2 Energy and the environment

Answers to data response and decision making exercises

1. The data below shows total energy consumption for three countries between 1990 and
2015, as well as global energy consumption.

Total energy consumption in MTOE (million tonnes oil equivalent – a unit of energy
defined as the amount of energy released by burning one million tonnes of crude oil)

Year USA China India World

1990 1967 681 195 8136

1995 2121 885 252 8589

2000 2312 1003 316 9388

2005 2350 1794 394 10 940

2010 2285 2487 541 12 181

2015 2281 3014 700 13 147

a) Plot this data as a line graph on the grid below.

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b) Describe the trend in world energy consumption from 1990 to 2015. Ensure you use
statistics in your response.
World energy consumption has risen significantly since 1990 from 8136 million tonnes oil
equivalent (Mtoe) to 13 147 Mtoe in 2015. The fastest rise was between 2000 and 2005 –
a rise in consumption of over 1500 Mtoe.

c) By how many MTOE did China’s total energy consumption change between 1990 and
2015?
China’s energy consumption increased by 2333 Mtoe between 1990 and 2015.

d) Compare energy consumption in the USA with that in China over time.
Between 1990 and 2015, the energy consumed by the USA has slowly increased from
1967 to 2281 Mtoe, with fluctuations over this time. In comparison, China has seen a rapid
rise in energy consumption.

e) The energy consumption of China and India has increased rapidly over time. Suggest
reasons for this increase.
Both China and India have rapidly growing and industrialising economies. The growth of
industry – particularly manufacturing – has rapidly increased energy consumption in both
countries, with China witnessing the greatest increase. A developing manufacturing
economy will increase energy consumption as more electricity and fuel oil is needed to run
factories and machines. Furthermore, the manufactured goods require raw materials and
transportation – all of which increase energy demand. In addition, both countries have
large, and in India’s case, rapidly growing populations. The increasing population, coupled
with rising incomes, will lead to greater consumption of energy. People who have access to
electricity will aspire to own more manufactured goods such as refrigerators and washing
machines. These will increase the consumption of energy.

f) Identify two possible environmental management challenges caused by this increase in

consumption. For each, suggest a possible solution.
One environmental management challenge created by an increase in energy consumption
in China and India would be air pollution. The rapid industrialisation means that the
demand for cheap energy would increase. It is highly likely that this demand will be met
with fossil fuels – particularly coal. This would increase the likelihood of air pollution in
areas around power stations. One possible solution to this would be to invest in cleaner,
more renewable energy solutions such as solar or wind.

A further environmental management challenge could be the increased risks of oil spills in
both countries. As demand for oil increases in both countries, there will be an increase in
the shipping and transportation of crude oil or petroleum into the countries. With an
increased number of ships and pipelines being used, there is an associated increase in the
possibility of oils spills. The risk of these could be reduced by ensuring that shipping is
properly regulated and that there are well-practised plans in place in the event of a spill.
This would reduce the impact of any spills.

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2. This graph shows global energy use by source over time. It is a compound line graph, so
the total amount of energy used is shown by the top line, but each proportion underneath is
representative of the energy source.

Fig. 2.12 World consumption of different energy sources.

a) Describe how the proportion of oil used has changed since 1990.
Since 1990, world energy consumption has increased rapidly from around 8000 Mtoe to
over 13 000 in 2015. In 1990, oil consumption accounted for over 3000 Mtoe – 39% of the
total. The use of oil has grown over time to 4331 Mtoe in 2015. This is now just over 32%
of the total energy consumed.

b) Which energy source has seen the greatest growth since 1990? Use statistics in your
answer.
Since 1990 the energy source that has seen the greatest growth in use is coal. Coal use
has risen from just over 2000 Mtoe in 1990 to approximately 3800 Mtoe in 2015.

c) Which types of fuel dominate the global energy mix in 2015?

In 2015, the three fuels that account for the greatest consumption worldwide are oil, coal
and natural gas. These are all non-renewable fossil fuels.

d) In your view, is the world likely to move away from the use of fossil fuels in the next
10 years? Use the graph, plus your own knowledge and understanding to justify your
conclusion.
It is highly unlikely that the world will be able to move away from fossil fuels significantly in
the next 10 years. In 2015, fossil fuels account for just under 90% of all the fuel sources
consumed around the world. Whilst the use of nuclear power, hydro power and other
renewables continues to grow, they are not yet able to meet the global demand for energy.
Put simply, the world could not switch to renewable energy overnight and maintain the
same level of energy consumption. The main advantage of fossil fuels is that they are
relatively abundant and a cheap source of energy. Renewables require more investment

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and nuclear power needs a long lead in time from approval to being built. In simple
economic terms, this makes fossil fuels cheaper to use. However, the cost of coal, for
example, does not reflect the true price of coal in terms of the environmental impact of
mining, air pollution and climate change. Until these costs are factored in, it makes
renewable energy less affordable, so many countries are more likely to stay with fossil
fuels – particularly if they have access to them in large quantities.

Whilst there will be a shift toward renewable energy in the next 10 years – a necessary
outcome to reduce greenhouse gas emissions – it is unlikely that they will overtake the use
of fossil fuels. However, with technological improvements, it is possible that the rate of
renewable energy growth will increase at the same time as improvements in energy
efficiency will cause a reduction in the total amount of energy consumed.

3. The pie charts below show the energy mix of Brazil.

Fig. 2.13 Location of Brazil. Fig. 2.14a and 2.14b Brazilian energy mix 2010 and 2014.

a) Define the key terms ‘energy mix’ and ‘energy security’.

Energy mix is defined as the energy consumption by source of a household, region or
country. It would be made up of both renewable and non-renewable energy sources.
Energy security is a measure of how secure a country is in its energy supply. A country
that is energy secure has enough sources of power to meet its own energy needs.

b) Describe the changes in Brazil’s energy mix between 2010 and 2015.
In 2010, the majority of Brazil’s energy came from oil, sugar cane, HEP, wood and natural
gas, with oil making up 37.6% of all energy consumed. By 2015, oil had increased to
39.3% of all energy consumed. Natural gas had also increased. Wood, hydropower and
sugar cane use have decreased in this 5-year period.

c) What proportion of Brazil’s energy comes from non-renewable sources? Has this changed
over time?
In 2010, over 54% of Brazil’s energy mix came from non-renewable energy sources such
as uranium and fossil fuels. By 2015, this had increased to over 60% with oil and gas
showing the largest increases.

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d) Major HEP projects require construction of large scale dams across rivers. Describe and
explain two advantages and two disadvantages of these projects.
One advantage of major HEP projects is a supply of renewable energy. The dams create
large man-made reservoirs behind them. Water can be slowly released downwards, turning
the potential energy of the stored water into kinetic energy. The water turns turbine blades
in a generating station, which in turn generates electricity. The energy is cheap to produce
(once the dam is paid for!) and reduces greenhouse gas emissions. This is a renewable
form of energy.

A second advantage of large-scale dams would be flood control. Large dams stop the flow
of water downstream. This can be damaging to downstream communities, so water is
slowly released to maintain river flows. During heavy rainfall events, the dam is able to
completely close and to reduce the channel flow downstream. These large stores of water
are highly effective at reducing the risk of flooding downstream. The Three Gorges Dam in
China has drastically reduced the amount of flooding downstream on the Yangtze River.

However, large-scale dams can also have a number of disadvantages. Dams are very
expensive to build and are highly disruptive to river systems. The construction of large
dams requires huge investment in terms of capital and labour. They are massive
engineering challenges, so take a long time to plan and construct. The construction can be
damaging to the local environment and cause pollution to enter rivers.

A further disadvantage is the significant social disruption to those residents living alongside
the river behind the dam. As the dam is completed, the land behind will begin to flood.
Residents will need to be compensated and will need to relocate homes and businesses.
In some dam projects, people have been forced from their homes with little consultation or
compensation. This often leads to migration away from the area – breaking up the
communities that once existed.

4. Read the following extract from a news report from June 2016:

The Brazilian government has suspended a major HEP project in the Amazon rainforest
whilst it investigates the impact on indigenous people in the region. The project would
include 40 dams (5 major and 35 smaller projects) in the Tapajós river basin. This is part of
a wider plan to develop 24 gigawatts of hydropower by 2024 to ease the electricity
shortages that affect some places frequently. The largest dam – the 8000 MW São Luiz do
Tapajós (SLT) dam – would be 7.6 km wide and flood hundreds of square kilometres of
rainforest. The project would also be used to create an industrial waterway to allow
soybeans produced inland to be shipped easily to North America and Europe. If built, the
dams on the Tapajós would flood an area the size of greater London, Paris and
Amsterdam combined. There is significant environmental opposition to the project from
around the world, but Brazil argues such a project is needed to meet demand shortages
from renewables.

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Fig. 2.15 A traditional fishing village on the Rio Fig. 2.16 Aerial view of a hydroelectric power plant
Tapajos that would be flooded under the new plans. in northeastern Brazil.

a) Using your own research and the information here, outline the arguments for and against
building the São Luiz do Tapajós dam in the Amazon rainforest.

For Against

A renewable source of energy. The The 40 dams (5 major and 35 smaller

largest dam will generate 8000 MW of projects) in the Tapajós river basin will
electricity. flood an area larger than greater London,
Paris and Amsterdam combined.
The dam will help ease electricity
shortages. The largest dam would be 7.6 km wide and
No pollution/or greenhouse gases are flood hundreds of square kilometres of
emitted from HEP electricity generation. rainforest.

A dam is often a multipurpose scheme: it The indigenous people in the region would
helps flood-control, water supplies and be forced from their homes. There are over
irrigation, and creates leisure, recreation 10 000 Munduruku people living near the
and tourism opportunities. river. They are protected under the
constitution of Brazil.
Water can be stored and used to
generate power when demand is high. The cost of the project planning will be
HEP schemes are long lasting, so can be huge. The developers will need to carry out
relied upon for decades. expensive impact assessments and fight
legal challenges.
The project would also be used to create
an industrial waterway to allow soybeans
produced inland to be shipped easily to
North America and Europe.

In recent years, Brazil has found an estimated 50 billion barrels of oil in deep water (2000 m)
300 km off the coast. These finds are the most significant of the 21st century and have the
potential to lift millions of Brazilians out of poverty and increase energy security. The oil fields
are in water deeper than the Gulf of Mexico (where the Deepwater Horizon disaster occurred)

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and occur in complex geology with the reservoirs reported to contain toxic gases. Accessing
this oil presents major engineering challenges, as well as causing environmental concerns
over possible spills and the carbon dioxide emissions caused by accessing and consuming the
oil. Each well is estimated to cost US$300 million – four times the cost of drilling a shallow
water well. Currently, a low oil price means that exploiting these wells is not a cost-effective
solution to an energy shortage at this time. One answer would be to develop more renewable
projects, but these have also been plagued with difficulties. Prolonged drought has reduced
river levels and stopped HEP projects from functioning. The projects are often located a long
way from urban centres. Furthermore, HEP projects that flood tropical forests often face acidic
water conditions that reduce the efficiency of large-scale dams as turbine blades have to be
replaced more frequently.

Meeting energy demand for a growing urban population is a challenge for the Brazilian
government – especially at a time of low oil prices, a shrinking economy and rising public debt.
An estimated 11 million people live in shanty towns known as favelas, and perhaps here
people have a solution: small-scale household-based renewable solar projects. There has
been a recent growth in these projects in favelas, and local councils and mayors are taking an
interest in smaller-scale projects as a short-term solution to keep the lights on.

b) Why is it necessary to change the current energy mix in Brazil? Think about local, national
and global issues.
Brazil’s current energy mix is dominated by non-renewable fossil fuels, which accounted
for over 60% of all energy consumption in 2015. The discovery of vast oilfields off the coast
of Brazil provides the potential to meet future demand for energy. Demand for energy is
increasing due to a growing population that is becoming wealthier. However, the oil has
significant costs attached which make it uneconomical at this time to develop. A low global
oil price means it is not currently worth the investments in overcoming the deep water
challenges. This presents Brazil with a significant challenge – how to meet the growing
energy needs of the population at a time when there is global pressure to reduce
greenhouse gas emissions.

If exploiting new oil and gas fields is not the way forward for the short term due to
economic and environmental factors, then Brazil needs to shift its energy mix towards
more renewable resources. The tropical climate provides high levels of rainfall, which can
be harnessed in large HEP projects. Brazil has a number of these already and there are
plans for many more (the government plan to develop 24 gigawatts of hydropower by
2024). However, prolonged drought and environmental concerns about the impact of these
expensive projects on the rainforest ecosystem mean that HEP alone cannot meet the
needs of people facing electricity shortages in the short term.

At the local scale, in many Brazilian cities there are favelas that have developed over many
years. These are improving in many cities and are now demanding more electricity. These
densely packed urban areas are the most prone to electricity shortages and unreliable
supplies. Shifting towards a local approach to energy generation from renewable sources
such as solar would be beneficial from both an environmental and economic perspective.
Building more dams and exploiting offshore wells will not meet the needs of people in the
short term. As Brazil’s cities grow and demand for electricity increases further, the need for

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a sustainable solution will accelerate, so Brazil will need to consider changes in the energy
mix.

The Brazilian government has a range of approaches to consider when dealing with decisions
about future energy supply.

i. Business as usual – continue to use fossil fuels (some of which are imported) and
current renewables whilst exploiting offshore gas and oil finds as soon as possible.
ii. A multi-energy solution – diversify the energy sources to make best use of what is
available in the country. This could include:

• developing small scale energy projects

• developing new renewable energy sources such as solar and wave energy – both
of which have high potential in the country
• increasing biofuel production to reduce dependence on oil imports
• building nuclear power stations – Brazil has large deposits of uranium
• building new HEP projects
• developing refining capacity to reduce imports of oil products and natural gas,
whilst building oil and gas thermal power stations
• developing the use of carbon capture and storage in power stations
iii. Energy conservation – reducing the amount of energy consumed.

c) Using your own research, the information here and the Student Book, consider the options
available to Brazil. If you were advisor to the Minister of Energy in Brazil, what suggestions
would you make on how to meet demand for energy in Brazilian cities – both now and in
the future?
In order to meet electricity demand and to ensure Brazilian energy security, it is important
that Brazil examines and begins to shift its energy mix. A business as usual approach is
the least environmentally sustainable model and will lead to short-term energy insecurity,
as it relies upon foreign imports to meet a shortfall whilst the new oil and gas fields are
developed. The business as usual approach will increase the carbon emissions of Brazil at
a time when global agreements on reducing carbon emissions are coming into force.

The most effective, secure and sustainable way forward for Brazil would be to develop a
multi energy solution alongside introducing a range of conservation measures. The
conservation measures would allow demand to be reduced in some areas. However,
overall demand is going to increase as rising levels of wealth will lead to greater numbers
of household appliances which will in turn increase demand for electricity. A multi-energy
solution would include development of both small- and large-scale renewable projects
alongside the development of efficient gas turbine power stations. Money earned from
selling fossil fuel reserves could be invested in small-scale household solar energy
schemes as well as offshore wind and wave power. Brazil has huge untapped renewable
energy potential so it is vital to develop this in the future. Increasing fossil fuel use to meet
the immediate needs would be a short-term fix, but can only be a viable option if
renewables are developed and then scaled up alongside these. Once renewable energy
sources at both large and small scales are meeting demand, Brazil would then be able to
reduce the reliance on fossil fuels.

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