfaction.
6. Improving productivity: Team members can concentrate more on their job and less on
work-related issues when they are aware of their duties, the roles of others, and your
expectations. Conflicts may be addressed quickly, employees can better manage their task,
and distractions are reduced with excellent communication. These advantages help you and
your team work more productively.
7. Promoting team building: Team members' ability to rely on one another will increase
with greater communication. No one team member will feel like they have to carry the

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entire squad. The team's morale and working conditions will be enhanced by increased
division of labor because it will foster pleasant emotions and relationships among the team
members.

In sum, positive work environments can be fostered for your entire team by having
effective communication skills. By making people feel heard and understood, you
inevitably enhance the atmosphere at work.

Activity 5.1.1
Dear Learner Teacher. Turn to your study partner next to you and together explain 3
reasons why effective communication is useful in an inclusive basic school.
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We hope you enjoyed working together. Good.
We want to introduce you to the processes of communication. With your study partner,
read and discuss the communication processes provided here and note down any concerns
for discussion at our next meeting.

The Communication Processes

Effective communication in every organization requires strong communication skills.
Communication basically, is the act of passing on information to another person so that
both the sender and the recipient can grasp it. Usually, it is the sender's job to make their
message clear. However, it is also the receiver's duty to make sure they fully comprehended
the message. Communication is a dynamic and cyclical process
Understanding the duties of the communicator and the communicant is made easier by
breaking the communication cycle into its component phases. This also makes it easier to
spot communication impediments. The following are 5 key steps in the communication
process.
Formation of idea (s): When the sender has a message to convey, communication begins.
The sender's complex environment will have an impact on the notion. The sender should
start by making the idea and purpose clear. Knowing the objectives of the sender and how
the message will likely be received is an indication of a likely effective communication.

Encoding the message: The concept must be translated into meaningful words, symbols,
and movements. Since no two individuals receive information exactly the same way, the
sender must take care to select words, symbols, and gestures that are widely understood to
minimize the likelihood of miscommunication. To achieve clear communication, a sender

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must be aware of the recipient's communication abilities, attitudes, skills, experiences, and
culture.

Transmission of the Message: The next phase in the communication process is selecting
the medium to convey the message. Messages can be communicated verbally, in writing,
or visually. The channel and message must match for there to be clear communication.

Decoding: Once the message has been received by the intended recipient, it must be
translated into its original meaning. The words, symbols, and gestures must be understood
by the recipient in the same way that they were intended by the sender. Misunderstandings
can result from improperly decoding a message because no two persons process
information in exactly the same way. When the receiver cultivates an environment that is
responsive and ignores outside distractions, successful decoding is more likely. Alert
recipients avoid making assumptions about the message, work to understand both verbal
and nonverbal signs, and anticipate learning from the exchange.

Feedback: Feedback as an essential part of communication, is when the sender and the
recipient confirm that the message was received as intended. Feedback can be vocal or
non-verbal and is the duty of both the sender and the receiver. If the sender asks the
recipient if they have any queries, for instance, they can get feedback. By merely sending
as much information as the recipient can process, the sender can also enhance the feedback
process. Receivers can promote clear communication by giving prompt, precise,
illustrative, and judgment-free feedback. For instance, to signal "yes," a recipient could
shake the head up and down.

Types of Communication
In the academic environment, communication can be categorised into:
• Intrapersonal Communication
• Interpersonal Communication
• Public Communication
• Mass Communication

Intrapersonal Communication is the form of communication that occurs inside a person.

Do you have internal communication? Do you recall that we mentioned that observation is
one way to gather information? If you see a change in the weather and learn that it is likely
to rain, you can go and remove everything that is hanging from the lines. It's intrapersonal
communication right now.
Interpersonal Communication consists of any communication that takes place between
two or more individuals. Interpersonal communication is the exchange of information
between you and your friend. Interpersonal communication can also take place in a small
group of five to seven individuals during a group discussion. A two-way communication,

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or feedback from the receiver to the sender, is a common feature of interpersonal
communication.
Public communication refers to any form of communication that involves a wide
audience. In a face-to-face conversation, one speaker often addresses a crowd of people.
Could you provide some public speaking examples? Due to the absence of reaction from
the audience, public communication is primarily a one-way conversation. Feedback from
the crowd turns it into a two-way conversation. Have you ever gone to a meeting of an
organization or group you are a part of at school? Public communication like this is
demonstrated here.
Mass communication refers to the kind of communication that occurs over the airwaves
from a single source to a sizable, invisible audience. Radio broadcasts, television news,
and online information are a few examples of mass communication. On the campus radio
or television stations, mass communication is utilized to disseminate information, pieces
of announcement, and lectures to learners. Because there is typically no feedback, mass
communication is primarily a one-way communication. When there is feedback during
mass communication, whether it be by text messages, phone conversations, or WhatsApp
messages, it becomes two-way communication.

Once again, we have ended another section successfully. In this section, we learned that
communication involves transmitting and receiving information through various means
such as written, oral language, graphic representations among others. We indicated the need
for effective communication to include: building trust, preventing or resolving problems,
providing clarity and increasing engagement just to name a few. Additionally, we identified
intrapersonal, interpersonal, public and mass Communication types being used.

We hope you will make time to test yourself through the questions provided below.

Self-Assessment Questions
1. In not more than three lines, explain the term “communication”.
2. Give 3 reasons to justify the need for effective communication
3. List 4 steps in the communication processes
4. Name any two types of communication you know

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SECTION 2: CHANNELS AND BARRIERS OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

Welcome, our cherished Learner Teacher to the Second Section of the Fifth Unit in this
module. We are done discussing the meaning and types of communication in section one
in this unit. We now want to look at the channels of communication, barriers and guides to
effective communication in this section. You will all agree that the channels you choose to
communicate your information is dependent on your audience. Once you chose a wrong
channel, then you will encounter difficulty in getting your audience access and comprehend
the information, thereby resulting in a communication barrier. Do pay keen attention as
you always do so we can have affective discussion.
The Section Outline is made of the following sub-sections
• Channels of Communication
• Barriers to effective communication
• Guide to effective communication

Learning Outcome Indicators

On successful completion of this
section, you will:
Exhibit understanding and 1. Describe any 2 channels of
application of communication, communication
decision-making and supervision in 2. Identify 4 barriers to effective
the administration of inclusive basic communication in basic schools
schools (NTS 1e, 2d, 3f). 3. List 4 guides to effective communication

Channels of Communication
The audience's perception of a message depends on the channel or medium utilized to
convey it. Both the means of communication and the specific tools employed can be
referred to as communication channels.
There are three main categories into which communication channels can be divided:
spoken/verbal, written, and non-verbal. Each of these communication channels has
distinct advantages and disadvantages, and humans frequently use multiple channels
concurrently.
Verbal communication: When we consider communication, we often think of two persons
conversing and listening to one another. The source speaks to the receiver while encoding
the information with words, which the recipient subsequently decodes for comprehension
and meaning. If the source employs language that the recipient does not understand,
interference could happen, leading to a message being miscommunicated or not being

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communicated at all. Tone is one aspect of spoken communication. A message's perceived
meaning can alter depending on the tone used.

Non-verbal Communication: While what you say is an essential component of every

communication, what you choose not to say sometimes has a greater impact. According to
research, non-verbal cues including body language, posture, and smell account for 55% of
all verbal communication in person. One study found that just 7% of the message a
recipient understands is based on the sender's actual words; 38% is based on paralanguage
(the tone, tempo, and volume of speech); and 55% is dependent on non-verbal signs like
body linguistic (Mehrabian, 1981). Our facial muscles show what we are feeling. We don't
need to speak a word to communicate. Our emotional state can vary with a change in facial
expression. Even when we are stressed out, smiling might help the body feel less anxious.
Body posture, eye contact, facial expression all contribute to non-verbal communication.

Are you aware that all the three communication modes can be employed digitally? Yes,
you heard us clear. Are you wondering how? No worries, read the information given below.

Digital Communication Channels

The three main routes of communication can be employed both "in the flesh" and digitally.
Digital channels include spoken communication over the phone as well as video
conferencing, emails, and written memoranda. While many of the primary channels' traits
are still present in the digital channels, they are affected differently in new ways. The
communication process can be impacted by the surroundings, context, and interfering
elements depending on whether analog or digital is chosen.

Activity 5.2.1
Kindly take a piece of paper and without referring to the module, explain any two channels
of communication discussed here.
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You may now refer to the module to see if you got it right.

Dear Learner Teacher, we can now turn our attention to the barriers to effective
communication.

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Barriers to effective communication
Anything that appears to obstruct the transmission or reception of information is a
communication barrier. Let us take a look at a few of these factors that could act as
roadblocks to good communication. These factors can be viewed as obstacles to efficient
communication in an inclusive classroom setting.
• Physical Barriers
• Language or Linguistic Barriers
• Transmission Barriers
• Psychological Barriers
• Cultural Barriers
• Physiological Barriers

Physical Barriers
There are various environmental factors that may prevent face-to-face communication
from being effective. Physical barriers that tend to impede efficient communication in the
classroom include things like noise, poor lighting, poor ventilation, and distance. Learners
might not hear the instructor clearly if there is a lot of background noise in the classroom.
The ability of learners to see what the teacher or lecturer writes on the board may be
compromised in dimly lit classrooms. If there aren't enough windows or air conditioners in
the classroom to allow fresh air to circulate, it could make learners restless and make them
less attentive to the teacher. Similarly, if the teacher stands far away from the learners, some
of them may not hear the teacher clearly.

Language or Linguistic Barriers

Any interference with the information-transmission medium is referred to as language
barrier. In addition to face-to-face communication, information is also transmitted through
other channels and media, including phone conversations and electronic messaging
services like emails, WhatsApp, Instagram, Facebook, and telegrams. A transmission
barrier is any flaw or obstruction in the network or internet communication. For instance,
not having access to an internet bundle when using a Learning Management System (LMS)
like Moodle, Vclass, or Sakai to access a virtual class.

Transmission Barriers
This is when effective communication is hampered by language differences between the
sender and the recipient. A linguistic barrier exists if the recipient is unfamiliar with the
sender's language. Apart from this, there are a number of additional things that turn to
become language obstacles when speakers of the same language are involved. What are
some examples of these? Language barriers result from poor word choice, inappropriate
word alterations, and incorrect word pronunciations that occur throughout communication.

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To ensure that we deliver the precise message we intend to transmit, we must consequently
be extremely careful with our word choice and sentence structure.

Psychological Barriers
This speaks to the person's mental state at the time of conversation. The disposition of the
speaker and the recipient must match for effective communication to occur. Are the people
communicating when they are joyful, furious, or sad? A learner's emotional state is
probably going to have an impact on how well they communicate. Therefore, it is crucial
to establish the proper psychological climate in the classroom. When learners are in the
correct frame of mind, they are more likely to understand and apply the information the
instructor conveys.

How can teachers make sure their learners are mentally prepared to participate fully in
their lessons?

Cultural Barriers
When persons from various backgrounds interact in an academic setting, differences in
cultural background and upbringing can become hurdles. In one culture, something might
be regarded as normal, yet in another, it might be insulting. For someone from a different
cultural background, some jokes and inquiries that might be acceptable in one society may
be offensive. A Gonja, for instance, might say something that some individuals from other
cultural backgrounds might find offensive even though it was perhaps spoken in jest.
Because jokes, utterances, and non-verbal communication styles might differ from one
culture to another, we must exercise caution while using them.

Physiological Barriers
We discussed noise, poor lighting, and distance as examples of physical impediments to
communication. Physical and physiological limitations are interconnected in a direct
manner.
Physical limitations of the sender or receiver are referred to as physiological barriers. The
recipient might not be able to see clearly, for instance, if they have vision issues. The
amount of lighting in the classroom that will help the learner get through this obstacle may
directly relate to this physiological condition. Some people might require sufficient lighting
in the classroom to be able to read clearly or to properly see what is written on the board.
Additionally, a quiet background is necessary for a person with a partial hearing
impairment to be able to hear what the instructor is saying. Additionally, a teacher would
need to be within a reasonable range of the receiver in order for the recipient to hear the
instructor clearly.

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Activity 5.2.2
List any 3 barriers to effective communication and 3 ways of ensuring effective
communication. Now, working with a colleague let him/her explain each of the points you
listed as you do same with his/her listed points.
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How did you fare in this exercise? We hope you enjoyed working together. Try this
technique for your revision, as it is useful to test your comprehension.

Guide to effective communication

The following guidelines are useful in ensuring effective communication.
1. Clarity of Purpose: The sender must have a clear idea of the message they wish to
convey. The sender should be explicit about the recipient of the letter, as well as its
purpose.
2. Completeness: The information conveyed should not be lacking anything. It ought to
be backed up with data and findings. It needs to be orderly and well-planned. The
receiver shouldn't make any assumptions.
3. Conciseness: The communication should be succinct. There should not be any
superfluous information in it. It ought to be succinct and thorough.
4. Feedback: The feedback given can be used to determine whether or not the message
supplied by the sender was comprehended in the same terms by the recipient. Timely
and specific input is required. Instead of being general, it ought to be specialized.
5. Empathy: Effective verbal communication requires empathy with the audience. The
speaker must put themselves in the listener's position and show empathy for their wants
and feelings. His ability to see things from their point of view and improve
communication as a result.
6. Adjust the message for the audience: Depending on their needs, each organization
members have varied information needs. It's possible that what applies to teachers will
not apply to high management. Jargon should be avoided as much as possible because
it might cause confusion and misinterpretations. The message should be adjusted to fit
the wants and needs of the intended audience.
7. Use of numerous channels of communication: Using several channels of
communication improves the likelihood that the message will be understood. There is
less likelihood of communication distortion because the message is reinforced through
a variety of channels.

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8. Make good use of the grapevine (an informal channel of communication): Managers
and staff members should not always be against it. They ought to utilize vines wisely.
The managers can identify important concerns for the staff and communicate formal
messages through grapevine. The management can learn about the issues that the staff
is having and take action.

All too soon, we have come to the end of this section too.

Thank you, our Learner teachers for journeying with us in this section. We have identified
some communication channels as well as some barriers to effective communication. Can
you recall some of the barriers we mentioned in our discussion? We mentioned Language
Barriers, transmission Barriers and cultural barriers among others. Try and name the others
too.

Self-Assessment Questions
1. List and describe any 2 channels of communication discussed in this section
2. Identify 4 barriers to effective communication in basic schools
3. List 4 guides to effective communication

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SECTION 3: MEANING AND IMPORTANCE OF DECISION MAKING

You are warmly welcome, our dear Learner Teacher to the Third Section of the Fifth Unit
of this module. In second section, our concentration was on channels of communication
and barriers hindering effective communication and how to address them. In this section
our discussion shall centre on decision making. We shall focus specifically on the meaning,
and importance of decision making, we shall end the section by looking at ways to involve
teachers in decision making. This is an important area for teachers, so we expect you to
contribute to the discussion by sharing your experiences.

The Section Outline is made of the following sub-sections

• Meaning of decision making
• Importance of decision making
• Effective ways to involve teachers in decision-making

Learning Outcome Indicators

On successful completion of this
section, you will:
Exhibit understanding and application 1. Explain what decision making mean
of communication, decision-making 2. Write 4 importance of decision making
and supervision in the administration 3. Identify 3 effective ways to involve
of inclusive basic schools (NTS 1e, teachers in decision-making
2d, 3f).

Everyone has to make decisions in every situation because it is a necessary aspect of life.
The decisions we make affect all aspect of our lives, from what to dress with, through what
to eat, where we live and work, to whom we marry. It is important to remember that
decision-making in an organizational setting requires the appropriate information, full
information, and the capacity to synthesize and interpret the information. Making educated
decisions is a personality quality as such, effective administrators are those that can weigh
several points of view and viewpoints to get the best option.

Activity 5.3.1: Think-Pair-Share

Dear Learner Teacher, kindly reflect on the concept decision making, then turn to your
colleague sitting next to you and share your understanding of what decision making is.
Then share your collective thoughts with the class.
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You can now read on what decision making is

Meaning of decision making

Decisions are crucial because they influence managerial and organizational actions. A
choice of action made with intention to accomplish organizational or managerial objectives
or goals can be referred to as a decision. Decision making is a constant and essential part
of managing any organization or business operations. Decisions are made to maintain
organizational operations and all company activity.
The process of making a decision regarding something important, especially in a group of
individuals or in an organization, according to the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary.
According to Trewatha and Newport (1982), the decision-making process entails choosing
a plan of action from among two or more viable choices in order to find a solution for a
specific problem.
Regardless of the decision's kind, decision-making is the act of figuring out what options
are available to address a problem and then selecting the most preferable one in accordance
with some criteria. It is selecting one course of action above other options.

Importance of decision making

Decision-making and managerial or administrative tasks are intimately interwoven and
inextricably linked. A school administrator must follow the process of decision-making
whenever he plans, organizes, orders, advises, approves, or disapproves anything. Making
decisions is a necessary component of all managerial tasks.
Thus, managerial functions and decision-making are inextricably linked to one another.
The process of decision-making must be followed by a manager whenever he plans,
organizes, orders, advises, approves, or disapproves anything. The ability to make
decisions is a necessary component of all managerial tasks.

➢ In reality, managers are continually faced with making decisions throughout the entire
planning process. The success of the plans that management makes is greatly influenced
by the caliber of decisions they make. The management must decide on the organization's
structure, work-sharing arrangements, types of relationships and responsibilities, how these
will be established, and other factors during the organizing process.

➢ Making decisions is crucial for ensuring unity of action in coordination. It will need to
decide how to develop the standard, how to correct deviations from the norm, how to
construct the guiding principles, how to issue instructions, and so forth.

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➢ The secret to effective managing performance is having the ability to make wise decisions.
The managers of the majority of profit-seeking businesses are frequently needed to make
a variety of crucial decisions involving pricing, product selection, cost management,
advertising, capital investments, dividend policy, personnel issues, etc. Similarly,
managers of public businesses and non-profit organizations must make critical decisions
on a variety of significant issues.
➢ Making decisions is another factor in determining a person's status as a manager or not. He
is considered to be a member of the management team if he participates in decision-
making.
➢ Conditions are never steady in any organization or institution; they are always perceptually
dynamic. The old always giving way to the new, whether in terms of personnel or
unexpected situations. The norm is usually for conditions to change. A situation like this
necessitates decision-based activities.

You now know the importance of decision making in schools. You might be aware that
classroom teachers are often not involved in decision making even when the issues concern
their work. Before we proceed, do the following activity with your study partner near you.

Activity 5.3.2
Kindly take a piece of paper and without referring to the module, write 3 ways that school
administrators can adapt to involve teachers in decision making in the schools.
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Now, read on and compare your answer to what we have here.

Effective ways to involve teachers in decision-making

Scenario
Angry teachers leave a staff meeting in a mass exodus. Everyone has just been ordered
to forfeit one planning period every week to cover a colleague's class due to unheard-of
absences during the COVID pandemic. One teacher says to another, "We are already
covering so many classes as it is," which an assistant head teacher overhears. They
should not be forcing us to do this when we already have a lot on our plates.
The head teacher's countenance indicates that she overheard their dialogue as the
assistant head teacher turns to her as their conversation ends. The head teacher responds,
"It's not like we love putting forth these requests. Is assisting once each week really that
difficult?

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 This hypothetical situation demonstrates how disagreements between headteachers and
teachers might happen when the latter do not ask for their direct feedback on the issues that
affect them the most.

Why are teachers so frequently left out of choices that have an impact on their ability to
teach and learn?
How would the teachers respond if they were engaged in a conversation with the head
teacher about what the best course of action was?

Administrators are able to benefit from teacher knowledge in three areas: inclusive hiring,
reciprocal coaching, and avenues of communication.

Inclusive hiring
Anxiety may arise when a new teacher joins the faculty. What is it going to be like working
with this person? Will they be a helpful and adaptable teammate, or will everyone be forced
to work with a team member who doesn't contribute? Although the hiring process
significantly affects teachers' working lives, they frequently receive no input. Even while
it would be a bit more work to have instructors participate in the hiring process, most of
them will be happy to put in the time if they have the chance to comment on potential
coworkers and their knowledge of curriculum and instruction.

The chances of choosing and keeping qualified instructors rise when the following
practices are used:
• Make sure the interview panel consists of experienced teachers. These people benefit from
having various teaching philosophies.
• Asking teachers for assistance in creating interview questions that focus on a particular
grade level or subject area may help you direct the selection process toward instructional
skills. In the absence of this, applicants might never discuss their particular knowledge.
• If possible, let interviewees demonstrate how to deliver a lesson to the panel, either in
person or on a taped video.
• Interviews frequently fall short of accurately demonstrating a teacher's knowledge of the
classroom, but by giving more teachers a voice, administrators will be able to judge a
candidate's long-term viability, and teachers will be able to choose dependable colleagues.

Reciprocal coaching
Teachers may find it alluring to keep classroom activities private and avoid discussing them
with administrators, but doing so creates a barrier between administration and instruction.
Reciprocal coaching has several advantages since it enables leaders and teachers to have

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structured discussions that influence one another's work. Teachers find it much harder to
have professional empathy for administrators and leaders find it much more difficult to
gain from a tighter connection to classroom practice without the experience of sharing
goals and seeing one another in action.
Consider a scenario in which the administrator wants to spend more time observing the
classroom and the teacher wants to expand opportunities for learner-to-learner interaction.
By first determining what data will signal the achievement of the stated goal and then
choosing one or two strategies that are appropriate for the circumstance, they can assist one
another in backward-mapping their targets.
Each individual can hold the other to account and offer helpful comments using this
strategy during regularly scheduled sessions. Reciprocal coaching will be prepared for use
on a broader scale once the procedure has been refined and modified in response to
feedback from the pilot group of teachers and leaders.

Communication
Even when they are in the same room, administrators and instructors frequently have a
physical distance that can lead to miscommunication or unnecessary conflict. Stronger
interpersonal links help teachers exploit their knowledge by increasing the opportunity for
functional communication. Unofficial discourse has a lot of power. If administrators wish
to close the gap between excellent instruction and effective leadership, they must
consistently work to include their perspective. Sometimes administrators have divided
attention, juggling many conversations or devices at the time that teachers approach them
for a conversation. This sends a strong (though unintended) message that leaders are too
busy managing the school to care about their staff. These actions have a significant impact
on conveying the idea that teachers' voices matter. School administrators can find flexible
ways to make themselves accessible for informal discussions with staff.

Now, read the scenario below to see how this is sorted by some administrators.

Scenario
My former head teacher would often bring his work into the staff common room, quietly
take a seat and concentrate on his work until someone started a conversation with him
about a variety of subjects, from personal to professional. Teachers' confidence in him
increased as they became used to seeing him in this shared space. The resultant benefit
was even more important: Teachers now had a regular forum where they could voice
their queries and grievances to an accessible leader in a secure environment.

Dear Learner Teacher, does this happen in your school? Do you wish to have this kind of
school administrator? Can you practice this if you were an administrator?

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 Note that communication is a powerful tool that can help dispel wrong perceptions and
build trust among people. School administrators should avail themselves to listen to their
subordinates so that together they can work towards improving learning outcomes in the
school.

Dear Learner Teacher, in this section, we explained decision making and the need for
making decisions. We discussed that teachers can be involved in decision making at the
school level by including them in appointment interviews, or allowing them write interview
questions for administrators.

You can now assess your understanding of the section by attempting the questions provided
below.
Self-Assessment Questions
1. Explain what decision making mean in your own words
2. Write 4 importance of decision making in basic schools
3. Identify 3 effective ways to involve teachers in decision-making

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SECTION 4: MEANING AND THE NEED FOR SUPERVISION IN INCLUSIVE
UPPER PRIMARY SCHOOLS

Our dear Learner Teacher, you are warmly welcome to the Fourth Section of the Fifth Unit.
In the just ended section three, we learned the meaning and need for decision making in
the school system, we also discussed the need to involve teachers in taking decisions that
concerns their work so as to enjoy the benefits that come with it. In this section our focus
in on supervision in inclusive Upper Primary schools. You are aware that teachers are at
the centre when talking about supervision in schools. Do you think that teachers’
involvement in decision making will enhance supervision? Well, we want to introduce you
to the meaning, need and types of supervision. We will dwell much on the steps in clinical
supervision. We encourage you to pay keen attention and contribute to discourse.
The Section Outline is made of the following sub-sections
• Meaning of Supervision
• The Need for Supervision
• Types and Models of Supervision
• Clinical Supervision

Learning Outcome Indicators

On successful completion of this
section, you will:
Exhibit understanding and 1. Explain the meaning of supervision
application of communication, 2. Give 3 reasons why supervision is needed
decision-making and supervision in 3. Write 4 steps in clinical supervision
the administration of inclusive basic
schools (NTS 1e, 2d, 3f).

We want to begin our discussion in this section with an understanding of what

supervision is. It may be appropriate to try your own definition before we proceed. What
do you think?

Activity 5.4.1
Before you read on, write your understanding of what supervision is and share with the
class.
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Now, read on and compare your thoughts with what we have here. Hope you got it right.
Meaning of Supervision
Let us now talk about the idea of supervision of education, which, despite being one of the
topics that is most frequently discussed, is the one that many people find to be the least
clear. Nwaogu (1980) defined supervision of instruction as the process of enhancing
instruction by collaborating with individuals who work with learners. It is a method of
encouraging professional development and assisting teachers in assisting themselves.
In reality, the goal of every school supervision program is to enhance instruction. In other
words, supervision is carried out to support instruction and learning in educational settings.
Therefore, it is concerned with providing for all the requirements that are necessary for
successful teaching to result in effective learning.
Another explanation that can be given of supervision of teaching is that it is seen as an
administrative action of what school staff do with persons and objects to maintain or alter
how the school is run for the purpose of influencing the achievement of the school's
instructional objectives. Thus, an individual person working with headteachers, or others
at the district or regional office level to improve curriculum implementation, is performing
the function of supervision. The educational system, which is focused on enhancing
learning with teaching as the fundamental set of achievement procedures, is related to
instructional supervision.

The Need for Supervision

Are you wondering why instructional supervision is necessary? Can you share your
thoughts with the class? Good, now continue reading to learn instructional supervision
seeks to accomplish.

We live in a time when changes are taking place in all facets of life, thus supervision of
instruction in schools has become essential. The demands placed on education by society
have increased as a result of these changes, which have also had an impact on all other
social institutions in Ghana. This is understandable considering that the cost of educating
children today is largely borne by the taxpayer, and that society's children attend schools.
As a result, school administrators now have a bigger need to explain to the taxpayer how
well their teaching efforts have worked in the classroom.
You may recall that the Ghanaian government and parents have recently been quite critical
of Ghanaian schools because they believe the schools are not doing the jobs allocated to
them satisfactorily.
Ghanaians are conscious that education, which starts in school, is crucial to the future of
their nation.

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➢ The aim of instructional monitoring not only focus to enhance the services of teachers but
also to improve the entire teaching-learning process and the learning environment as a
whole (Burton, 1955).
➢ In order to maintain quality in teaching and learning at the school, ongoing efforts must be
made to monitor what is going on and provide the needed assistance to teachers and head
teachers. It is impossible to accomplish quality education delivery if nothing is done to
control what teachers do in the classroom, which is why there must be instructional
monitoring in schools.
➢ There is the need for supervision and direction in all situations where individuals get
together to act for a common goal in order to achieve the desired result. The greatest good
is thereby ensured; without it, meaningful advancement is impossible (Neagley & Evans,
1970)
➢ From observation, there is a significant difference between the work output and conditions
in schools where good supervision is the norm and those found in schools where teachers
are free to implement the inadequate teaching strategies from their own formative years.
➢ The method of initial training for teachers is adequate to support them throughout their
careers as teachers. A teacher must continuously learn and re-learn their role during their
entire career in education. It is not something they study in colleges of education and
universities once and for all. A teacher loses his or her eligibility to teach if they stop
learning new things. Teachers develop their ability to teach by refreshing the educational
experience. As a result, teachers must always be under observation when teaching in the
classroom.
➢ You would also concur that there are many teachers who, through hard work and extensive
experience, hone their craft and produce the best outcomes. Despite this, according to
Neagley and Evans (1970), intelligently supervised schools outperform those without any
mechanism for instructional supervision in terms of learner achievement.

Types and Models of Supervision

Neagley and Evan (1970) have indicated that supervision can be internal and external.
They described internal supervision as the kind that headteachers or principals of training
colleges conduct within specific schools and institutions. The everyday administration and
oversight of these authorities is typically seen as the responsibility of these authorities.
According to Carey (1953), internal supervision encompasses all of the tasks that teachers
conduct in the classroom to ensure that the goals of the school are being met. Internal
monitoring is the action that teachers do while they are teaching to ensure that the goals
they have established are frequently met (Elsbeen, 1967).
In another scenario, Acheson and Gall (1992) identified two types of supervision as:
traditional and clinical supervisions. The supervisor is implicitly assumed to be the
instructional expert in traditional supervision as it is often applied. In contrast, clinical
supervision assumes that both the instructor and the supervisor are instructional specialists.
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The teacher identifies his or her problems, and the supervisor works with the teacher to
analyze the lesson and produce improved lessons. Traditional supervision involves the
supervisor making recommendations to the teacher, which latter may not find useful. The
supervisor speaks, and the teacher merely listens and must follow instructions verbatim.
The fundamental issue is that supervisors frequently offer advice and solutions for issues
that concern them personally rather than those that affect instructors in their schools.
On the other hand, Acheson and Gall (1992) posits that clinical supervision is intended to
involve the teacher and the supervisor in a cooperative and participatory process that offers
frank feedback on instruction, detects faults with it, and offers solutions. Helps teachers
create techniques to encourage learning, engage learners, and control the classroom.
Furthermore, it fosters in educators a favorable attitude toward ongoing professional
development, which can be used to assess educators for promotion, retention and
reprimand (Oliva, 1993).

For the purpose of our discussion, we want to focus on clinical supervision since it is the
best in improving teachers’ skills and outcomes

Activity 5.4.2

Our Dear Learner Teacher, please spend 2 minutes to reflect on the concept “clinical
supervision”. Discuss with a friend and share with the entire class what you arrived at.
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Now, read on and compare your thoughts with what we have here. Hope you got it right.

Clinical Supervision
One of the supervisor's main responsibilities is to observe classroom teaching activities and
offer advice to teachers so that they can develop and improve their teaching abilities.
Clinical supervision is a five-step method that tries to assist the teacher in problem
identification and clarification, data collection from the supervisor, and solution
development with the supervisor's guidance. The five steps of clinical supervision consist
of:
1. The pre-observation conference,
2. The observation,
3. The analysis and strategy,
4. The supervisory or post-observation conference, and

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5. The post-conference analysis.

Why must the supervisor have a conversation with the teacher before observing the
teacher's instruction? What are the benefits to both teacher and supervisor?

Pre-observation conference
This is a meeting between a teacher and a supervisor who plans to observe the teacher in
action in a classroom. Establishing or re-establishing rapport, learning about the class of
learners who will be observed, learning about the lesson that will be taught, and suggesting
small changes that might make the lesson better, learning about the targets (or developing
a contract), and understanding the remainder of the clinical supervision cycle are the goals
of the pre-observation conference.
The supervisor tries to create a calm atmosphere and a sense of identification with the
teacher in order to build rapport. There is need to become familiar with the class in general,
its traits and characteristics, and the instructional strategies this class seems to respond well
to.
Allow the teacher to explain the upcoming lesson and what the class has been studying
prior to the observation. This enables the supervisor to view this session as a continuous
teaching experience rather than a discrete teaching encounter and to share a perspective
with the teacher.
The teacher continues by outlining the topics the class will cover on the day of the
observation, the lesson's goals, and the steps she/he will take to achieve these goals. At this
stage, if the supervisor has any questions about a specific section of the class, he or she
may ask the teacher to clarify before making a few small ideas to make the session better.
Together with the teacher, establish goals or targets for teaching subjects that are pertinent.
Before the first phase of the pre-observation conference is over, the supervisor should let
the teacher know that they will be taking notes throughout the lesson. Whatever goals are
established should be explicit, and both the supervisor and the teacher should be very clear
on what each item in the contract means.

The observation
➢ The supervisor should enter the room as discretely as possible while serving as the
observer, avoid making eye contact with the learners or teacher, and take a seat as
swiftly as possible near the entrance rather than in the back of the classroom.
➢ The supervisor should endeavour to write down everything that occurs during the
lecture. This is because writing is easier to access for lesson analysis, it is preferred to
recording on audiotape.
➢ It is crucial that the supervisor accurately documents what happens without adding any
of his or her own interpretations.

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➢ It is also crucial that he or she does not focus solely on the information they feel is
significant. This is because, a relatively inconsequential occurrence may take on
greater significance when viewed in the context of the complete lesson.
➢ The supervisor once more softly and discretely leaves the room after the observation.

The analysis and strategy

The manager first goes over his or her notes in relation to the established goals. In order to
make sure the notes accurately reflect what happened during the observation, the observer
must go over his or her notes to look for important instructor trends and crucial incidences.
The term "teacher patterns" refers to recurrent teacher verbal and nonverbal behaviors, such
as utilizing the same phrase or word for learner reinforcement throughout the course,
calling on the same learners, frowning frequently, or repeating a word. Critical incidents
are teacher actions that have a significant impact on the lesson in either a positive or bad
way. The supervisor must choose his or her plan for how to continue at the meeting once
all of the analysis is complete. He or she will need to think about:
• How defensive the teacher is,
• The nature of teacher’s relationship with learners
• Teacher's capacity to put any suggestions for change into action
Supervisor should deal with the contract items agreed on first before moving on to other
items that came from his or her analysis of the observation, with the teacher's consent. The
pre-observation conference could start with a review of the teacher's goals that were
presented to the supervisor.

Then, the instructor and the supervisor might talk about how well and for how many
learners the goals were accomplished. From such a base, plans for remedial instruction and
follow-up exercises can develop. The supervisor's sensitivity to the teacher's perceived
requirements will serve as the best indication of how to start the conference, regardless of
how it is initiated.
The supervisory or post-observation conference
This conference may be well known to many supervisors as it is the only one they hold
when using traditional supervision. The post-observation conference's goals are to:
❖ review the contract items;
❖ make specific notes;
❖ give teachers a chance to comment on their own performance and what you have
observed;
❖ discuss the supervisor's monitoring instrument, if any; and
❖ jointly plan a lesson with teachers that incorporates the supervisor's suggestions (if
appropriate).

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 The instructor receives feedback on the parts of instruction that are of concern to him or
her during the post-observation session. The reviewer should start out with compliments
before moving on to constructive criticism.
It is advised that he or she should provide the more defensive teacher primarily positive
comments and the more stable teacher a mix of the two. Whatever course of action the
supervisor takes, he or she should use his or her notes to provide detailed critique.
The supervisor may assist the teacher in developing his or her subsequent lesson plan so
that it incorporates the changes that both of them have highlighted as the conference's final
action.

The post-conference analysis.

The supervisor analyses the recently concluded conference and assesses its merits and
flaws in this last stage of clinical supervision. He or she will want to reflect on the following
issues:
• Did I respect the teacher's professional integrity?
• Did I utilize professional language and rephrase things to give the impression that we had
an understanding when there wasn't one?
• Was there a good balance between the teacher and my discussion time?
• Was feedback on contract items detailed and backed by the notes from classroom
observations?
• In light of the teacher's interpretation, was the lesson analysis sufficient?
• Was the deal acceptable? Was it precise? Was I able to persuade the teacher to include
clauses in the contract that concerned him?

Dear Learner Teacher, we have come to the end of yet another section. We focused out
attention on the meaning and need for supervision in basic schools. We identified pre-
observation conference, observation, analysis and strategy, supervisory or post-observation
conference, and post-conference analysis as the components of clinical supervision.

Self-Assessment Questions
1. Explain the term supervision
2. Give 3 reasons why supervision is needed in basic schools
3. Write 4 steps in clinical supervision
4.

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 SECTION 5: CHALLENGES OF SUPERVISION

You are heartily welcome, our dear Learner Teacher to the Fifth Section of the Fifth Unit.
We discussed supervision in section four where we looked at meaning, need and types of
supervision. We also looked at clinical supervision as the form of supervision that focuses
on providing support for teachers to improve. In this section, we want to concentrate on
the challenges facing supervision in the basic schools and how to overcome them. These
are issues that concerns teachers as such we encourage you to contribute to the discussion
as you always did. Relax, and let us move on.
The Section Outline is made of the following sub-sections
• Challenges of Supervision
• Overcoming challenges in supervision
• Criteria for Appraising Teachers

Learning Outcome Indicators

On successful completion of this
section, you will:
Exhibit understanding and application of 1. Identify 4 challenges of Supervision
communication, decision-making and 2. Suggest 4 ways to overcome the
supervision in the administration of challenges confronting supervision in
inclusive basic schools (NTS 1e, 2d, basic schools
3f). 3. List 3 criteria for appraising teachers

At an effort to support good teaching and learning in your school, we assume that as a
teacher you have participated in instructional supervision in one way or another.
What do you see as some of the obstacles to efficient monitoring in your school?

Challenges of Supervision
Many people involved in the education system in Ghana believe that classroom, district,
and institutional supervision of instruction is inefficient. The main reason for poor teaching
and learning results is inefficient supervision. Despite all of these objections, supervision
is a rare occurrence and frequently functions just as a token activity that falls short of its
intended goals. Let us consider some of the challenges of supervision in basic education
system.
• Indefinite location of authority and responsibility
• Insufficient of time for supervision
• Negative attitude of teachers toward supervisor
• Mobility difficulty on the part of supervisors

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Activity 5.5.1
Explain any 3 challenges confronting supervision in Ghana Education Service and suggest
ways to address them. Do this without referring to the module.
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Well done. We hope you found this task useful. Now read on and compare your answers
with what we present here to see how well you performed.

Indefinite location of authority and responsibility

Clarifying the links between the various supervisory agencies is one of the challenging
difficulties in the organization of instructional supervision, according to Boardman et al.
(1953). It is wise to provide a clear place for power and accountability as well as a clear
assignment of tasks and responsibilities when organizing educational activities like
instruction.

Let us now examine the structure of instructional supervision in our schools as well as the
connections between the entities concerned. An Assistant Director oversees school
supervision for each district's education directorate, working with other officers. They
oversee instruction in all the schools they oversee and evaluate teachers' performance from
the district education office.
Additionally, there is a Circuit Supervisor, who reports directly to the Assistant Director in
charge of curriculum oversight. The Circuit Supervisor makes visits to a number of schools
in a given town or community to assist in enhancing instruction and learner learning by
offering qualified direction and counsel to teachers and school administrators. Additionally,
they assess the management abilities of head teachers, assess the professional competency
of teachers, and provide the necessary support for teachers to perform better in their
classrooms.

The head of school, who is naturally headquartered in the school where the curriculum is
being used, is also responsible for overseeing instruction. To help the teachers perform
better on the job, they offer training. In order to fairly evaluate the teachers and support
their professional development, the head of school must carefully examine their work and
compile trustworthy information on them over time.
In order to prevent the duplication of efforts and occasionally unhealthy rivalry that may
result in nobody doing this vital work, the educational authorities must give specific tasks
to each of the three officers defined as being in charge of overseeing instruction in our
schools. In order to prevent misunderstandings, conflicts, and uncertainty regarding
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authority and obligations, the Ghana Education Service must explicitly identify each
office's authority as well as assign roles and tasks. Such an action will go a long way toward
providing the tools and strategies necessary to assure the successful collaboration,
coordination, and correlation of initiatives to enhance education in our schools.

Insufficient of time for supervision

Finding time to supervise is the second issue that has been identified as impeding the head
of school's ability to monitor education in schools. The head of school is required to act as
the lead or first-line supervisor when it comes to instructional supervision in the classroom.
They are expected to completely understand what is going on in their classes because they
are the institution's leaders. They will benefit from knowing each teacher's degree of
proficiency in the classroom. As a result, a head of school should occasionally observe and
evaluate a lesson from beginning to end before sharing his or her findings with the
concerned instructor.
Alila et al. (2016) has noted that some of the things that interfere with the head of inclusive
school's supervision time include: public relations activities, administrative tasks,
meetings, discipline issues, personnel issues, and parent challenges. Since these take up a
larger portion of their time, many head of schools try to handle these things that seem more
urgent and necessary first. As a result, supervision efforts are pushed to the back burner,
and they never have time to oversee.
Similar to this, in most institutions where the head of school is not detached, or
emancipated from classroom teaching, teaching consumes a significant portion of the head
of school's time, preventing them from giving oversight of instruction the proper attention.

Negative attitude of teachers toward supervisor

Generally speaking, some teachers have a hostile attitude toward instructional supervisors.
One of the most significant barriers to effective instructional supervision is undoubtedly
this. Some instructors think they know more about what they do in the classroom than the
head or the visiting supervisor from some other education office. As a result, not all
teachers are happy to see the supervisor. This is particularly true when the teachers in
question have a university diploma or degree. Despite the circuit supervisors' extensive
professional expertise and potential lack of a degree, such diploma and graduate lecturers
may not fully recognise the competence of the head. Academic credentials appear to be
more important than professional experience in the teaching profession.

What, in your opinion, can be done to address this situation as a teacher with years of
experience teaching?

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We are recommending that GES hire experienced graduate teachers as Heads of Schools
and Circuit Supervisors to oversee academic work in the school. These teachers should
also receive further training. What do you suggest?
Mobility difficulty on the part of supervisors
The majority of the time, the instructional supervisors who are tasked with visiting teachers
in their schools to support their professional growth are unable to do so as regularly as one
might anticipate. Wherever the schools may be, supervision necessitates numerous trips
between the district office, the circuit office, and each individual school. Supervisors need
a mode of transportation for such frequent trips. Individual officials are unable to secure
personal transportation due to financial challenges. Currently, each district office for
education has two cars, one of which is set aside for the district director of education.
Supervisors are typically not transported to and from schools in the other car, which is
intended for other purposes.

Although some circuit supervisors have received motor bicycles, the issue has only
partially been resolved because those supervisors who have motor bicycles struggle with
an erratic supply of fuel for the bicycles due to a lack of resources at the district education
offices.
Most supervisors must use public transportation since their offices lack official
automobiles. In these situations, supervisors rarely visit the schools in the most isolated
locations, which are those who need them the most.
Some supervisors are able to make their own travel arrangements to visit the schools and
then wait for reimbursement. The payment of these reimbursements is postponed until the
government subventions are paid each quarter. Beyond occasionally being late, these
subsidies are frequently insufficient. Because they typically do not receive a full
reimbursement for their expenses, such supervisors are deterred from making more trips at
their own cost.

Let us now consider strategies to overcome these challenges.

How to Overcome the Challenges Facing Instructional Supervision

The following are suggestions to mitigate the challenges of instructional supervision in
basic schools

➢ To prevent overlap and conflict, all sorts of supervisors who work in schools must have
their roles outlined.
➢ School administrators should not have to teach their own class. This will provide them
more time to assist teachers in enhancing instruction and learner learning.
➢ School-level supervisors should be carefully chosen to ensure that they are both
intellectually and professionally equipped to gain the respect of classroom teachers.

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➢ All instructional supervisors must receive financial assistance from the Ghana
Education Service in order to purchase their own vehicles, which they can use to travel
between schools and improve instructional supervision.
➢ Supervisors who drive their own automobiles to the schools should receive
reasonable levels of vehicle maintenance allowances.
➢ Supervisors must receive a weekly fuel allotment.
➢ All circuit supervisors must be assisted in obtaining motor bicycles that will be
routinely fueled so they may travel to the local schools.
➢ All district directors of education must be assisted in purchasing a personal vehicle.
As a result, they will be able to release the official vehicles from the district offices
to increase instructional supervision in the outlying locations.
➢ Instructional supervisors' working circumstances should be improved to recruit
highly qualified individuals to the district education offices and aid in enhancing
teaching and learning in our schools.

We want to conclude this section by looking at the criteria for appraising teachers. Do you
think that there should be a laid down structure of how teachers should be appraised? List
what you have in mind for discussion when we meet for face-to-face.

Criteria for Appraising Teachers

Appraisal is a thorough process that is also encouraging and developmental. It seeks to
ensure that all teachers have the knowledge and resources they need to perform their jobs
successfully. It makes it possible for teachers to advance in their careers and continue to
enhance their professional practices.
Performance evaluation is the process of evaluating an employee's performance on the job
for administrative and developmental purposes, according to Bateman and Snell (1996).
Performance reviews give information for administrative purposes that can be used later.
On the other side, the information acquired must be used to identify employees' training
needs and arrange their careers for the developmental purpose.
Comparing current performance to standards that have already been established and
communicated to employees is how performance assessment is carried out. Employees are
then given feedback regarding their performance level with the goal of helping them
improve it as needed by the organization.

Like any other business, GES regularly appraises the performance of its staff. The
Inspectorate Division carries out its mandate through the circuit supervisors, heads of
schools, and other designated individuals.
Performance reviews can be conducted using a variety of techniques. However, it seems
that no single approach is completely effective, necessitating the use of a variety of

159
 methodologies in order to make an objective appraisal of an employee based on the balance
of possibilities. There are a few fundamental documents that the appraiser relies on when
evaluating the work of staff teachers. These consist, among other things, of the following:
lesson note books, log books, staff attendance books, movement books, learner’s
attendance registers, cumulative record books, and learner exercise books.
The Teacher Performance Appraisal is based on seven performance standards for teaching:
knowledge of learners
1. Content knowledge and planning
2. Instructional delivery
3. Safe, effective learning environments
4. Managing learners' behavior
5. Communication and collaboration
6. Professionalism and
7. Assessment of learning and learner academic progress.

Once again, we have come to the end of another section. In this section, we concentrated
on the challenges in supervision in basic schools and how to address them. Specifically, we
identified indefinite location of authority and responsibility, insufficient of time for
supervision, Negative attitude of teachers toward supervisor and mobility difficulty on the
part of supervisors as factors hindering effective supervision in the basic schools. We also
discussed how these hindrances can be addressed and the criteria for appraising teachers.

Self-Assessment Questions
2. Identify 4 challenges of confronting supervision in the basic schools.
3. Suggest 4 strategies to overcome the challenges confronting supervision in basic schools.
4. List 3 criteria for appraising teachers.

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 UNIT 6
INCLUSIVE SCHOOL CLIMATE AND SCHOOL-COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIP

Dear Learner Teacher, you are cordially welcome to the Sixth and final Unit of this module.
We want to congratulate you for how far you have come in this course. In this unit we will
discuss the meaning, types and importance of inclusive school climate; types and principles
of school – community relationships and the roles played by relevant institutions in this.
Additionally, we will look at the national teachers’ standard. We are hopeful you will find
the information in this unit very useful for your work. Get your writing materials ready to
take down key points.

This unit is made up of the following sections:

SECTION 1: Types, Importance and Determinants of Inclusive School Climate
SECTION 2: Meaning, Types and Principles of School and Community Relationship
SECTION 3: The Need for Effective Relationship between Basic Schools and the
Community.
SECTION 4: The Role of Relevant Stakeholders in fostering cordial school-community
partnership.
SECTION 5: Professional Ethics and Values in Teaching

Course Learning Outcomes LEARNING INDICATORS

(CLO)
On successful completion of
the course, you would be able
to:
Exhibit knowledge and 6.1. Show evidence of understanding of the
understanding of inclusive concept of inclusive school climate and its
school climate in inclusive types.
Upper Primary School (NTS 6.2. Provide a clear evidence of understanding of
1e, 1f, 1g, 2f, 3h, 3o). the importance and determinants of inclusive
school climate.
6.3. Provide evidence of understanding of the
meaning, types and principles of school-
community partnership.
6.4. Show a clear understanding of the need for
effective school-community partnership and
ways to achieve it.

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 6.5. Demonstrate a clear application of the
appropriate strategies for effective
delegation and handling of conflicts in
inclusive basic schools and the community.
6.6. Provide a clear evidence of understanding of
the role of GES, SMC, Board of Governors,
PTA, in fostering cordial inclusive basic
school-community partnership.
Demonstrate understanding of 7.1. Identify the major National Teachers’
professional ethics and values Standards that relate to their experiences.
that portray teachers as good 7.2. Show evidence of understanding of how
role models in inclusive Upper teachers could become good models in
Primary schools (NTS 1c, 1d, inclusive Upper Primary schools.
1f, 1g, 2a, 2c, 3n, 3o).

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SECTION 1: TYPES, IMPORTANCE AND DETERMINANTS OF INCLUSIVE
SCHOOL CLIMATE

We warmly welcome, our dear Learner Teacher to the First Section of the Sixth Unit in
this module. In this section, we want to focus our attention on the inclusive school climate.
Specifically, we will be discussing the meaning, types and importance of inclusive school
climate. We will end the section by considering factors that determine the inclusive school
climate. Your knowledge of these will enable you contribute to building a congenial
climate in your schools. Do pay keen attention and share your ideas.

The Section Outline is made of the following sub-sections

• Meaning of Inclusive School Climate
• Types of Inclusive School Climate
• Importance of Inclusive School Climate
• Determinants of Inclusive School Climate

Learning Outcome Indicators

On successful completion of this
section, you will:
Exhibit knowledge and 1. Describe what an Inclusive school climate is
understanding of inclusive 2. State the 3 basic types of inclusive school
school climate (NTS 1e, 1f, 1g, climate
2f, 3h, 3o). 3. List 3 importance of inclusive school climate
4. Identify 4 determinants of inclusive schools
climate

Inclusive School Climate

Elias (1979) defined school climate as a consistent set of organizational traits that captures
the unique tenor or ambiance of a school. The standard and nature of school life can be
referred to as the school climate. Because of this, it should be founded on patterns of
experiences that learners, parents, and school staff have within the institution and reflect
norms, goals, values, interpersonal connections, instructional strategies, and organizational
structures.
A school climate is inclusive when it create a positive ambiance for all learners and workers
to live peacefully, work collaboratively and support one another to achieve their optimum
potential. In such a schools, administrators strive to provide the needed resources,
professional development opportunities to enable teachers meet the learning needs of all

163
learners. There are three basic types of school climate: the open, closed and interpretative
climates. For the purpose of our discussion, we will concentrate on the open climate which
has been recommended for schools that strive for inclusion and improved learning
outcomes.
We will encourage you to read on the other two types so you can better appreciate why the
open climate is recommended.
Feldman (2000) underlines the need of the school adopting an open climate that fosters
communication among all of its constituent parts.
Importance of School Climate
The expressive qualities in schools have been the main source of the school climate's
openness. The following are some characteristics of open school climate;

• In an open climate, teachers tend to be more devoted, loyal, and content.

• Additionally, learners tend to feel less alienated in open environments. This suggests
that an open school environment will deter rude or insensitive behaviour toward
learners.
• Positive relationships between learners, teachers, and administrators
• In open school climates, school administrators are approachable, understanding, and
encouraging at all times
• There is constant motivation among school head, teachers and learners in the pursuit
of academic greatness.
• The culture of the workplace encourages instructors to establish ambitious but
attainable goals for themselves and their learners.
• Teachers are empowered by a school that fosters open, healthy, and collegial
professional interactions as well as solid academic integrity (Cayla, 2008).
Benefits of Open School Climate

• Teachers are empowered by a school that fosters open, healthy, and collegial
professional interactions as well as solid academic integrity (Cayla, 2008).
• Teachers plan more, take responsibility for learner performance, and are not
discouraged by brief setbacks to boost learner learning.
• Teachers can arrange and carry out their teaching in ways that are beneficial in helping
learners learn.
• Learners consequently take an active role in their education.
• Learners do admirably in their coursework, which has a good impact on school
effectiveness.

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Activity 6.1.1
Dear Learner Teacher, kindly take your jotter and without looking into the book write 3
benefits of having an open school climate.
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You can now refer to the module to see if the answers you wrote are correct.
Well done. Let us turn our focus on the factors that influence an inclusive school climate.

Determinants of Inclusive School Climate

School climate reflects how members of a school community experience their
environment. The following factors influence the nature of school climate

Safety factor
The safety factor includes all the rules, policies, and customs pertaining to people's
emotional, social, and physical security. A school will have a safe school climate if it has
clear policies regarding verbal and physical abuse and is attentive to those problems.
Schools assist learners in worrying less about potential danger and concentrating on
studying by making sure they feel protected. The physical school infrastructure is devoid
of impediment and enhance easy mobility of all.

Teaching and learning factor

A teacher who does not support or give learners constructive criticism is harming the
culture of the classroom. A bad school climate is also being created by an administration
that does not care about promoting ethical decision-making and constructive dispute
resolution. Both of these instances relate to the school climate's teaching and learning
component. Teachers and other professionals ought to make an effort to foster a learning
atmosphere where all learners irrespective of their abilities and background are
intellectually challenged and behave honourably.
Interpersonal relationships
In order to have a good school climate, schools should foster healthy,
supportive interpersonal relationships at every level. This means encouraging respect
and acceptance for differences among learners and adults. It also means creating and
maintaining social support systems for both teachers and learners. No one can be successful
on their own, so a school must have systems in place to ensure that no one is 'left out in the
cold.'

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School environment
It takes a series of proactive actions to make sure that the environment is welcoming and
inclusive for all learners, culturally relevant, and affirming. Structures that can encourage
such efforts include extracurricular activities that are socially inclusive and supportive, as
well as curriculum materials and activities that are culturally responsive and affirming.
These must be used in heterogeneous classrooms that offer universal access to high-quality
curriculum. Practices that uphold learners' worth, and eliminate stereotype risks are crucial
within these institutions. The physical surroundings and the general school connectedness
and engagement should be accessible and friendly to all learners. Positive attitudes of
teachers and all members of the school community where they recognize and comprehend
the unique experiences, assets, needs, and histories of each individual learner.

Our cherished Learner Teacher, well done for following through to the end of this section.
We discussed what an Inclusive school climate is, identified the basic types of school
climate, the importance of inclusive school climate and factors that determine inclusive
school climate. We entreat you to test your understanding by responding to the self-
assessment questions. Good luck.

Self-Assessment Questions
1. In not more than 4 lines, describe what an Inclusive school climate is.
2. List the 3 basic types of school climate that was discussed.
3. Write any 4 importance of inclusive school climate.
4. Identify 4 determinants influencing inclusive school climate.

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 SECTION 2: MEANING, TYPES AND PRINCIPLES OF INCLUSIVE SCHOOL-
COMMUNITY RELATIONSHIP

Hello, Learner Teacher, you are welcome to the Second Section of the Sixth Unit in this
module. You learned about the meaning, types and determinants of Inclusive School
Climate in the first section of this unit. Our focus in this section shall be on inclusive school
community relationship. We shall concentrate on the meaning and types of school-
community relations as well as the principles guiding it. As you pay keen attention to the
discussions, do not hesitate to share your views and lived experiences with us.

The Section Outline is made of the following sub-sections

• Meaning of School-Community Relationship
• Types of School-Community Relationship
• Principles of School-Community Relationship

Learning Outcome Indicators

On successful completion of this
section, you will:
Exhibit knowledge and 1. Explain School-Community Relationship
understanding of inclusive 2. State 3 types of School-Community
school climate and school- Relationship
community relationship (NTS 3. Identify 4 principles of Inclusive School-
1e, 1f, 1g, 2f, 3h, 3o). Community Relationship

A community
In Anukam (2010), Mussazi defined community as a group of people who have a similar
home, shared history, and are connected by several economic, social, religious, and
kingship links. There is a deep bond between the community and the land they live on as
well as a sense of oneness, communal life, and continuity over time. Afolabi, on the other
hand, described community as the child's local learning environment outside of his home
and school in Anukam (2010).
The community in which the school is located views it as an integral and essentially
inseparable part of society. Only through strong collaboration between the school and
community can the full benefits of education be achieved. Because this is where children
are shaped and changed to become useful and contributing members of society, the school
is necessary for civilization's continuous survival.

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The concept of School Community Relationship
According to Ajaniyi (2004), school community relationships are the coordination of
efforts made by members of the community and school to meet the general and more
detailed objectives of education. It entails the cooperation and interlinking of a school with
the host community (Okam & Bozimo, 2004). It is also focused with integrating human
resources into the neighborhood and school to support efficient and effective school
management.
In a similar vein, Ibiam (2015) asserts that a school is a social structure with semi-
permeable boundaries that permits interactions and resource exchange with its surrounding
environment. Thus, the idea of a school-community relationship can be defined as an
interaction or partnership that is mutually beneficial and works to advance both parties'
ability to coexist. Since the act of raising a kid is a joint obligation or effort of all
stakeholders in the training of a child, schools are supposed to supplement whatever the
child has learned at home in the process of developing him or her into a complete and
functional person (Duru-Uremadu, 2016).
Parents and/or guardians whose children attend the school and who make educational
investments in them should be aware of what is happening at the institution with regard to
the education of their offspring. The benefits that can be derived from such cooperative
relationships make it clear that school communities are necessary. This is so because the
neighborhood in which the school is located includes it
On the other hand, for the school to operate successfully, the local community must work
with it and offer its support (Ibiam, 2015). Therefore, it is essential that schools build and
maintain positive relationships with the local community where they are located.
The school is a formal and intricate institution set up inside a community to carry out
particular social functions. The community is a miniature society that depends on the
school's existence for its well-being, and the school depends on the community for its
ability to function. Anukam and Anukam (2006) described this unique relationship as
occurring within a macro community as a micro community. The importance of such
relationship are as follows:
(i) In order to avert cultural extinction, it is important to educate and shape a child's
habits, interests, attitudes, and feelings
(ii) Pass down social norms, culture, values, and tradition from one generation to the
next.
(iii) Provide and equip individuals with the knowledge, skills, talents, and capabilities
they need to survive and operate in society
(iv) Advocate for social and technological change when it is essential (Duru-Uremadu,
2016).

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Activity 6.2.1
With the various definitions given, try to provide your own definition of school community
relationship and share with the whole class.
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Well done. That was a good attempt. Now, let us look at the types of relationship between
the school and community.

Types of school community relationship

According to, Agi and Adiele (2009), there are basically three types or models of
relationships that characterize the school and community. They include the alienative
relationship, the model relationship, and the cooperative relationship. These will be
discussed here under.
The Alienative Relationship
An alienating relationship occurs when there is hardly any exchange of information or
resources between the community and the school. The school limits its operations to its
conventional responsibilities for teaching, learning, and refining the educational process.
The alienating form of school-community interactions is founded on the idea that the
community has little to give and that it is the duty of the government to cater for the needs
of the people in terms of education. This incorrect belief causes the school and the
community to overlook any aid or help that could be provided to one another. The school
and the community in this instance do not have a relationship. Therefore, the lack of a
symbiotic link between the school and its host community limits academic advancement,
particularly in a nation that is undergoing rapid change like Nigeria (Duru-Uremadu, 2016).
The Cooperative Relationship
Ibiam (2011) asserts that the foundation of this kind of school-community relationship is
the idea that both the school and the community have something to contribute and may
gain from one another. Based on this kind of relationship, the school administration can
develop a working relationship with the community in an effort to find opportunities for
interaction and gain. The cooperative school-community partnership acknowledges the
natural tendency for the school and community to be interdependent. As a result, high-
quality education is achieved.

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The Model Relationship
The partnership in which the school or the community benefits is referred to as the "model
type of school community relationship." In other words, one comes at the expense of the
other: the community or the school. Here, there is a relationship between a donor and a
recipient in which one side gives while the other only gets (Ibiam, 2015). This is not a
healthy form of connection, and because it is unbalanced, it can occasionally lead to
conflict between the school and the community it is hosted in, as is typical in some areas
in Nigeria.
Now let us focus on defining the principles that underpin positive school-community
relationship.
Principles of School Community Relationship
It is crucial to note that a strong bond between the community and the school depends
heavily on how well they both comprehend one another. The following principles can act
as a guide in determining strong and effective school-community relationship because
schools and communities differ according to location and circumstances.

• All staff members should support the community relations programme.

• A good school and community relationship should emphasize the goal and aspirations
of the school.
• The ability to provide accurate and precise information helps to build public
confidence in the school.
• Information disseminated should cover all aspects of the school's activities.
• Other educational agencies in the community should be understood, and their services
should be utilized in the community.
• A solid foundation for public relations programmes is provided by the common
functional areas of the family, the school, and other local organizations.
• A public relations strategy should be well-planned, with both short- and long-term
goals (Asiedu-Akrofi, 1978).
• Establish inclusive groups by adhering to national laws, regulations, and guidelines
that encourage community people to participate in school activities. Choose a suitable
framework for their involvement, such as a School Management Committee (SMC), a
School Development Committee (SDC), or Parent and Teachers Associations (PTA).
• Ensure that the bodies' members are reflective of the area the school serves.
• Define the roles, responsibilities, and rights of each organization in a written statement
in order to establish clear and mutually acceptable roles and rights.
• Lastly, regular communication and recurrent meetings should strengthen long-term
commitment. Regular meetings should be scheduled with consideration for the time so
that both working people and mothers/women can attend. It is crucial to keep track of

170
 all discussions, choices, and monetary and material contributions made by the
community.

Benefits of School Community Relationship

1. Strong school-community ties will keep parents informed about educational initiatives
so they may provide their kids wise advice, particularly about the selection of
examinable courses.
2. The community will recognize the teacher's worth and treat him or her with the same
respect as they do for doctors and lawyers.
3. Teachers will be able to provide the necessary leadership in their communities,
especially rural communities, in this way.
4. The community will learn to empathize with the school and will recommit itself to
supporting education as a necessary component of social growth and progress. An
example of such dedication would be greater financial assistance for the schools.
5. The home and the school work together to satisfy the needs of the children when there
is good communication between the two. Through the assistance of the school,
children might grow and become respectable people
6. The public's faith in the value and efficacy of education is strengthened. As a result,
parents will understand how crucial it is to enroll and maintain their kids in school,
especially girls.
7. The population's literacy rate would increase significantly. It is ensured that
information on environmental protection and preservation, as well as environmental
cleanliness, is available.
8. Learners, instructors, and parents feel a sense of belonging when there is a strong
connection between the school and the community. While fostering an inclusive
learning environment, it boosts learner learning opportunities.
9. All parties involved feel a strong sense of responsibility as a result. This is due to the
fact that everyone in the community is aware of their importance to learners' learning.

Dear Learner Teacher, we have come to the end of this section successfully. We learned
that School-Community Relationship refers to the efforts made by members of the
community and school to meet the general objectives of education among others. We
identified various types of School-Community Relationship and principle guiding good
School-Community Relationship. We hope the explanations are clear enough to you to
enable you answer the questions below.
Now, try your hands on the self-assessment questions. Remember to note down any
challenges for discussion at our next meeting.

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Self-Assessment Questions
1. What is your understanding of “School-Community Relationship”?
2. Identify 3 types of School-Community Relationship
3. List 4 principles guiding School-Community Relationship.

SECTION 3: EFFECTIVE INCLUSIVE UPPER PRIMARY SCHOOL -

COMMUNITY RELATIONSHIP

You are warmly welcome to the Third Section of the Sixth Unit in this module. You learned
about school community relationships and the principles guiding it. In this section, we will
turn our focus in discussing the need for effective School - Community Relationship and
strategies to ensure Effective School - Community Relationship. We will also look at ways
of enhancing Effective Delegation and how to manage conflict issues in Inclusive Upper
Primary Schools. We hope you will find the information we are providing here very useful.

The Section Outline is made of the following sub-sections

• Why Effective Inclusive Upper Primary School - Community Relationship?
• Ways to Ensure Effective Inclusive School - Community Relationship
• Effective Delegation
• Handling of Conflict Issues in Inclusive Upper Primary Schools.

Learning Outcome Indicators

On successful completion
of this section, you will:
Exhibit knowledge and 1. Why the need for effective Inclusive School -
understanding of effective Community Relationship?
inclusive school climate 2. State 4 ways to ensure Effective Inclusive School -
and school-community Community Relationship
partnership (NTS 1e, 1f, 3. Effective Delegation
1g, 2f, 3h, 3o). 4. Identify 3 ways of managing conflict issues in
Inclusive Upper Primary Schools.

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Strategies to Enhance Effective School Community Relations
Strategies required to achieve this goal may include
a. Good Leadership

Leadership is frequently described as the process of persuading others to focus their efforts
on achieving predetermined goals (Ibiam, 2015). Particularly in the areas of problem-
solving and consistency in his dealings with teachers and community members, the school
administrator should be capable of and provide strong leadership. Teachers, parents, and
community leaders should all be treated with respect and courtesy by the school
administrator.
b. Interest in the Affairs of the Community.

By including the school in social activities and programmes, the school administration
should show a keen interest in community activities. The school should not take an active
role in regional politics or delicate religious issues.
c. Ability to Share School Facilities.

The school administrator should be prepared to allow the community to use school
buildings and other resources. Halls, classrooms, and football fields might be made
accessible upon request by the neighborhood for social and educational purposes.
d. Ability to Get Along with People

It requires positive human relationships. As a leader, the school administrator does not need
to create an environment in which his presence terrifies those around him. Instead, he
should be a partner in growth. In order to have their support when necessary, the school
administration should be reachable to parents and the general public.
e. Knowledge of the Community

It is crucial that the school administrator has a solid understanding of local culture. He
needs to be aware of the people's traditions, values, and standards. He will be in a position
to explain in concrete terms the school's interest in and desire to share the cultural life of
the neighborhood in this way. The administrator of the school would be able to identify
community resource individuals who could be asked to offer lectures on particular facets
of communal life thanks to his expertise of the people.
f. Invite Members of the Community to School Programmes

Community members may be invited to take part in school-sponsored events like sporting
events, seminars, and workshops. The administrator of the school could draw attention to
the issues facing the institution during these gatherings and request assistance.
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 g. Encourage the Formation of Alumni Association

By supporting the creation of an alumni body, the school administration can improve
relationships within the school community. This could be achieved by keeping track of
local learners who graduate or finish their education at the school. The Alumni Association
offers a platform for conversation and issue-solving. It is known that several schools have
benefited from this association's funding for the construction of classroom buildings,
hostels, libraries, staff quarters, and fencing, among other things.
h. Delegation

The ability to effectively delegate is the mark of competent management. When managers
or supervisors delegate, they allow subordinates to decide how to fulfill a task while giving
them responsibility and authority to do so.
For new administrators, delegation is frequently very challenging, especially if they had to
start the organisation or a significant new service from scratch. Many leaders want to
continue doing what is familiar to them and making the same choices. They think they can
perform more effectively on their own. They do not want to take the chance of losing any
of their influence or reputation, which ironically they do if they fail to develop effective
delegation skills. They frequently do not want to take the chance of delegating power in
case those subordinates perform poorly and harm the organization.
Steps to Effective Delegation

There are fundamental methods for delegating that when done repeatedly, can serve as the
foundation for efficient management and growth (Thomas, 1992). The following steps are
useful for effective delegation:

i. Give one individual overall control of the project. This way, they are given more
responsibility and become more motivated.
ii. Pick the appropriate person. Select the subordinate with the best qualifications
for the assignment after evaluating their abilities and skills.
iii. Clearly state the outcomes you prefer. Describe what, why, when, who, and
where in detail. You might let them decide "how." Note down this information.
iv. Delegate authority and responsibility by "assigning the task, not the way to
perform it. As long as the results are what the management says, let the subordinate
carry out the work however they see fit. Give the worker substantial input on the
project's completion date. Keep in mind that you might not even be aware of how
to finish the assignment yourself. Higher levels of management frequently
experience this. Request a summary of the employee's thoughts on the project and
the desired outcomes.

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 v. Continually receive non-intrusive feedback on the project's progress. This is a
solid reason to keep requesting written status updates from all direct reports once a
week. Reports ought to include what was accomplished last week, what is planned
for the coming week, and any potential problems. This continuing input is
additionally provided during regular employee meetings.
vi. Keep the channels of communication open. Instead of watching the subordinate
closely, take an interest in what they are doing and encourage them to check in with
you occasionally.
vii. Do not return the project if you are not happy with the progress. Maintain
communication with the employee and make sure they see the project as their own.
viii. Measure performance and give praise. More so than approaches, consider the
results. Address performance issues and reward accomplishments.

Activity 6.3.1
Write 5 strategies basic school heads can employ to enhance effective school community
relationships and 3 ways of ensuring effective delegation.
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Good job! We hope you found this task useful.
At this juncture, we want to look at how conflicts are managed in inclusive basic schools.
Do you have any lived experience to share with the class about how some school
administrators handle conflicts? In your opinion, how should conflicts be handled in the
school?
Handling Conflicts in Inclusive Schools
Although uncommon, dealing with teacher disagreements at school is not unheard of.
Teachers occasionally favour certain co-workers over others, or their educational
philosophies or personalities do not mesh well together, just like in any other job. But the
principal must take action when a dispute becomes significant enough to attract outside
attention. One incident of a dispute between two teachers that I had to arbitrate included
Iris and John, two of my co-workers.
While this disagreement may have been prevented, the majority of teacher-teacher conflicts
in schools just happen without warning. However, I have discovered certain strategies that
other school leaders, such as principals, might employ when dealing with disputes between
teachers, such as:

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• Put your attention on the issue rather than the people. Not a culprit, but a remedy is
what you are interested in.
• Be polite, but do not downplay the issue. Describe the impact it has on other people,
particularly learners.
• Keep all of your discussions and decisions totally private. Although you have no control
over what other people say, you should not say anything.
• Ask the participants to jointly come up with a resolution rather than forcing one onto
them. You are merely acting as an arbiter in their dispute.
• Make it obvious that you anticipate progress and will keep an eye on it.

Dear Learner Teacher, we have come to the end of this section where we discussed
among others reasons why there is need for effective Inclusive School - Community
Relationship and strategies to ensure Effective Inclusive School - Community
Relationship. We also looked at ways of enhancing Effective Delegation and how to
manage conflict issues in Inclusive Upper Primary Schools.

Self-Assessment Questions
2. Give 3 reasons why there is need for effective Inclusive School -
Community Relationship
3. State 4 ways to ensure Effective Inclusive School-Community Relationship
4. Suggest 3 strategies to enhance Effective Delegation
5. Write 3 ways of managing conflict issues in Inclusive Upper Primary
Schools.

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 SECTION 4: THE ROLE OF RELEVANT STAKEHOLDERS IN FOSTERING
CORDIAL INCLUSIVE SCHOOL-COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIP

Hello, our cherished Learner Teacher. You are welcome to the Fourth Section of the Sixth
Unit of this module. We looked at the steps to take to ensure effective inclusive school –
community relations in section three of this unit. We shall turn our attention to the
stakeholders fostering cordial inclusive school-community relations in the section. We
shall discuss the roles of stakeholders at the national level (such as GES) and then those
operating at the sub-national levels (such as SMC, PTA and School Board). We hope you
will share your lived experiences with us as usual.

The Section Outline is made of the following sub-sections

• Role of GES, SMC, PA and Board of Governors in fostering cordial school-community
relationship.

Learning Outcome Indicators

On successful completion of this
section, you will:
Exhibit knowledge and State two ways by which the following contribute
understanding of the role of to school-community partnerships:
stakeholders in fostering cordial i. GES
inclusive school-community ii. PA
relationship (NTS 1e, 1f, 1g, 2f, iii. SMC
3h, 3o).

Stakeholders that influence school-community partnerships

In Ghana, educators, the community, and other stakeholders may and will work together
to provide high-quality education by finding efficient methods to use the country's limited
resources and identifying and resolving issues within the educational system (Abubakari
& Al-hassan, 2016). These initiatives will help people understand the value of community
involvement in education and how to use it as one of the techniques to increase educational
access, infrastructure, management, supervision, and performance (Akyeampong,
Rolleston, Ampiah , & Lewin , 2012).
The Ministry of Education (MOE) is in charge of running public schools, with assistance
from the local community, Ghana Education Services (GES), School Management
Committees (SMC), Parents Associations (PA), among other stakeholders.
Participating in school management as community members, families, and
parents/guardians has several advantages. According to Cornwall (2008), community

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involvement enhances educational delivery, resulting in higher learning outcomes and
better prepared learners for an ever-changing global environment.

Role of GES in fostering cordial school-community partnership

Ghana's Ministry of Education (MOE) is in charge of overseeing education. The Ghana
Education Service (GES), which is supported by three independent bodies - The National
Inspectorate Board (NIB), National Teaching Council (NTC), and the National Teaching
Council assume the implementation of educational policies for Curriculum and
Assessment (NCCA) (Ministry of Education [MoE], 2012). A Director General oversees
the Ghana Education Service, which is charged with coordinating the country's pre-tertiary
education policy (UNESCO, 2010).

The Ghana Education Service (GES) is obligated to appoint a District Education

Oversight Committee (DEOC) in each educational district as part of the country's
Education Reform Programme.
The committee's members are as follows:
➢ The district's chief executive, who will serve as chairman
➢ The district's directors of education and health
➢ The district's inspector of schools (AD supervision)
➢ The district's social welfare officer
➢ Two members of the district assembly, one of whom must be a woman; one
representative from each of the Muslim and Christian faiths
➢ One member of the district's Ghana National Association of Teachers (GNAT); and
➢ One representative from the district's traditional chiefs.
➢ One representative of the district PA

Functions of the DEOC

➢ Ensures that local educational policies are implemented properly.
➢ Assists in carrying out SMC and PTA activities.
➢ Offers the rules required for schools to run efficiently.
➢ Fulfills some educational needs, such as providing furnishings and roofing materials
(Mankoe, 2002).

Role of SMC, PA and DEOC in fostering cordial school-community partnership.

The development of PAs, School Management Committees, and District Education
Oversight Committees (DEOC) is all aimed at reviving the status of communities and their
members in school level management (Abreh, 2017). This basically results from the
communities helping the schools with ethics and compliance meant to encourage
managerial effectiveness and efficiency. Ghana's basic public schools are run by School

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Management Committees (SMC), which also serve as the institution's governing body.
Their functions are crucial to the primary operations and activities at the school level.

Parent Teacher Association (PTA)/ Parent Teacher Association (PA)

As you may already be aware, the school needs to interact positively with other people and
organizations in the community in order to properly carry out its mission. One such group
is the Parent Teacher Association (PTA)/Parent Association (PA).
PTA/PA is a group of parents and educators at a specific school or a collection of schools.
Members of the association include teachers who work at the school as well as parents and
guardians who have children or wards enrolled there.

According to the Ghana Education Service's (GES) guidelines for PTA/PA formation, the
executive must be chosen from among its members and should be equally divided between
parents and teachers as shown below:
➢ Chairperson who must be a Parent
➢ Vice Chairperson should be a Parent
➢ Secretary should be a Teacher if PTA and Parent if PA
➢ Assistant Secretary a Teacher if PTA and Parent if PA
➢ Treasurer should be a Parent
➢ Financial Secretary a Parent
➢ 1st and 2nd committee Members should be Parent
➢ 3rd Committee Member should be the Head teacher
➢ Ex-officio Member - Welfare Officer

All general meetings must have a representative of the District Director of Education
present to explain Ghana Education Service policies. By doing the following, the PA
contributes to bettering school life:
➢ Serving on various school committees like sports, discipline, and health.
➢ Acting as local resource persons to all some subjects on the curriculum to which
teachers are not available.
➢ Negotiating for land for school projects in the school, such as a school farm and
football field. Seeing to the welfare of the students and teachers in the school, such as
by providing housing for teachers and books.
➢ Frequently visiting the school to keep an eye on the students' progress.
➢ Assisting in the resolution of disagreements and issues at school.
➢ Aiding in maintaining order in the classroom.
➢ Collaborating with other groups and agencies that are interested in enhancing the
standard of instruction and learning in the classroom.

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School Board of Governors
Members of the school board are locally elected authorities tasked with overseeing the
public schools in their community. The school board's responsibility is to make sure that
school districts are sensitive to the values, opinions, and concerns of their local
communities.
Governing boards are an element of the school's executive staff.
The school is governed by a board from the local school community. They are often made
of parents, who work together to keep the school on the correct track. One may consider
their responsibility as being "eyes on, hands off." Working with their communities to raise
learner achievement in their local public schools is the most crucial duty of school boards.
The state is the source of the power and authority for school boards.
• They are responsible for establishing the long-term goals for the institution, including
what your child will know and be able to do at graduation.
• They encourage and push the headteacher to make the school successful for all
learners.
• This includes making sure that the personnel, resources, and space are well-maintained
and effectively utilized.
• Create a structure that is functional and efficient.
• Supply the required assistance for the school.
• Assume a leadership role in the community as a voice for children, the school system,
and public schools.

School Management Committees (SMCs)

The 1994 Ghana Education Act established the SMC as a body. The SMC is required by
law to advance the interests of the school and learners to receive the finest education. It
serves as the governing body for public schools in Ghana's numerous communities. It is a
community-based organization with the goal of enhancing community mobilization and
engagement in the delivery of education. There should be a school management committee
in every public school.
The SMC speaks for the entire neighborhood. Therefore, its constituency is the community.
The following individuals make up the SMC membership:
➢ The school's headteacher
➢ A representative chosen by the District Assembly.
➢ One person chosen by the PTA.
➢ A representative chosen by the town/village/unit committee.
➢ One individual chosen by the town head.
➢ One representative chosen by the institution (if it is a mission school).
➢ Two members, one from the primary and one from the JSS, are chosen by the
teaching staff.

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What the SMC does to help improve activities in the school
The SMC carries out the following activities to enhance school work:
➢ Manages the school's overall policies
➢ Through the District Director of Education, presents a periodic report to the Director
General of Education.
➢ The state of the buildings housing the schools and other infrastructure needs.
➢ Ensures that the school's buildings and surrounding atmosphere is sound, and
generally in good condition.
➢ Reports should be sent to the District Assembly via the assembly representative.
➢ Reports to the District Director and assists the headteacher in conflict resolution.
➢ Sends situations involving dismissal or suspension to the District Director for
decision-making.
➢ The availability of instructors and learners' regular and prompt attendance.
➢ The staff members' proper performance of their tasks at the institution.
➢ The moral conduct of staff and learners, as well as issues pertaining to general
discipline.
➢ Resolve complaints from or about learners, non-teaching personnel, and teachers.
➢ The availability of textbooks and other educational resources.

Activity 6.4.1
Kindly turn to your study partner near you and discuss 4 ways each that PA and SMCs
contribute in building school community partnership
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That was a very good input. A demonstration of your understanding of what goes on in the
schools around you. Keep it up!
You can now turn your attention to how other bodies in the district contribute towards this
noble course.

In this section, we looked at the contribution of various stakeholders in fostering cordial

school-community relations. We saw how MoE, GES, and other institutions support from
the national level. We also saw the contributions of PAs, DEOC and SMCs at sub-
national level. We hope that you would be able to collaborate effectively with these
stakeholders to build cordial relations between your school and the community.

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Self-Assessment Questions
State two ways by which the following contribute to school-community partnerships:
i GES
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ii PA
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iii SMC
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iv School Board
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SECTION 5: CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN BASIC SCHOOL
ADMINISTRATION (I)

Our Dear Student Teacher, you are welcome to the Fifth Section of the Sixth Unit of this
module. We want to congratulate you for coming to the end of the module. In this section,
we shall be discussing issues relating to the professionalism of teaching. We shall look at
the national teachers’ standards, teacher licensing and teacher promotion. We expect a lot
of your contribution to make the discussion lively.
The Section Outline is made of the following sub-sections
• The Ghana National Teachers’ Standard
• Major’ Standards that relate to Teachers experiences.
• Teacher Licensing and Teacher Promotion

Learning Outcome Indicators

On successful completion of this
section, you will:
Demonstrate understanding of 1. Understand what the Ghana National
professional ethics and values Teachers’ Standard about is.
that portray teachers as good role 2. Identify the major’ Standards that relate to
models in the inclusive school Teachers experiences.
and community (NTS 1c, 1d, 1f, 3. Enumerate at least 4 importance of teacher
1g, 2a, 2c, 3n, 3o). licensing
4. Describe how a teacher progresses from a
chosen rank to the other

As a teacher or a teacher to become, you might have heard about the national teachers’
standards. Have you seen this document before, and have you read its’ contents? If you
have not read it yet, you should immediately find a copy a read. It is about teaching as a
profession and what is expected of the teacher.
The Ghana National Teachers’ Standard
The National Teachers' Standards (NTSs) (MoE, 2017) are the first set of guidelines for
teacher preparation and practice in the nation that have ever been broadly accepted. The
Standards were created as a professional resource to help teacher educators, teachers,
student teachers, and other stakeholders in education identify what teachers are expected
to know and be able to do, qualities they are expected to possess, and some behaviour they
are supposed to exhibit, in clear and precise terms. The Standards lay forth in detail the
professional knowledge, practice, behaviour, attitude, rights, and obligations that are

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required of instructors working at pre-tertiary institutions of learning. All new instructors
will have their performance evaluated in accordance with the National Teachers' Standards.
In order to guarantee that student teachers' training and development are governed by the
same set of standards, it is noteworthy that the National Teachers' Standards replace the
diversity of standards being used in the various institutions offering initial teacher
education and/or providing continuing professional development with a consolidated set of
national standards.
These Standards should be utilized as a reference by teacher educators, in-service teachers,
head teachers, mentors, school inspectors, and everyone else involved in the training of
student teachers since they are intended to enhance the quality of teachers' instruction and
students' performance. The Standards will also make it possible for teacher educators and
others to focus their efforts in the right areas where student teachers most need assistance.
Relevance of the Standards
The highest standards in knowledge, behaviour, and practice are required for teachers'
preparation and subsequent development since they play such a crucial role in motivating
and pushing pupils to reach their potential. These Standards are succinctly written
descriptions of the knowledge and skills that teachers are required to possess.
The National Teachers' Standards outline the minimal standards of practice that all certified
teachers must meet by the completion of their pre-service teacher education programme in
order to perform such a crucial function.
These Standards also serve as the foundation for all teachers' future professional and career
development while they are in their first year as Beginning Teachers on their induction
course in schools before being licensed as professional teachers by the National Teaching
Council (NTC).
The Standards ought to be viewed as a single set of fundamental requirements that all
teachers at all grade levels must adhere to. In order to provide additional support for
individuals using the Standards, the examples that go with them at the end of these
recommendations provide concrete examples of the Standards in action at the kindergarten,
primary, junior high school, and senior high school levels. The signs show that the
Standards have been met.
The Pre-tertiary Teachers' Standards for Ghana (PTTSG), which are specific to in-service
instructors, are brief descriptions of what teachers are expected to know, understand, and
be able to perform in order to ensure that both their own and their students' learning
consistently improves.
(1) The Standards are designed to give instructors the tools they need as they advance in
their careers to facilitate effective learning among the students they are expected to instruct.

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(2) The Standards demand that instructors do the following at every level of their
development to accomplish educators:

• Exhibit a solid understanding of the various ways that learners organize their
learning; exhibit good knowledge of the pertinent subject(s) and curriculum areas;
• Display solid knowledge and understanding of how to utilize assessment to
promote learning;
• Identify their own training requirements and take responsibility for resolving them
through lifelong learning.
• Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of how different learning styles impact
on teaching;
• They should also reflect deeply on the success of teaching approaches.

Activity 6.5.1
Dear Student Teacher, kindly take your jotter and write down 4 importance of the
teachers’ standard. Do this without looking into the module.
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How did you fare in this exercise? Well, that was a good attempt.
Let us now look at who the standards are targeting.

Who are the Standards for?

• Pre-service teacher preparation programmes where student teachers strive to meet

the Standards by the end of their programmes.
• All newly hired instructors during their first school year.
• Each and every in-service teacher employed by a school who is covered by the 2016
New NTC Frameworks for Career Progression and Promotion. All standards and
competences are used as a point of reference in the Standards.
• The Teachers' Standards will be used by the National Teaching Council (NTC) to
evaluate any allegations of misconduct by any member of the teaching profession.
• The National Teaching Council (NTC) handles teacher licensing following
induction.
• The Teachers' Standards will serve as a standard for the NTC when determining
whether to renew a teacher's license.
• Teacher educators will utilize it as a reference when creating curriculum and
courses for teacher training.

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 • All institutions involved in the development of teachers, including public and
private universities and colleges as well as vocational/technical and academic
institutions.
• The Teachers' Standards will also need to be used as a reference point for district
education directors, circuit supervisors, teacher unions, head teachers, and mentors
in schools.

Major Standards that relate to Teachers experiences.

The Standards are divided into three main domains, each with its own sub-divisions:
Professional Values and Attitudes
Professional Development
Community of Practice

Professional Knowledge
Knowledge of Educational Frameworks and Curriculum
Knowledge of Learners

Professional Practice
Managing the Learning Environment
Teaching and Learning
Assessment

These three domains and aspects encompass what teachers should value, know and
do, and they intersect with one another to develop a teacher competent enough to
teach at the end of their four-year initial teacher training, as illustrated in the Venn
diagram where the synthesis of the three domains represents this competence.

Professional
Values and
Attitudes

Professional Professional
Knowledge Practice

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1. Professional Values and Attitudes

Professional Development
In order to improve teaching and learning, the teacher(s):
a) critically and collaboratively reflects;
b) enhances personal and professional development through lifelong learning
and Continuous Professional Development.
c) exhibits improving leadership abilities in the classroom and around the
school.

Community of Practice
The Teacher:
d) follows legal and moral teacher norms of conduct as they help to shape him
or her into a qualified educator.
e) as part of a community of practice, positively interacts with coworkers,
students, parents, school management committees, parent-teacher
associations, and the general public.
f) creates a positive sense of self as a teacher and serves as a good role model
for students.
g) considers himself or herself to be a potential agent of change in the
classroom, neighborhood, and nation.

2. Professional Knowledge
Knowledge of educational frameworks and curriculum
The Teacher:
a) demonstrates familiarity with the education system and key policies guiding it.
b) has comprehensive knowledge of the official school curriculum, including learning
outcomes.
c) has secure content knowledge, pedagogical knowledge and pedagogical content
knowledge for the school and grade they teach in.
d) at pre-primary and primary the teacher knows the curriculum for the years
appropriate to multigrade classes; has good knowledge of how to teach beginning
reading and numeracy and speaking, listening, reading and writing, and to use at
least one Ghanaian language as a medium of instruction.

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 Knowledge of students
The Teacher:
e) understands how children develop and learn in diverse contexts and applies this in
his or her teaching.
f) takes accounts of and respects learners’ cultural, linguistic, socio-economic and
educational backgrounds in planning and teaching.

3. Professional Practice
Managing the learning environment
The Teacher:
a) plans and delivers varied and challenging lessons, showing a clear
grasp of the intended outcomes of their teaching.
b) carries out small-scale action research to improve practice.
c) creates a safe, encouraging learning environment.
d) manages behaviour and learning with small and large classes.

Teaching and Learning

The Teacher:
e) employs a variety of instructional strategies that encourages student
participation and critical thinking.
f) pays attention to all learners, especially girls and students with Special
Educational Needs, ensuring their progress.
g) employs instructional strategies appropriate for mixed ability,
multilingual and multi-age classes.
h) sets meaningful tasks that encourages learner collaboration and leads to
purposeful learning.
i) explains concepts clearly using examples familiar to students.
j) produces and uses a variety of teaching and learning resources
including ICT, to enhance learning.

Assessment
The Teacher:
k) integrates a variety of assessment modes into teaching to support
learning.
l) listens to learners and gives constructive feedback.
m) identifies and remediates learners’ difficulties or misconceptions,
referring learners whose needs lie outside the competency of the
teacher.

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 n) keeps meaningful records of every learner and communicates progress
clearly to parents and learners.
o) demonstrates awareness of national and school learning outcomes of
learners.
p) uses objective criterion referencing to assess learners.

Activity 6.5.2
With your knowledge of the major teaching standards, discuss with your study partner and
write 2 activities you will do under each of the 3 domains and share your ideas with the
whole class.

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Let us now look at teacher licensing and teacher promotion. You must be aware that
teachers in Ghana now write examination to get license to teach which is renewable. Do
you think this is a valuable step by NTC? Share your thoughts with your elbow partners
then, read on.

Teacher Licensing

A license is a permission granted by competent authority to engage in a business or

occupation or in an activity otherwise unlawful. It may require paying a fee or proving a
capability. The definition above here shows how important licenses are. They are issued by
an authority and has legal backing. In Ghana the body mandated by law to regulate teacher
licensing is the National Teaching Council (NTC). Ghana established Education Act (778),
2008 which established several educational bodies including the National Teaching
Council (NTC). The NTC is a major advisory body to the Minister of Education on matters
relating to the professional standing and the status of teachers and the provision of facilities
for in-service training, and employment of teachers.

The Council is made of sixteen (16) members including two (2) representatives of Teachers
Association. The Council members are however appointed by the President.

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NTC is the governing authority responsible for matters relating to the licensing of teachers.
In recent times the council has organized teacher licensure examinations in centers across
the country to determine teachers who are eligible for the license. The Act (778) provides:
1. That a teacher’s license is the only legal authorization for teaching.
2. That the legal possession of the Council’s certificate signifies that the teacher meets
the knowledge and skills standards prescribed by the NTC.
3. That a person desiring to be registered as a teacher shall submit for approval by the
Council an application in the prescribed form.
4. That if that person has not passed the requisite teacher certification examination
recognized by the council and does not satisfy the standards required for a teacher’s
license at the level which that person has applied for certification to teach.

Benefits of Licensing to the Teacher

1. Licensing of professional teachers would ensure that more prestige is accorded to
teaching as a profession. This is because, to become a teacher, one will have to take
and pass a special exam which will lead to the issuance of license just like doctors and
nurses.
2. The restricted entry in the profession, provided by licensure would ensure that only
qualified personnel will be in our classrooms to impart knowledge to our younger
generation. This will go a long way to ensure that unqualified persons are eliminated
from the teaching profession.
3. The licensing of professional teachers will go a long way to ensure that teachers
upgrade themselves while in the field of practice to ensure that they are up to date in a
fast-changing and technological world.
4. The licensing of professional teachers will ensure controlling of the supply of teachers
which can lead to a demand for their services and hence, gain high rewards unlike what
is currently going on within the profession.
5. Licensing of professional teachers will ensure that only members are qualified to
provide the particular services and thus members can prosecute unqualified individuals
performing services which are defined as a legal monopoly of the profession just like
doctors and nurses.
6. Last but not the least is that through licensing of professional teachers, members will
be able to determine its own standard of education and training making teaching to be
more professional. Thus as the profession gains more income, power, and prestige, it
can demand high caliber students just like other professions like doctors, engineers,
lawyers, etc.

We will now focus our attention on the area of your progression and that is promotion.
We think that that each of you have an experience to share on how a teacher get

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promoted from one rank to the other. Please share with the whole group before we
proceed

Teacher Promotion
The permanent movement of an ongoing employee from one position to another position
in the teaching service with a higher attainable maximum salary than the employee’s
substantive position is referred to as promotion (Victoria State University, 2020). Teacher
promotion criteria is expected to be transparent, equitable, standardized, and tailored to
the post. Various promotion criteria exist, including qualifications, seniority or years of
experience, and performance (ILO, 2012).

Usually, teachers are promoted to new roles and titles based on their evaluation, with a
salary rise attached. (IIEP-UNESCO, n.d.: 1). The evaluation criteria should be in line
with ‘an appropriate level of difficulty according to teachers’ roles and responsibilities at
the different stages of the career structure. Thus, the criteria must be stringent enough to
confirm teachers’ expectations of the value of moving to a higher position or salary level,
yet also attainable so as not to discourage teachers from seeking professional
advancement’ (Tournier et al., 2019: 15-16). Other aspects which should be considered
regarding teacher promotion are the number of teachers promoted in each cycle, as well
as the system used. With a norm-referenced system, only top performers are promoted.
With a criterion-referenced system ‘all applicants who meet the criteria are promoted’
(Tournier et al., 2019: 15-16).

Ranks in the GES depends on the level of education and years of service. Below are the
ranks of teachers in Ghana education service in a descending order of supremacy from
the superior to the least officer. Here are the various ranks in the Ghana Education
Service in a descending order.

• Director General
• Deputy Director
• Assistant Director I
• Assistant Director II
• Principal Superintendent
• Senior Superintendent I
• Senior Superintendent II
• Superintendent II
• Superintendent I
• Teacher

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Activity 6.5.3
Dear Learner Teacher, spend some 5 minutes with your study partner to discuss how a
teacher moves from one rank to the other and share with the whole group.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………

In this section we discussed the Ghana national teachers’ standards. We looked at the
standards that relate to the experiences of the teacher. We also discussed teacher licensing
and teacher promotion. Well done! We are only a section away to complete the module so
keep the candle burning.

Self-Assessment Questions
Please take time and go through the under listed self-assessment questions
1. What is the Ghana National Teachers’ Standard about?
2. What are the major Standards that relate to Teachers’ experiences?
3. Identify at least 3 agencies and indicate how the standards apply to them.

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SECTION 6: CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN BASIC SCHOOL
ADMINISTRATION (II)

Hello, our cherished Student Teacher. You are heartily welcome to the Sixth section of the
Sixth Unit, the very final Section of the module. We want to congratulate you for coming
to the end of the module. In this last section, we will be looking at some other contemporary
issues in teaching. In particular, we shall be discussing 21st century teaching skills,
teachers’ code of conduct and ethics and teachers as good role models. You will agree with
us that if we are to teach today’s child the way we were taught we would not only be doing
them great dis-service but also face professional challenges. Gone are the days when the
teacher alone had the key to the source of knowledge; the 21st century learner equally has
access to the same source. For this reason, and as we gathered from section five, the Basic
School teacher needs to upgrade their knowledge and skills in making teaching and
learning activities more interesting and interactive so that learners can be empowered to be
productive in the 21st century society.

The Section Outline is made of the following sub-sections

• Meaning of 21st Century Teaching Skills
• Teachers Code of Conduct and Professional Ethics
• Teachers as Good Models in the School and Community.

Learning Outcome Indicators

On successful completion of this
section, you will:
Demonstrate understanding of 1. Meaning of 21st Century Teaching Skills
professional ethics and values that 2. Domains of the 21st Century Skills.
portray teachers as good role models 3. Meaning and importance of code of
in the inclusive school and conduct and ethics for teachers
community (NTS 1c, 1d, 1f, 1g, 2a, 4. Characteristics of teachers as good
2c, 3n, 3o). models

As a teacher or a teacher to become, you might have heard about the national teachers’
standards. Have you seen this document before, and have you read its’ contents? If you
have not read it yet, you should immediately find a copy a read. It is about teaching as a
profession and what is expected of the teacher.

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The 21st century skills are tools that can be universally applied to enhance ways of
thinking, learning, working and living in the world. They are skills, abilities, and learning
dispositions that have been identified as being required for success in 21st century
society. The skills include but not limited to the following:
1. Critical Thinking: The 21st-century skills classroom focuses on asking questions to
encourage critical thinking, inquiry, and reasoning. In all subjects, learners evaluate,
synthesize, and translate ideas to solve problems and complete projects. Teachers also
encourage students to hone their reasoning and inquiry skills. Critical thinking is
developed in learners when the teacher allow express their conceptions,
misconceptions and biases towards the use of various instructional strategies.

2. Collaborative Problem Solving: Learners learn through solving problems. A great

way to learn is by effectively working as a team to solve problems as a cohesive,
collaborative unit. A 21st-century curriculum emphasizes team-based projects in which
groups draw on each individual's strengths to solve problems. This model exposes
learners to new ideas and opposing viewpoints, while demonstrating the power of the
collective mind. Collaboration is fostered when teachers assign group projects and
presentation of various topics across units and subjects to learners to work on.

3. Creativity: A 21st-century education affords learners opportunities to flex their

creative muscles beyond the traditionally creative classes. Whether they work to find a
new solution to an old problem or find a different way to explain an everyday
occurrence, learners are constantly finding their own approaches to problems and
projects. Creativity is an essential tool to get young minds thinking across disciplines
and beyond what's been done before. Teachers can enhance students’ creativity by
allowing them flexibility to respond to tasks in ways that make meaning to them
and not restricting students to one way/approach.
4. Cultural Competency and Respect for Diversity: In our diverse, ever-changing world,
it's essential that the 21st-century classroom emphasize cultural competency skills,
beyond an appreciation for other cultures. In a 21st-century skills classroom, all
individuals have the opportunity to interact with students from other backgrounds
(religious, socio-economic) including those with SEN and participate in culturally
immersive experiences. Respect for diversity would be engendered in learners by
using various criteria group formation (mixed gender, mixed ability, mixed
cultural/religious groups).

5. Communication Skills: Learners learn to listen actively, organize and articulate a

discussion, present information, and argue points respectfully. Expressing ideas clearly
and effectively is essential for success. Communicative skills of learners would be
enhanced through group discussions, presentations, peer-teaching and peer
assessment.

194
6. Digital Literacy Skills: Our world is saturated with information. In a 21st-century
classroom, learners learn how to use various digital tools to surf information and how
to interpret facts and figures and question the credibility of information they receive.
Digital literacy skills of learners will be enhanced when the teacher gives them
opportunities to surf and present information across subjects using various digital
tools.

7. Leadership Skills: Today's world needs strong leaders. A 21st-century skills

classroom focuses on developing leadership skills related to listening, building
consensus, organizing, and motivating a group to action. Learners learn what it means
to have a responsibility for something beyond themselves. Leadership skills can be
developed when teachers intentionally assign leadership roles to all categories of
students (such as group level and class level leadership roles).

8. Global Citizenship: As a citizen of the 21st century, you should be able to promote
sustainable development, the culture of peace and human rights, being an active agent
in society and the community, participating in politics, community activities and in
the care and improvement of the environment. Learners in a 21st-century classroom
are challenged to take ownership of their learning and dive headfirst into projects on
their own.

Dear friends, let us now discuss issues of expected behaviour and attitudes of the teacher.

Activity 6.6.1
Kindly take your notepad and write down at least 4 code of conduct expected of the
Ghanaian teacher and share your ideas with the whole class.

………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………

Teachers Code of Conduct and Professional Ethics

Teachers not only assist learners to learn the academic fundamentals but also teach them
valuable life lessons through their positive life styles/examples. As role models, teachers
must be guarded by a professional code of ethics that would help learners receive quality

195
education. A professional code of ethics for teachers spells out their role and
responsibilities in the lives of all learners they encounter.

Code of conduct refers to documented guidelines, standards, values, behaviours and

relationship that the institution deems important and capable of helping to attain their
vision and mission. In Ghana, teachers are expected to the following professional
conduct:
✓ Write learning plans based on the teacher manual
✓ Make effective use of contact hours
✓ Avoid taking babies to the classroom
✓ Avoid drinking alcohol, drunkenness and smoking during school hours
✓ Desist from writing anonymous letters and
✓ Avoid indulging in sexual offences

Ethics means character in Greek (ethos). They are moral rules/principles that guard
human behaviour with regards what is right or wrong in relation to a given profession.
In the teaching profession for instance, ethical behaviour guides teacher’s decision about
work and learners in and outside the classroom.

Wait a minute! Have you thought of the likely benefits of professional ethics in
education?
Now, think-pair-ink and share at least 4 importance of professional ethics in teaching
profession.

Importance of Ethics in Teaching

✓ It help teachers to be aware of the rules, regulations as well as expected conducts
and sanctions that exist in the profession.
✓ It enables one to conform to the expected code of conduct
✓ It fosters cooperation among employees and their employer and also among
colleagues in the school
✓ It enhances teacher compliance (responsibility)
✓ It prevents teacher discrimination against learners
✓ Makes teachers accountable
✓ Protects the teacher

196
Activity 6.6.2
Reflect for one minute on the characteristics of a good model, then share your thoughts
with a colleague. Collectively share your ideas with the whole class.

………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
Now, read on and compare your thoughts with what we have for you.

Teachers as Good Models in the School and Community.

A role model is someone who others, especially younger people, can copy in terms of their
behaviour. People evaluate themselves against reference groups of people who hold the
social role they aspire to. Taking young followers' idolization and imitation of famous
athletes or entertainers as an example. Young people learn how to live honourably with
hope, optimism, and compassion from their role models. Role models are crucial to a child's
healthy development.

Teachers are important role models who can affect their students' attitudes, values,
and behaviours. A good role model sets an example for youngsters, encouraging
them to lead fulfilling lives. A child's life is constantly impacted by their teachers.
They have just as much, if not more, of an impact on kids than parents do. I've
witnessed the enormous influence teachers have had on their students throughout the
years. They are more than simply teachers; they are role models who encourage and
uplift kids outside of the classroom just as much as they teach them inside.

Although role modeling can be an effective educational strategy for imparting the
knowledge, abilities, and ideals of the medical profession, its overall impact on
students' behaviour is frequently harmful rather than good.
We must admit that we are the most crucial—indeed, the only—thing we can give
our pupils.
Mentors are not role models. By setting an example, role models motivate and
instruct, frequently while juggling many tasks. Mentors have a long-term, explicit
relationship with a student, and they frequently guide the student by posing questions
and freely offering advice.

Qualities of Good Role models

Desirable traits that make them appealing to emulate are present in effective role models.
They encourage others to make adjustments and work toward new objectives. Knowing the

197
attributes required to effectively fulfill the role might be helpful while looking for a good
candidate to serve as a role model for someone you care about.
Moral: Good role models uphold high moral standards. Children respect people who live
up to their principles. Children are helped to form and enhance their own values by role
models who believe in and are prepared to support desirable causes. Ethics and honesty are
displayed by role models.
Confident: Most people are drawn to confident people. Good role models Possess a
healthy sense of pride in their achievements. They may express their pride in their abilities
and accomplishments without coming off as conceited. Good self-confidence shows up as
pride in who you are and what you have learnt throughout your life.
Hardworking: Role models show their dedication to a goal and willingness to put in the
time and effort required to succeed. They do not give up easily and keep going in the face
of challenges. Children's drive to succeed motivates them to persevere and accomplish the
goals they set for themselves. For instance, Olympic competitors inspire others with their
commitment.
Respectful: Role models must respect others if they want to be influential. Young people
value respect and look up to individuals who show it to them as well as to others. Others
look up to role models who exhibit selflessness and a democratic, non-prejudicial attitude
of individuals who are different from themselves.
Positive and Ingenious: Role models motivate and uplift people via their positive view on
life. It is doubtful that anyone would aspire to be like a pessimist. Role models are people
who are able to think creatively and see the positive side of adversity. For instance, a
community leader who has experienced a financial loss would embrace the chance to plan
a fundraising initiative that brings everyone together in a positive way.

Congratulations our cherished Student Teacher. We have successfully come to the end of
our discussions of this module. We appreciate you for your wonderful contributions to the
discussions. The module contains useful information about your work as a teacher, as such
we encourage you to continue to engage this module even after this course.

Self-Assessment Questions
1. Describe and 3 domains under 21st century teaching and learning skills
2. Write and 4 code of conduct for teachers in Ghana
3. State 3 ways that teachers can be seen as Good models in the School and
Community.

198
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