UNIT III : UNDERSTANDING ORGANISATION BEHAVIOUR

Meaning of Organizational behavior, contributing disciplines, importance of organizational

behavior, Perception and Learning - Personality and Individual Differences - Motivation theories
and Job Performance - Values, Attitudes and Beliefs - Communication Types-Process - Barriers -
Making Communication Effective.

INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOR

NATURE AND SCOPE OF OB

Organizational Behavior is concerned with the understanding, prediction and control of human
behavior in organizations. It focuses on the individuals, the groups and the organization and also on their
interactional relationships. It is the study and application of knowledge about how people act with
organizations.

It is a human tool for human benefit. It applies broadly to the behavior of people in all types of
organizations. Wherever organizations are, there is a need to understand organizational behavior.

Features (Characteristics) of OB

1. OB is a part of general management and not the whole of management. It represents behavioral
approach to management.

2. OB contains a body of theory, research and application associated with a growing concern for
people at the work place. It helps in understanding human behavior in work organizations.

3. OB is a human tool for human benefit. It helps in predicting the behaviour of individuals.

4. OB is inter-disciplinary field of study. It tries to synthesize knowledge drawn from various

behavioural and social sciences such as Psychology, Sociology, Anthropology, Political-science,
Economics, etc. In fact, OB is an applied behaviouralsciences.

5. OB involves three levels of analysis of behaviour-individual behaviour, group behaviour and

behaviour of the organization itself.

6. OB is an action-oriented and goal-directed discipline. It provides a rational thinking about people

and their behaviour

7. OB is both a science and an art. The systematic knowledge about human behaviour is a science.
The application of behvioural knowledge and skills clearly leans towardss being an art.

8. OB seeks to fulfil both employees’ needs and organizational objectives.

Scope of OB

The scope of OB may be summed up in the words of S.P.Robbins as follows:

OB is a field of study that investigates the impact that individuals, groups, and structure have on
behaviour within organizations, for the purpose of applying such knowledge towardss improving an
organisation’s effectiveness”.

The scope of OB involves three levels of behaviour in organizations: individuals, groups and
structure.

1. Individual Behaviour
(i) Personality
(ii) Perception
(iii) Values and Attitudes
(iv) Learning
(v) Motivation
2. Group Behaviour
(i) Work groups and group dynamics
(ii) Dynamics of conflict
(iii) Communciation
(iv) Leadership
(v) Morale

3. Organization: Structure, Process and Application

(i) Organizational Climate

(ii) Organizational Culture
(iii) Organizational Change
(iv) Organizational Effectiveness
(v) Organizational Development
Key Elements in OB

The key elements in organizational behaviour are people, structure technology and the environment in
which the organizations operates. When people join together in an organisation to accomplish an
objective, some kind of structure is required. People also use technology to help get the job done, so there
is an interaction of people, structure and the technology as shown in fig.1. In addition, these elements are
influenced by the external environment, and they influence it.
 People

Environment Environment
Fig. 1: Key elements in
organizational behavior

Structure
Organization
Technology

Environment
Each of the four elements of organizational behaviour will be considered briefly.

People: People make up the internal social system of the organisation. They consist of individuals and
groups. There are formal and informal groups. Groups are dynamic. They form, change and disband.
Organizations exist to serve people, rather than people existing to serve organizations.

Structure: Structure defines the formal relationships of people in organizations. Different jobs are
required to accomplish all of an organization’s activities. There are managers and employees, accountants
and assemblers. These people have to be related in some structural way so that their work can be
effectively co-ordinate. These relationships create complex problems of co-operation, negotiation and
decision-making.

Technology: Technology provides the resources with which people work and affects the tasks that they
perform. The technology used has a significant influence in working relationships. The great benefit of
technology is that it allows people to do more and better work, but it also restricts people in various ways.
It has costs as well as benefits.

Environment: All organizations operate within an external environment A single organization does not
exist alone. It is part of a larger system that contains many other elements such as Govt, the family, and
other organizations.
All of these mutually influence each other in a complex system that creates a context for a group of people.
Individual organizations, such as factory or a school, cannot escape being influenced by this external
environment. It influences the attitudes of people, affects working conditions, and provides competition
for resources and power. It must be considered in the study of human behavior in organizations.

FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS

Organizational behavior starts with a set of six fundamental concepts revolving around the nature
of people and organizations. They are as follows:
The Nature of people:

▪ Individual differences
▪ A whole person
▪ Motivated behaviour
▪ Value of the person (human dignity)

The Nature of organisations

▪ Social systems
▪ Mutual Interest

Result

▪ Holistic organizational behaviour

1.INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES: People have much in common (they become excited, or they are
grieved by the loss of loved one), but each person in the world is also individually different. Each one is
different from all others, probably in millions of ways, just as each of their fingerprints is different, as a
far as we know. And these differences are usually substantial rather than meaningless. All people are
different. This is a fact supported by science.

The idea of individual differences comes originally from psychology. From the day of birth, each person
is unique, and individual experiences after birth tend to make people even more different. Individual
differences mean that management can get the greatest motivation among employees by treating
manager’s approach to employees should be individual, not statistical. This belief that each person is
different from all others is typically called the Law of Individual Differences.
2. A WHOLE PERSON: Although some organizations may wish they could employ a person’s skill or
brain, they actually employ a whole person, rather than certain characteristics. Different human traits may
be separately studied, but in the final analysis they are all part of one system making up a whole person.
Skill does not exist apart from background or knowledge. Human life is not totally separable from work
life and emotional conditions are not separate from physical conditions. People function as total human
beings.

3. MOTIVATED BEHAVIOUR : From psychology we learn that normal behavior has certain causes.
These may relate to a person’s needs and / or the consequences that result from acts. In the case of needs,
people are motivated not by what we think they ought to have but by what they themselves want. To an
outside observer a person’s needs may be unrealistic, but they are still controlling. This act leaves
management with two basic ways to motivate people. It can show them how certain actions will increase
their need fulfillment, or it can threaten decreased need fulfillment if they follow an undesirable course of
action. Clearly a path towards increased need fulfillment is the better approach.
4. VALUE OF THE PERSON (HUMAN DIGNITY): This concept is of a different order from the
other three because it is more an ethical philosophy than a scientific conclusion. It asserts that people are
to be treated differently from other factors of production because they are of a higher order in the universe.
It recognizes that because people are of a higher order they want to be treated with respect and dignity –
and should be treated this way. The concept of human dignity rejects the old idea of using employees as
economic tools.

5. SOCIAL SYSTEMS: From sociology we learn that organizations are social systems; consequently
activities there-in are governed by social laws as well as psychological laws. Just as people have
psychological needs, they also have social roles and status. Their behavior is influenced by their group as
well as by their individual drives. In fact, two types of social systems exist side by side in organizations.
One is the formal (official) social system, and the other is the informal social system.

The existence of a social system implies that the organizational environment is one of dynamic change
rather than a static set of relations. All parts of the system are interdependent and subject to influence by
any other part. Everything is related to everything else. The idea of a social system provides a frame
work for analyzing organizational behavior issues. It helps make organizational behavior problems
understandable and manageable.

6. MUTUAL INTEREST:Mutual interest is represented by the statement “organizations, need people,

and people also need organizations”. Organizations have a human purpose. They are formed and
maintained on the basis of some mutuality of interest among their participants. People see organizations
as a means to help them reach their goals, while organizations need people to help reach organizational
objectives. As shown in the following figure, mutual interest provides a superordinate goal that integrates
the efforts of individuals and groups. The result is that they are encouraged to attack organizational
problems rather than each other.

Employee
Employee

goals

Superordinate Mutual
accomplishment
Goal for Org’n
of goals

Fig. 2.
Organizational

goals Organization

Mutual interest provides a superordinate goal for organization.

7.HOLISTIC ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR: When the six fundamental concepts of
organizational behaviour are considered together, they provide a holistic concept of the subject. Holistic
organizational behaviour interprets people-organisation relationships in terms of the whole person, whole
group, whole organisation, and whole social system. It takes an across-the board view of people in
organisations in an effort to understand as many as possible of the factors that influence their behaviour.
Issues are analysed in terms of the total situation affecting them rather than in terms of an isolated event
or problem.

BASIC APPROACHES TO OB

1. A human resources (supportive) approach: The human resources approach is developmental. It is

concerned with the growth and development of people towardss higher levels of competency, creativity,
and fufillment, because people are the central resource in any organisation and any society. The nature of
the human resources approach can be understood by comparing it with the traditional management
approach in the early 1900s. In the traditional approach, managers decided what should be done and
management was directive and controlling.

The human resources approach, on the other hand, is supportive. It helps employees become better, more
responsible persons, and then tries to create a climate in which they may contribute to the limits of their
improved abilities. Essentially, the human resources approach means that better people achieve better
results. It is somewhat illustrated by this ancient proverb:

“Give a person a fish, and you feed that person for a day

Teach a person to fish, and you feed that person for life”

2. A contingency approach: Traditional management relied on the principle of “one best way” of
managing. There was a correct way to organize, to delegate and to divide work. The correct way applied
regardless of the type of organisation or situation involved. The contingency approach to organizational
behaviour means that different situations require different behavioural practices for effectiveness.

3. A productivity approach: Productivity is a ratio that compares units of output with units of input. If
more outputs can be produced from the same amount of inputs, productivity is improved or if fewer inputs
can be used to produce the same amount of outputs, productivity has increased. The idea of productivity
does not imply that one should produce more output; rather it is a measure of how efficiently one produces
whatever output is desired.

Equations showing the role of organizational behaviour is work systems:

1. Knowledge x skill = Ability

2. Attitude x situation = Motivation

3. Ability x Motivation = Potential human performance

4. Human performance x resources = organizational productivity

4. A systems Approach:

A system implies that there are many variables in organisations and that each of them affects all the others
in a complex relationship. All people in organisations should be concerned with improving organizational
behaviour. Managers represent the administrative system and their role is to use organizational behaviour
to improve people – organisation relationships as shown in the following figure.

Managers try to build a climate in which people are motivated work together, productively, and become
more effective persons.

Human
objectives

Better people
Administrative Organizational Organizational
Organizational
system behaviour relationships objectives

Social

Fig.3 The administrative system in organizational behaviour

objectives

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

A conceptual framework for understanding organizational behaviour is presented by Durbin

consisting of four core propositions, which are:
1. Organizational behaviour follows the principles of human behaviour.
2. Organizational behaviour is situational.
3. Organizational behaviour is based on system approach.
4. Organizational behaviour represents a constant interaction between structure and
process variables.

1. Organizational behaviour follows the principles of human behaviour:

Human beings in the organization are governed by the same physiological mechanisms both on
and off the job. Internal mechanism s provide people an extra spurt of the appropriate harmone during
times of stress, whether this stress is job or non – job related. Similarly, people at work are governed by
the same psychological principles both inside and outside organizational life. Organizational behaviour
is human behaviour in a particular setting.

2. Organizational Behaviour is situational:

Psychologists and other behvaioural scientists have emphasized for years that individual is a
function of the interaction between personal characteristics of the individual and environmental variables.
In order to understand a person’s behaviour, the pressures placed upon him in a given situation must be
understood. Aggressive behvaiour, for example, surfaces when a normally calm individual is forced into
constant and close physical proximity with other people.

Pigors and Myres developed the concepts of situational thinking. Their analysis suggests that four
situational variables are basic for anyone responsible for getting results accomplished through people.

These are:

a) The human element such as individual differences. This category includes

interpersonal relationships and other social aspects of the situation.
b) The technical factor such as production methods and equipment, management
procedure, and specialized skills in any job function.
c) Space – time dimensions and relationships such as the size and location of a plant, office
or work – station.
d) Organizational wide policies designed to achieve major organizational objectives.

3. Organizational Behaviour is based on system approach:

Systems thinking is an integral part of modern organization theory. Organizations are viewed as
complex systems consisting of inter – related and inter – locking sub – systems. Changes in any one part
of the system has both known and unknown consequences in other parts of the system. When
modifications in the system lead to desired, positive consequences, they are called functions. Unintended
consequences in response to modification in the systems are called dysfunctions. According to the system
point of view, every inter – action has both functions and dysfunctions.
4. Organizational Behaviour represents a constant interaction between structure and process
variables:

Structure refers to organizational design and position. Process refers to what happens, with or
without the structure. A retail store may use both formal advertising and public relations functions
(structure) to help build its image in the community. However, most of the store’s image is formed by
words of mouth from satisfied and dissatisfied customers and employees.

Processes emerging within a group or organization are often evident only after they are heading
towardss completion. It is almost structural requirement in any organization that managers deal with the
discontents of their people, yet employees sometimes find other processes for handling them.

The difference between structure and process represents a vital concept for understanding
organizational behaviour.
 MODELS OF ORGANISATIONAIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

Since the dawn of industrial revolution, four models of organizational behaviour have been
followed by managers of different organizations at different times. These are autocratic, custodial,
supportive and collegial as shown in table 1.

Table 1: Models of Organizational Behaviour

Model Autocratic Custodial Supportive Collegial

Basis of Model Power Economic Leadership Partnership

resources
Managerial
orientation Authority Money Support Teamwork

Employee
orientation Obedience Security and Job Responsible
benefits performance behaviour
Employee
psychological Dependence on Dependence on Participation Self –
result boss organization discipline

Employee Security
needs met Subsistence Status and Self –
recognition actualization
Performance Passive co-
result Minimum operation Awakened Moderate
drives enthusiasm
 CONTRIBUTING DISCIPLINES TO THE OB FIELD

Behavioural Science Contribution

Learning

Motivation
Psychology
Personality

Emotions

Perception

Training

Leadership effectiveness

Fig.4 Contributing Discipline to the OB field

Group dynamics
Job satisfaction

IndividualWork teams
decision making

Communication
Performance appraisal
Sociology
Power
Attitude measurement

Employee selection
Formal Organisation theory
Work designOrganisational technology

Work StressOrgnaisational change

Behavioural change
Social
Psychology Attitude change
Pschology
Communication

Comparative Values

Comparative Attitudes
Anthropology
Sociology

Organizational culture

Organizational Development

Conflict

Political Science Intra organizational

Politics
 INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOUR

PERSONALITY

Personality refers to the sum total of ways in which an individual reacts and interacts with others.
Personality determinants include heredity, environment and situation.

Personality traits: The early work in the structure of personality revolved around attempts to identify and
label enduring characteristics that describe an individual’s behaviour. Popular characteristics include shy,
aggressive, submissive, lazy, ambitious, loyal, or timid. These characteristics, when they are exhibited in
a large number of situations, are called traits.

1. Reserved Outgoing
2. Less Intelligent More intelligent
3. Affected by feelings Emotionally stable
4. Submissive Dominant
5. Serious Happy-go-luck
6. Expedient Conscientious
7. Timid Venturesome
8. Tough-minded Sensitive
9. Trusting Suspicious
10. Practical Imaginative
11.Forthright Shrewd
12. Self-assured Apprehensive
13. Conservative Experimenting
14. Group-dependent Self-sufficient
15. Uncontrolled Controlled
16. Relaxed Tense
Table 1 Sixteen source traits

Determinants of Personality

(1) Biological Factors:

(i) Heredity:It means the transmission of the qualities such as physical stature, facial
attractiveness, sex, temperament, muscle composition, reflexes etc, from the ancestors and
parents to the descendants. Heredity is generally more important in determining a person’s
temperament than his values and ideals.
 (ii) Brain: There is a general feeling that brain plays an important role in the development of
one’s personality. However, no conclusive proof is available so far about the nature of
relationship between the brain and personality.
(iii) Physical features: An individual’s external appearance may have a tremendous effect on
his personality. Such factors include height, weight, colour, facial features, etc. of the
individual.

(2) Family and Social factors: The development of individual’s personality is also influenced by his
family and other social groups. The infant acquires those behaviour patterns that are customary and
acceptable to the standards of the family and the community where the family lives. The status of the
family in the society influences individual’s perception about self, others, work, money, etc.,

(3) Situational factors: An individual’s personality may change in different situations. The demands of
different situations may call for different aspects of one’s personality. Therefore, we should not look at
the personality factor in isolation.

Group and culture are the early environmental factors that influence later behaviour. Family and
the social setting during early stages of education are the important factors which influence the initial
formation of personality. Whatever the child learns lasts for life time. Later in life, it is the peer groups of
primary affiliations at work, social activities etc. which shape the personality of an individual.

(4) Other factors:

a) Temperament: Temperament is the degree to which one responds emotionally.

b) Interest: An Individual normally has many interests in various areas. The successful persons in the
same occupation have to a large extent, the same interests.

c) Character: Character primarily means honesty. It is resistance to stealing and cheating others.

d) Schema: It is an individual’s belief, frame of reference, perception and attitude which the individual
possesses towardss the management, the job, working conditions, pay, fringe benefits, incentive
system, and development programmes in the organization.

e) Motives: Motives are the inner drives of an individual. They represent goal directed behaviour of
individual.

Development of Personality

(1) Freudian Stages: Sigmund Freud propounded psychoanalytic theory of personality which is based on
the notion that man is motivated more by unseen forces than by conscious and rational thought. Freud
noted that his clients’ behaviour could not always be consciously explained. This clinical finding led him
to conclude that major motivating force in man is unconscious framework. This framework contains three
aspects, though inter-related but often conflicting. These are Id, Ego and Superego. Their brief description
is as follows:
(i) The Id:The id is the source o psychic energy and seeks immediate gratification for biological or
instinctual needs such as hunger, thirst and sex. The id would proceed unchecked to satisfy
motives, particularly the sexual relations and pleasures, were it not for the channeling activity into
acceptable ways by the ego. As an individual matures, he learns to control the id. But even then, it
remains a driving force throughtout life and an important source of thinking and behaving.

(ii) The Ego:The ego is the conscious and logical part of human personality and is associated with the
reality principle. While id represents the unconscious part, ego is conscious about the realities of
the external environment. The ego keeps the id in check through intellect and reason.

(iii) The Super ego:The super ego represents societal and personal norms and serves as an ethical
constraint on behaviour. It can best be described as the conscience. The superego provides norms
to ego to determine what is wrong or right. However, a person is not aware of the working of the
super ego, and conscience is developed by absorption of cultural values and norms of the society.

(2) Erikson Stages: Erikson criticized the heavy emphasis given by Freud on the sexual and biological
factors in the development of personality. He felt that relatively more attention should be given to the
social factors. Erikson identified eight stages of life that characterize the unending development of a
person.

(i) Infancy: During the first year of life, a child resolves the basic crisis of trust Vs mistrust. An
infant who is cared for in an affectionate way learns to trust other people. Lack of love and
affection results in mistrust. This stages makes a serious impact on a child that influences
events for remaining life.

(ii) Early childhood: In the second and third years of life, a child begins to assert independence.
If the child is allowed to control these aspects of life that the child is capable of controlling, a
sense of autonomy will develop. If the child encounters constant disapproval by elders a sense
of self-doubt and shame is likely to develop.

(iii) Play age: The four and five year old seeks to discover just how much he can do. If a child is
encouraged to experiment and to achieve reasonable goals, he will develop a sense of initiative.
If the child is blocked and made to feel incapable, he will develop a sense of ‘guilt and lack of
self confidence’.

(iv) School age: From ages 6 to 12, a child learns many new skills and develops social abilities. If
a child experiences real progress at a rate comparable with abilities, he or she will develop a
sense of enterprise. The reverse situation results in a sense of inferiority.

(v) Adolescence: The crisis of teenage years is to gain a sense of identity rather than to become
confused about who you are. While undergoing rapid biological changes, the teenager is also
trying to establish himself or herself as socially separate from the parents. The autonomy,
initiative and enterprise developed in earlier stages are very important in helping the teenager
to successfully resolve this crisis and prepare for adulthood.
 (vi) Early adulthood: The young adult during the twenties faces the crisis of intimacy Versus
isolation. The sense of identity developed during the teenage years allows the young adult to
begin developing deep and lasting relationships.

(vii) Adulthood: During this stage, the adults face the crisis of generativity Versus self-absorption.
Self-absorbed persons never develop an ability to look beyond themselves. They become
absorbed in career advancement and maintenance; and they never learn to have concern for
future generations, the welfare of organizations to which they belong or the welfare of society
as a whole. Generative people see the world as much bigger than themselves. Productivity at
work and societal advancement become important to them. Through innovation and creativity,
they begin to exert influence that benefits their organizations.

(viii) Mature adulthood: The person is developed as a highly mature person. He has gained a sense
of wisdom and perspective that can really guide the younger generations.

(3) Chris Argyris’ Immaturity – Maturity Theory:

Chris Argyris argued that personality of an individual develops along a continuum from
immaturity as an infant to maturity as an adult. He identified seven characteristics in the continuum as
given in the following table.

Table 2 : Immaturity – Maturity Continuum

Immaturity Characteristics Maturity Characteristics

Passivity Activity
Dependence Independence
Few ways of behaving Diverse behaviour
Shallow interests Deep interests
Short-time perspective Long-time perspective
Subordinate position Super ordinate position
Lack of self awareness Self awareness and control

Chris Argyris further contended that:

(i) The seven dimensions represent only one aspect of the total personality. Much also depends
upon individual’s perception, self-concept and adaptation and adjustment.

(ii) The seven dimensions continually change in degree from the infant to the adult end of the
continuum

(iii) The model, being only a construct, cannot predict specific behaviour.

(iv) The seven dimensions are based upon latest characteristics of personality which may be quite
different from the observable behaviour.

4.Big Five Model

 Five personality traits (the so called big five) have recently emerged from research as being
especially related to job performance. Characteristics of these traits can be summarized briefly as follows:

(1) Extraversion – Sociable, talkative and assertive

(2) Agreeableness – Good natured, co-operative, and trusting

(3) Conscientiousness – Responsible, dependable, persistent and achievement-oriented

(4) Emotional Stability -- Viewed from a negative stand point:

tense, insecure and nervous
(5) Openness to experience – Imaginative, artistically sensitive and
intellectual

5. Friedman and Rosenman’s studies

Table 3 : Profiles of Type A and Type B Personalities

Type A Profile Type B Profile

Is always moving Is not concerned about time
Walks rapidly Is Patient
Talks rapidly Doesn’t brag
Eats rapidly Plays for fun, not to win
Is impatient Relaxes without guilt
Des two things at once Has not pressing deadlines
Can’t cope with leisure time Is mild-mannered
Is obsessed with numbers Is never in a hurry
Measures success by quantity
Is aggressive
Is competitive
Constantly feels under time pressure

The Self concept: Self – Esteem and Self – efficacy

People’s attempts to understand themselves are called the self-concept in personality theory. The
self is a unique product of many interacting parts and may be thought of as the personality viewed from
within. This self is particularly relevant to the concepts of self esteem and self-efficacy in the field of
organizational behaviour.

People’s self esteem has to do with their self-perceived competence and self-image. There is
considerable research on the role that self-esteem may play in organizational behaviour and its outcomes.
Employees with high self esteem feel unique, competent, secure, empowered, and connected to the people
around them.
 Self-efficacy is concerned with self –perceptions of how well a person can cope with situations as
they arise. Those with high self-efficacy feel capable and confident of performing well in a situation.

6. Levinson’s Adult Life Stages

The work of Daniel Levinson on adult life stages has received attention. At first, he believed that
“the life structure evolves through a relatively orderly sequence throughout the adult years, “ and, unlike
other stage theories that were event-oriented (for example, marriage, parenthood or retirement), his was
age-based. In particular he believed there was little variability (a maximum of two or three years) in four
identifiable stable periods.

1. Entering the adult world (ages 22-28)

2. Settling down (ages 33-40)
3. Entering middle adulthood (ages 45-50)
4. Culmination of middle adulthood (ages 55-60)

He identified four transitional periods:

1. Age-thirty transition (ages 28 – 33)

2. Mid-life transition (ages 40-45)
3. Age-fifty transition (ages 50-55)
4. Late adult transition (ages 60-65)

7. Douglas T.Hall’s Career Stage Model

Hall has synthesized Levinson’s theory and other adult stage theories (in particular the work of
Erikson) into an overall model for career stages. The following figure shows that there are four major
career stages.

High
Employee Work Performance

Maintenance

Exploration

Stagnation?
Decline

Low
Age 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65

Needs Identity / Intimacy / Generativity / Integrity

 Fig. 6 Doughs T.Hall’s Career Stage Model

During the first stage there is considerable exploration. The young employee is searching for an identity
and undergoes considerable self examination and role tryouts. This stage usually results in taking a number
of different jobs and is, in general, a very unstable and relatively unproductive period in the person’s
career.
In the second stage, establishment, the employee begins to settle down and indicates a need for intimacy.
This is usually a growing, productive period in the employee’s career.
The third stage of maintenance occurs when the person levels off into a highly productive plateau and
has a need for generativity (the concern to leave something to the next generation).
This need often leads the person to assume a paternalistic or perhaps a mentor role with younger
subordinates. As shown above, the person may either have a growth spurt or become stagnant and decline
during this third career stage. The final stage, decline, is self-explanatory. The person indicates a need for
integrity (that is, the person needs to feel satisfied with his or her life choices and overall career).

The Socialization process

Besides the developmental aspects of personality, there is increasing recognition given to the role
of other relevant persons, groups, and especially, organizations which greatly influence an individual’s
personality. This continuous impact from the social environment is commonly called the socialization
process. Socialization starts with the initial contact between a mother and her new infant.

After infancy, other members of the immediate family (father, brothers, and sisters), close relatives and
family friends and then the social group (peer, school friends, and members of the work group) play
influential roles. Edgar Schein notes that the organization itself also contributes to socialization. He
points out that the process includes only the learning of those values, norms and behavior patterns which,
from the organization’s and works group’s points of view, are necessary for any new organization member
to learn.

The following are widely accepted characteristics of organizational socialization of employees:

1. Change of attitudes, values and behaviors.

2. Continuity of socialization over time.
3. Adjustment to new jobs, work groups, and organizational practices.
4. Mutual influence between new recruits and their managers.
5. Criticality of the early socialization period.

Specific techniques of socializing new employees would include the use of mentors or role models,
orientation and training programmes, reward systems, and career planning. Specific steps that can lead to
successful organizational socialization would include the following:

1. Provide a challenging first job

2. Provide relevant training
3. Provide timely and consistent feedback
4. Select a good first supervisor to be in charge of socialization
 5. Design a relaxed orientation programme
6. Place new recruits in work groups with high morale.

Such deliberate socialization strategies have tremendous potential impact on human resources
management and organizational effectiveness.

Perception
Perception is an intellectual process of transforming sensory stimuli to meaningful information. It is the
process of interpreting something that we see or hear in our mind and use it later to judge and give a
verdict on a situation, person, group etc.
It can be divided into six types −
• Of sound − The ability to receive sound by identifying vibrations.
• Of speech − The competence of interpreting and understanding the sounds of language heard.
• Touch − Identifying objects through patterns of its surface by touching it.
• Taste − The ability to receive flavor of substances by tasting it through sensory organs known as
taste buds.
• Other senses − They approve perception through body, like balance, acceleration, pain, time,
sensation felt in throat and lungs etc.
• Of the social world − It permits people to understand other individuals and groups of their social
world. Example − Priya goes to a restaurant and likes their customer service, so she will perceive
that it is a good place to hang out and will recommend it to her friends, who may or may not like
it. Priya’s perception about the restaurant is good.
Perceptual Process
Perceptual process is the different stages of perception we go through. The different stages are −

• Receiving
• Selecting
• Organizing
• Interpreting
Receiving
Receiving is the first and most important stage in the process of perception. It is the initial stage in which
a person collects all information and receives the information through the sense organs.
Selecting
Selecting is the second stage in the process. Here a person doesn’t receive the data randomly but
selectively. A person selects some information out of all in accordance with his interest or needs. The
selection of data is dominated by various external and internal factors.
• External factors − The factors that influence the perception of an individual externally are
intensity, size, contrast, movement, repetition, familiarity, and novelty.
 • Internal factors − The factors that influence the perception of an individual internally are
psychological requirements, learning, background, experience, self-acceptance, and interest.
Organizing
Keeping things in order or say in a synchronized way is organizing. In order to make sense of the data
received, it is important to organize them.
We can organize the data by −
• Grouping them on the basis of their similarity, proximity, closure, continuity.
• Establishing a figure ground is the basic process in perception. Here by figure we mean what is
kept as main focus and by ground we mean background stimuli, which are not given attention.
• Perceptual constancy that is the tendency to stabilize perception so that contextual changes don’t
affect them.
Interpreting
Finally, we have the process of interpreting which means forming an idea about a particular object
depending upon the need or interest. Interpretation means that the information we have sensed and
organized, is finally given a meaning by turning it into something that can be categorized. It includes
stereotyping, halo effect etc.
Importance of Perception in OB
We need to understand what the role of perception in an organization is. It is very important in
establishing different role of perceptions like −

• Understanding the tasks to be performed.

• Understanding associated importance of tasks allotted.
• Understanding preferred behavior to complete respective tasks.
• Clarifying role perceptions.

LEARNING

Meaning:

Learning refers to any relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of
experience.
Ironically, we can say that changes in behaviour indicate that learning has taken place and that learning is
a change in behaviour. Our definition has several components that deserve clarification.
First, learning involves change. This may be good or bad from an organizational point of view. People
can learn unfavourablebehaviours-to hold prejudices or to restrict their output, for ex-as well as
favourablebehaviours. Second, the change must be relatively permanent. Temporary changes may be only
reflexive and fail to represent any learning. Therefore, this requirement rules out behavioural changes
caused by fatigue or temporary adaptations. Third, our definition is concerned with behaviour. Learning
takes place where there is a change in actions. A change in an individuals thought processes or attitudes,
if accompanied by no change in behaviour, would not be learning. Finally, some form of experience is
necessary for learning. This may be acquired directly through observation or practice.

Factors Affecting Learning

Learning is based upon some key factors that decide what changes will be caused by this experience. The
key elements or the major factors that affect learning are motivation, practice, environment, and mental
group.

Coming back to these factors let us have a look on these factors −

• Motivation − The encouragement, the support one gets to complete a task, to achieve a goal is
known as motivation. It is a very important aspect of learning as it acts gives us a positive energy
to complete a task. Example − The coach motivated the players to win the match.
• Practice − We all know that ”Practice makes us perfect”. In order to be a perfectionist or at least
complete the task, it is very important to practice what we have learnt. Example − We can be a
programmer only when we execute the codes we have written.
• Environment − We learn from our surroundings, we learn from the people around us. They are
of two types of environment – internal and external. Example − A child when at home learns from
the family which is an internal environment, but when sent to school it is an external environment.
• Mental group − It describes our thinking by the group of people we chose to hang out with. In
simple words, we make a group of those people with whom we connect. It can be for a social cause
where people with the same mentality work in the same direction. Example − A group of readers,
travelers, etc.

These are the main factors that influence what a person learns, these are the root level for our behavior
and everything we do is connected to what we learn.

The Learning Process

The learning process is a mental and habit formation process. Attention is paid to certain stimuli
used for learning which are recognized and translated into reinforcement and behaviour. If the learner gets
a reward for his improved behaviour, he forms it into behaviour. Proper habits motivate the employee who
makes efforts in the right direction. The efforts result in satisfaction and become a stimulus for further
learning. This process continues and the employee learns in the process.

Stimuli Attention Recognition Translation

Reinforcement
 Fig.7. The Learning Process

How Learning Occurs?

Learning can be understood clearly with the help of some theories that will explain our behavior. Some
of the remarkable theories are −

• Classical Conditioning Theory

• Operant Conditioning Theory
• Social Learning Theory
• Cognitive Learning Theory

THEORIES OF LEARNING
There are four theories which explain how individuals learn new patterns of behaviour.

1. Classical conditioning: Classical conditioning deals with the association of one event with
another desired event resulting in a desired behaviour or learning. It is a type of conditioning where
an individual responds to some stimulus that would invariably produce such a response. Learning
through classical conditioning was first studied by Ivan Pavlov, a famed Nobel Prize winning
Physiologist, at the turn of the 20th century.

Pavlov conducted an experiment on a dog to study the relation between the dog’s salivation and
the ringing of a bell. A simple surgical procedure helped him to measure accurately the amount of
saliva secreted by the dog. When Pavlov presented a piece of meat to the dog, he noticed a great
deal of salivation. He termed the food an unconditioned response. When the dog saw the meat, it
salivated. During the second stage, Pavlov merely rang a bell (neutral stimuls), the dog did not
salivate. Pavlov subsequently introduced the sound of the bell each time the meat was given to the
dog. Thus meat and ringing of the bell were linked together. The dog eventually learnt to salivate
in response to the ringing of the bell even when there was no meat. Pavlov conditioned the dog to
respond to a learned stimulus.
 Thorndike called this the “law of exercise” which states that behaviour can be learned by repetitive
association between a stimulus and a response.

Fig: 8 Stages in classical conditioning

I Before conditioning

US UR
(Meat) (Salivation)
Neutral stimulus No response
(Bell)

II During conditioning

CS
(Bell)

US UR
(Meat) (Salivation)

III After conditioning

CS CR
(Bell) (Salivation)

The meat was an unconditioned stimulus (US). It invariably caused the dog to react in a specific way, i.e,
noticeable increase in salivation. This reaction is called the unconditioned response (UR). The bell was a
conditioned stimulus (CS). It was originally neutral. But when the bell was linked with the meat (an
unconditioned stimulus), it eventually produced a response. After conditioning, the dog started salivating
in response to the ringing of the bell alone. In other words, conditional stimulus (CS) led to conditioned
response (CR).
2.Operant Conditioning: Operant is defined as behaviour that produces effect. Operant conditioning is
based on the work of B.F. Skinner who advocated that individuals emit responses that are rewarded
and will not emit responses that are either not rewarded or are punished. Operant conditioning is
voluntary or learned behaviour and it is determined, maintained and controlled by its consequence.
“a type of conditioning which desired voluntary behavior leads to a reward or prevents a
punishment”

REINFORCEMENT: Reinforcement is the crucial factor in the learning process. This is also known as
the method of shaping employees’ behaviour. Perception becomes learning only through reinforcement.

Perception = Stimuli Attention Recognition Translation Behaviour

Learning = Stimuli Attention Recognition Translation

Reinforcement Behaviour Habit.

Reinforcement is the instrument or process of learning

Learning = Input Process Output

= Stimuli Reinforcement Behaviour

Table 4 : Types of Reinforcement (Learning):

Types of Learning Contingent Consequences

Positive reinforcement Favourable and pleasant Favourable and desirable
stimuli behaviour
Negative reinforcement Favourable and pleasant Unfavourable and
stimuli undesirable behaviour
avoided
Punishment Undesirable stimuli Undesirable behaviour
prevented
Extinction Stimuli avoided (no Undesirable behaviour
reinforcement) ignored.

3. Social Learning: Social learning is learning achieved through the reciprocal interactions between
people, behaviour and their environment. Social learning theory integrates the cognitive and operant
approaches to learning. It recognizes the importance of consequences as determinants of behaviour. It also
emphasizes that people acquire new behaviours by observing and imitating others in the social setting.
a) Attentional process
People learn form a model only when they recognize and pay attention to its critical
features. People tend to be most influenced by influenced by models that are attractive.
b) Retention process:
A models influence will depend upon how well the individual remembers a models action
c) Motor reproduction process
The observed behavior is then converted into doing. This demonstrates the individual can
perform the activity
d) Reinforcement:
Individuals will be motivated to exhibit the modeled behavior.

4.Cognitive Learning Theory

Cognition defines a person’s ideas, thoughts, knowledge, interpretation, understanding about himself
and environment.
This theory considers learning as the outcome of deliberate thinking on a problem or situation based
upon known facts and responding in an objective and more oriented manner. It perceives that a person
learns the meaning of various objects and events and also learns the response depending upon the
meaning assigned to the stimuli.

This theory debates that the learner forms a cognitive structure in memory which stores organized
information about the various events that occurs.

Learning & Organizational Behavior

An individual’s behavior in an organization is directly or indirectly affected by learning.

Example − Employee skill, manager’s attitude are all learned.

Behavior can be improved by following the listed tips −

• Reducing absenteeism by rewarding employees for their fair attendance.

• Improving employee discipline by dealing with employee’s undesirable behavior, drinking at
workplace, stealing, coming late, etc. by taking appropriate actions like oral reprimands, written
warnings and suspension.
• Developing training programs more often so as to grab the trainees’ attention, provide required
motivational properties etc.

OB MODIFICATION

“OB MOD is a programme where managers identify performance related employee behaviors and
then implement an intervention strategies to strengthen or weaken a behavior”
 1. Identification of Behaviour : The first step in the modification of employee behaviour is to
identify favourablebehaviour as being distinctive from unfavourablebehaviour.
Unfavourablebehaviour is to be avoided, while favourablebehaviour is to be strengthened.

2. Measurement of Behaviour :The types of behaviour, which are identified, must be measured to
find out their impact on performance and productivity. The manager and supervisor who are
closely associated with the employees should honestly record the behaviour without any bias and
its impact on performance. Self-reporting and self-appraisal systems are adopted in many
organizations to give employees a sense of responsibility and realize the importance of proper
behaviour.

3. Analysis of behaviour:Behavioural analysis is done on the basis of cause – consequences

relationships and cognitive processes. It will reveal the impact of unfavourablebehaviour on
performance. The behaviour is to be modified as revealed by analysis.

4. Intervention: Modification of behaviour is possible through intervention, i.e. reinforcement

which may be positive or negative. Punishment and extinction are also used for the modification
of behaviour. Intervention is used to strengthen desirable and weaken undesirable behaviour.

5. Evaluation of behaviour: Systematic evaluation of behaviour helps in modification and

improvement for achieving favourablebehaviour and performance. It involves reaction, learning,
change and improvement of behaviour. Modification of behaviour lays emphasis on self
management. Employees are motivated to manage their own behaviour. They are given
opportunities for self-learning, self-monitoring and adopting favourablebehaviour. Incentives to
self-learning help self-modification. Responsibility – oriented employees are accustomed to self-
learning and self-modification
ATTITUDES

Meaning: Attitudes are our feelings, thoughts and behavioral tendencies towards a specific object or
situation. Attitude is a predisposition to respond to a certain set of facts. Attitudes are evaluative
statements – either favourable or unfavorable, concerning the objects, people or events. In the
language of the layman, we may describe an attitude as the way we feel about something. This may be a
feeling towards college, cricket team, temple, democracy, parents, things, ideas, policies and so on.

Characterstics of Attitudes

Attitudes can be distinguished in terms of (characterized by) their valence, multiplexity, relation to needs,
and centrality.

1. Valence: It refers to the magnitude or degree of favourableness or unfavourableness towards

the object / event. If a person is relatively indifferent towards an object then his attitude has
 low valence. On the contrary, if a person is extremely favourable or unfavorable towardss an
attitude object, then his attitude will have a high valence.

2. Multiplexity: It refers to the number of elements constituting the attitude. For example, one
student may show interest in studies, but another shows interest, in addition works hard, sincere
and serious. Similarly, an employee may feel simply loyal to an organisation. But another may
feel loyal, respectful, fearful and dependent.

3. Relation to needs: Attitudes can also vary in relation to the needs they serve. For instance,
attitudes of an individual towards the pictures may serve only entertainment needs. On the
other hand, attitudes of an individual towards task may serve strong needs for security,
achievement, recognition and satisfaction.

4. Centrality: It refers to the importance of the attitude object to the individual. The attitudes
which have high centrality for an individual will be less succeptible to change.

Components of an Attitude

The structure of a person’s attitude consists of three vital components-affective, cognitive and over
(Fig.9)
Affection
Stimulus Attitudes
Cognition

Behaviour

1.Affective component: The affective component refers to the emotions and feelings associated with an
attitude object. This component is often expressed as like or dislike, good or bad, pleasing or displeasing,
favourable or unfavourable.

In work organisations, the examples of affective components of a person x attitude towards Y may be:

X dislikes Y on personal grounds

X dislikes Y because he is liked by employer

X dislikes Y because he makes more money than X

 X dislikes Y because he takes good decisions despite the lack
of experience and training.

2. Cognitive component: Cognitive component represents the beliefs perceptions and opinions of a
person about an attitude object. The beliefs may be based on a variety of learning experiences, rumours,
misunderstandings, or any other information. You may believe that the manager is intelligent, or stupid,
ethical or unethical, good or bad, or autocrat or democrat.

3. Overt component: It is also know as “behavioural” component or “conative” component. This

component is concerned with the way one intends to behave a particular attitude object. Both the affective
and cognitive components (feelings and beliefs) influence the way a person intends to behave towards an
attitude object. For instance, if a person has a negative feeling or belief towards an object, he will be
likely to behave negatively towards the object.

Attitude Formation

The question often arises “where do attitudes comefrom”? Attitudes are basically learned. People are not
born with specific attitudes, rather they acquire them through the “process of learning”. The determinants
of a person’s attitudes are as follows:

1. Experience: Individuals learn attitudes through job experiences. They develop attitudes about
such factors as salary, performance reviews, job design, work group affiliation and managerial
capabilities.

2. Association: The major groups, associations, geographic region, religion, educational

background, race, sex, age and income – class strongly influence our attitudes.

3. Family: Individuals develop certain attitudes from their family members – parents, brothers,
sisters, etc.
4. Peer groups: As people approach their adulthood, they increasingly rely on their peer groups for
approval, attitude. We often seek out others who share attitudes similar to our own, or else we
change our attitudes to confirm to the attitudes of those in the group whose approval is important
to us.

5. Society: Social class, religious affiliation, culture, languages and the structure of society influence
the formation of attitudes. For ex., the attitudes of Russians towards communism are radically
different from those held by an average American.

6. Personality factors:Personality factors such as individuality, self – confidence, independence,

creativity, innovation, defensiveness etc., also determine the formation of attitudes.
Measurement of Attitudes

The most common and frequently used measures of attitudes are the questionnaires which ask the
respondents to evaluate and rate the attitude towards a particular object directly and to respond favourably
or unfavourably about their belief regarding the attitude object. Different types of scales are in use with
respect to measurement of attitudes, viz. Thurstone’s scale, Likert’s scale, Bogardus’s social distance
scale, Guttman’s scale etc., Let us throw a dim light on these scales.

1. Thurstone’s scale: About six decades back Thurstone collected a large number of statements
relating to the areas in which attitudes were to be measured. The statements may relate to any
object – for example, religion, education, war, peace, etc. The statements, both favourable and
unfavourable are placed into eleven piles; 1 representing the most favourable and “11”
representing the unfavourable. Individuals will then be asked to check those statements with
which they agreed. The average of the scale values of the items which they accepted will give
an indication of the placement of a person along the attitude continuum. For ex. if the average
happens to be low, this would indicate high degree of favourableness in attitudes in this
particular area and if the average happens to be high, this indicates low degree of
favourableness in attitudes in the area.

2. Likert’s scale: Another scale that is relatively easy when compared to Thurstone’s scale is the
one developed by Rensis Likert.

Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly

(neutral) disagree
5 4 3 2 1

Likert’s scale consists of five boxes ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree. Under each
statement of attitude the respondents will be given a chance to check one of five boxes and finally all the
ratings will be summed up. The Likert’s scale is also called a summed – rating measure. The summed –
rating scale provides a means of measuring the intensity of one’s attitude towards a particular object or
even in addition to the direction.

Likert’s scale is more reliable and valid than Thurstone’s scale.

3. Bogardus’s social distance scale: Perhaps the simplest scale of measuring attitudes was the social
distance scale developed by Bogardus in 1925. The scale is composed of a large number of statements
regarding national, racial or ethnic groups. Bogardus used a seven point scale.

4. Guttman’s scale:Guttman developed a cumulative scaling technique to measure attitudes in 1950. If

a person gets a higher scale than another person on a particular set of items, we can easily determine
his position for every single item. For ex. in the case of one’s attitude towards work, an employee
might be pressured with six statements displaying successively higher degrees of dissatisfaction. It is
assumed that the employee will reach some point beyond which he can no longer agree. The main
threshold is considered to be the degree of satisfaction.
 There are many other good scales to measure attitudes. Edward and Kilpatrik attempted to synthesize
and integrate the Likert’s Thurstone’s and Guttman’s approaches, with a technique called “scale
discriminations”. Here are six response categories ranging from strongly agree, agree, mildly agree,
mildly disagree, disagree and strongly disagree.

VALUES:
Another source of individual differences is value. Values exist at a deeper level than attitudes and are
more general and basic in nature. We use them to evaluate our own behaviour and that of others. Value is
an enduring belief that a specific mode of conducts or end state of existence is personally and socially
preferable to the alternative modes of conduct or end states of existence. Once it is internalized it becomes
consciously or unconsciously, a standard or criterion for guiding action, for developing and maintaining
attitudes toward relevant objects and situation, for justifying one's own and others' actions and attitudes
for morally judging one self and others and for comparing one self with others. Value, therefore, is a
standard or yardstick to guide actions, attitudes, evaluations and justifications of the self and others.

Ronald D White and David A Bednar have defined value as a "concept of the desirable, an internalised
criterion or standard of evaluation a person possesses. Such concepts and standards are relatively few and
determine or guide an individual's evaluations of the many objects encountered in everyday life".

Values are tinged with moral flavour, involving an individual's judgement of what is right, good or
desirable. Thus values:
• Provide standards of competence and morality.
• Are fewer in number than attitudes.
• Transcend specific objects, situations or persons.
• Are relatively permanent and resistant to change.
• Are more central to the core of a person.
Individuals learn values as they grow and mature. They may change over the life span of an individual
develops a sense of self. Cultures, societies, and organizations shape values.

Values are important to the study of organizational behaviour because they lay the foundation for the
understanding of attitudes and motivation and because they influence our perceptions. Individuals enter
an organization with preconceived notions of what "ought" and what "ought not' to be.
 Formation of values in Organizational behavior

Formation of values are learned and acquired primarily through experiences with people and institutions.

Parents, for example, will have substantial influence on their children's values. A parent's reaction to
everyday events demonstrates what is good and bad, acceptable and unacceptable and important and
unimportant. Values are also taught and reinforced in schools, religious organizations, and social groups.
As we grow and develop, each source of influence contributes to our definition what is important in life.
Cultural mores have influence of the formation of values. Basic convictions of what is good or bad are
derived from one's own culture.

All port and his associates categorized values into six types:
1. Theoretical: Interested in the discovery of truth through reasoning and systematic thinking.
2. Economic: Interest in usefulness and practicality, including the accumulation of wealth.
3. Aesthetic: Interest in beauty, form and artistic harmony.
4. Social: Interest in people and love as a human relationship.
5. Political: Interest in gaining power and influencing people.
6. Religious: Interest in unity and understanding the cosmos as a whole.
Instrumental and Terminal Values: Rokeach distinguishes between two types of values: Instrumental
and Terminal.
Instrumental Value: Instrumental values reflect the means to achieve goals; that is, they represent the
acceptable behaviour to be used in achieving some end state.
Instrumental values identified by Rokeach include ambition, honesty, self-sufficiency and
courageousness.

Instrumental value refers to a single belief that always takes the form: I believe that such and such a mode
of conduct (example Honesty, courage, etc.) is personally and socially preferable in all situations with
respect to all objects. An instrumental value is a tool or means for acquiring a terminal value.

Terminal Value: Terminal values, in contrast, represent the goals to be achieved, or the end states of
existence. Rokeach identified happiness, love, pleasure, self-respect, and freedom among the terminal
values.
 Terminal value takes a comparable form: I believe that such and such an end state of existence
(example salvation, or world at peace etc.) is personally and socially worth striving for. A terminal value
is an ultimate goal in a desired status or outcome.
Work Values: Attitudes, Values and Work Ethics Work values are important because they affect how
individuals behave on their jobs in terms of what is right and wrong. The work values most relevant to
individuals are: -
1. Achievement: Achievement is a concern for the advancement of one's career.
This is shown in such behaviours as working hard and seeking opportunities to develop new skills.
2. Concern for Others: Concern for others reflects caring, compassionate behavior such as encouraging
other employees or helping others work on difficult tasks. These behaviours constitute organizational
citizenship.
3. Honesty: Honesty is accurately providing information and refusing to mislead others for personal gain.
4. Fairness: Fairness emphasizes impartiality and recognises different points of view.
Although individuals vary in their value systems, when they share similar values at work, the results are
positive. This means that organizations recruiting job candidates should pay careful attention to
individual's values.

MOTIVATION

Meaning : Motivation is a basic psychological process, Technically, the term ‘motivation’ can be
traced to the Latin word ‘movere’, which means “to move”. This meaning is evident in the following
comprehensive definition: “A motive is an inner state that energizes, activates or moves (hence)
motivation” and that directs or channels behaviour towards goals”. The key to understanding motivation
lies in the meaning of, and relationship between, needs, drives, and goals.

THE BASIC MOTIVATION PROCESS

NEEDS ------------------------ DRIVES -------------------------------- GOALS (Deprivation)

(Deprivation with (Reduction of

Direction) drives)
 1. Needs: The best one-ward definition of a need is deficiency. For example, a need exists when a
cell in the body is deprived of food and water.

2. Drives: Drives or motives are set up to alleviate needs. A drive can simply be defined as a
deficiency with direction. The examples of the needs for food and water are translated into the
hunger and thirst drives, and the need for friends becomes a drive for affiliation.

3. Goals: At the end of the motivation cycle is the goal. A goal in the motivation cycle can be defined
as anything which will alleviate a need and reduce a drive. Food, Water and Friends are the goals
in our examples.

TYPES OF MOTIVES
Primary Motives: Hunger, thirst, sleep, avoidance of pain, sex etc, are classified as primary motives

General Motives: The motives of competence, curiosity, manipulation activity, and affection are
called general motives.

Secondary Motives: Power, achievement, affiliation, security and status are important secondary
motives.

THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

1. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: Abraham Maslow thought that a person’s motivational needs can be
arranged in a hierarchical manner. In essence, he believed that once a given level of need is satisfied, it
no longer serves to motivate. The next higher level of need has to be activated in order to motivate the
individual Maslow identified five levels in his need hierarchy.

Self - actualization

Esteem Needs

Love Needs

Safety Needs

Physiological Needs
Fig.14 Maslow’s hierarchy of Needs
1. Physiological needs: The needs of hunger, thirst, sleep and sex are physiological needs.
According to the theory, once these basic needs are satisfied, they no longer motivate.

2. Safety needs: Maslow stressed emotional as well as physical safety. The whole organization may
become a safety – seeking mechanism. For example, membership in a trade union is a safety need. Once
these safety needs are satisfied, they no longer motivate.

3. Love needs: Maslow’s use of the word love has many misleading connotations, such as sex,
which is actually a physiological need. Perhaps a more appropriate word describing this level would be
belongingness or affiliation. Membership in formal and informal work groups is a belongingness need.

4. Esteem needs: The esteem level represents the higher needs of humans. The needs for power,
achievement, and status can be considered to be part of this level.

5. Needs for self – actualization: This level represents the culmination of all the lower, intermediate,
and higher needs of humans. People, who have become self – actualized, are self fulfilled and have
realized all their potential. Self – actualization is the person’s motivation to transform perception of self
into reality.

2.Herzberg’s Two – Factor Theory

According to Herzberg, there are satisfiers and dis-satisfiers in a job for the individuals. Herzberg labeled
satisfiers motivators, and he called the dissatisfiers hygiene factors. Taken together, they became known
as Herzberg’s two – factor theory of motivation.

Herzberg’s theory is closely related to Maslow’s need hierarchy. The hygiene factors are preventive and
environmental in nature, and they are roughly equivalent to Maslow’s lower – level needs.
Figure 15. Herzberg’s Two – factor theory:

Hygiene Factors Motivators

Company policy and Administration Achievement

Technical supervision Recognition

Salary Work itself

Inter-personal relations Responsibility

Working conditions Advancement

These hygiene factors prevent dissatisfaction, but they do not lead to satisfaction. By themselves, the
hygiene factors do not motivate. Only the motivators motivate humans on the job. They are roughly
equivalent to Maslow’s higher – level needs. According to the Herzberg theory, an individual must have
a job with a challenging content in order to be truly motivated.

3.Alderfer’s ERG Theory

The most recent extension of the Herzberg and, especially, the Maslow content theories of work
motivation come from the work of Clayton Alderfer. He formulated a need category model that was more
in line with the existing empirical evidence. Similar to Maslow and Herzberg, he does feel that there is
value in categorizing needs and that here is basic distinction between lower – order needs and higher order
needs.

Alderfer identified three groups of core needs; Existence, Relatedness, and Growth (hence ERG theory).
The existence needs are concerned with survival (physiological Well-being). The relatedness needs stress
the importance of interpersonal, social relationships. The growth needs are concerned with the
individual’s intrinsic desire for personal development.

Fig 16. Shows how these groups of needs are related to the Maslow and Herzberg categories. Obviously,
they are very close but the ERG needs do not have strict lines of democration.

4. McGregor’s ‘Theory X’ and ‘Theory Y’

Douglas McGregor propounded two contrasting theories of human behavior which he called theory X
and theory Y.

Theory X: Theory X indicates the traditional approach to managerial motivation and control. It
represents old stereotyped and authoritarian management style of motivation. It suggests that threats of
punishment and strict control are the ways to manage people.

Theory Y: Theory Y indicates that if people are properly motivated, they could really be creative. The
main task of management is to unleash the potential in the employees. An employee who is properly
motivated can achieve his goals by directing his own efforts and, thus, he can help in accomplishing the
organizational goals. This theory emphasizes the satisfaction of need of the workers. It does not rely
heavily on the use of authority as an instrument of command and control. It suggests that decentralization
and delegation, job enlargement, participation and consultative management style are the ways to motivate
people.

Fig. 17 Comparison of Theory X and Theory Y

Theory X Theory Y

Based on the assumption that people are Based on the assumption that people like
basically lazy and so shirk work work as children like play
 People do not take initiative. They like to People like to take initiative. They seek
be directed. self – direction.

People avoid responsibility whenever People assume responsibility gladly if

possible conditions are favourable.

For getting things done, people must be People do not require close and strict
supervised strictly. supervision for properly performing their
jobs.

Autocratic style of leadership is likely to Democratic or participative style of

be more effective leadership is likely to be more effective.

Applicable to illiterate, unskilled and Applicable to educated and skilled

lower – level workers employees who occupy high positions in
the organizations.

Believes in mental sickness and so Believes in mental health and so positive

negative motivation of employees and intrinsic motivation of employees

Appraisal of McGregor’s contribution

Douglas McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y represent extremes to draw the fencing within which the
organizational man is seen to behave. No man would belong completely to either Theory X or Theory Y.
He possesses the traits of both in varying degrees under different situations. Thus, these theories are
important tools in understanding the behaviour of human beings and in designing the incentive schemes
to motivate the employees. Neither of the two theories is fully applicable in all the situations and to all
types of human beings. Therefore, the management should use an amalgamation of both the theories to
motivate the different kinds of employees at different levels in the organization.

II. THE PROCESS THEORIES OF WORK MOTIVATION

The content models attempted to identify what motivates people at work (for example, self – actualization,
responsibility, and growth); they tried to specify correlates of motivated behaviour. The process theories
on the other hand, are more concerned with the cognitive concepts that go into motivation or effort and,
more important, with the way they relate to one another. Now, let us discuss two important process
theories of motivation.

1. Vroom’s Expectancy theory of Motivation:

The following Fig. 18 briefly summarizes the vroom model. As shown, the model is built around the
concepts of Valence, Instrumentality and Expectancy and is commonly called the VIE theory.
 Expectancy INSTRUMENTALITIES

First level
Outcome
Outcome 1a
Outcome 1

MOTIVATIONAL Force Outcome 1b

F = Valence X Expectancy
Outcome 2 Outcome 2a

Outcome 2b

Outcome 2c

Fig.18: The Vroom Expectancy, or VIE theory of work motivation

By Valence, Vroom means the strength of an individual’s preference for a particular outcome. In order
for the valence to be positive, the person must prefer attaining the outcome to not attaining it. A Valence
of Zero occurs when the individual is indifferent towards the outcome; the valence is negative when the
individual prefers not attaining the outcome to attaining it.

According to Vroom, there are tow levels of outcome namely first level outcome and second level
outcome. The first – level outcome is instrumental in obtaining the second – level outcome. Therefore,
the first – level outcome is called instrumentality input in valence. For ex, assume past performance is
the first – level outcome and promotion is the second – level outcome. Past performance is instrumental
in obtaining promotion. Therefore, past performance (first – level outcome) is known as instrumentality
input in our example.

Another major variable in the Vroom motivational process is expectancy. Expectancy is the probability
that a particular action or effort will lead to a particular first – level outcome. Expectancy is different
from instrumentality input in valence. Expectancy relates efforts to first level outcome whereas
instrumentality relates first – level outcome to second – level outcome.

2.The Porter – Lawler Model:

Porter and Lawler start with the premise that motivation (effort or force) does not equal satisfaction and/or
performance. Motivation, satisfaction, and performance are all separate variables and relate in ways
different from what was traditionally assumed. The following Figure 19 depicts the porter and Lawler
model.

Intrinsic Rewards

Satisfaction
Efforts Performance

Extrinsic Rewards

Fig.19: Porter and Lawler Model

Effort: Effort is defined as the amount of energy exerted by an employee on a given task.

Performance: Effort leads to performance. But both may not be equal.

Rewards and Satisfaction: According to Vroom, there are two types of rewards, viz., intrinsic rewards
and extrinsic rewards. Intrinsic rewards refer to a sense of self – accomplishment and self – actualization.
Extrinsic rewards include working conditions and status. Both intrinsic and extrinsic rewards lead to
satisfaction.

III. CONTEMPORARY THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

1. THEORY ‘Z’
International attention is being focused on the outstanding performance of the Japanese economy and the
success of management practices being adopted by Japanese firms. Interest in Japanese management has
rapidly increased in America and other countries. William Ouchi made a comparative study of American
and Japanese management practices. He came to the conclusion that many of the Japanese management
practices can be adapted in American context. He suggested the adoption of Theory Z which represents
an integration of American and Japanese management practices.

Japanese Management: Japanese Management is characterized by the following principles.

1. Emphasis on the group rather than the individual.

2. Emphasis on human relations rather than functional relationships.
3. Role of top management as generalists and facilitators rather than as decision – makers.
Table 6 : Comparison of Japanese and American Management styles

Japanese Organizations American Organizations

 Lifetime Employment Short – term Employment

Slow Advancement Rapid Advancement

Collective Decision Making Personal Decision Making

Group Responsibilities Individual Responsibilities

Holistic concern for Employees Segmented concern for Employees

General career Specialization in Career

Features of Theory Z

1. Strong bond between the company and the employees

2. Employees’ participation
3. Mutual trust
4. Integrated organization – Team work
5. Human Resources Development
Appraisal of theory Z

Theory Z may suffer from the following drawbacks:

1. Provision of life time employment to employees to develop a strong bond between the organizations
and its employees seems to be misplaced. An entrepreneur may not like to keep a less productive
employee. Moreover, an employee may leave the organization, if he gets higher emoluments and
other benefits somewhere else. Thus, theory Z fails to motivate those having higher level needs.

2. Theory Z emphasizes a common culture in the organization. But people have different backgrounds;
they differ in attitudes, values, habits, languages, religion, etc. Thus, it may not be possible to develop
a common culture in the organization.

3. Involvement of workers through participation in decision – making is very difficult. The management
may dislike this idea because of Theory X assumptions about people, or the workers may be reluctant
to participate in decision making because of fear of criticism and lack of proper motivation.

4. Theory Z emphasizes organization without any structure. But in a large organization,the absence of
any structure may bring about chaos in the organization as nobody will know who is responsible to
whom.
2. EQUITY THEORY

Many employees are concerned not only with satisfying their own needs but also compare what others
receive. They feel satisfied or dissatisfied with comparative observations of their friends, neighbours and
colleagues. The equity theory was developed on this hypothesis. Employees feel they are lacking with
the comparison of others possessions. This lacking tension motivates people to work hard to reach the
levels of others. J. Stacy Adams has propounded that this negative tension provides motivation to
employees to exert themselves. People are motivated by the inequity they note with others.

1. Person’s Outcomes < Other’s Outcomes

Person’s Inputs Other’s Inputs

→ Inequity due to being under rewarded

2. Person’s Outcomes = Other’s Outcomes

Person’s Inputs Other’s Inputs

→ Equity

3. Person’s Outcomes > Other’s Outcomes

Person’s Inputs Other’s Inputs

→ Inequity due to being over rewarded

Inputs refer to education, seniority, work experience, capacity to contribute, commitment, efforts and job
performance. Outcomes refer to direct pay, bonus, awards, rewards, fringe benefits, recognition and socio
– psychological satisfaction. The equity theory is a cognitive based motivation theory. Perception plays
a great role in motivating a person.

If a person is getting less than another, inequity exists because of being under rewarded. He tries to
improve himself so that he can reach the level of others. In case both the ratios are equal, equity exists
and the person is at a constant level. He is not motivated on this ground. On the other hand, if a person’s
outcome as compared to his input is more than others in terms of his inputs, the person is over rewarded
and tries hard to remain higher than those of others.

3. THE ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION

Characteristics of high achievers:

David C McClelland, a Harvard psychologist is most closely associated with study of the achievement
motive. Beginning in 1947, McClelland thoroughly investigated and wrote about all aspects of n Ach
(achievement). Out of this extensive research has emerged a clear profile of the characteristics of the high
achiever. Very simply, the achievement motive can be expressed as a desire to perform in terms of a
standard of excellence or to be successful in competitive situations. The specific characteristics of a high
achiever can be summarized as follows:

1. Moderate risk taking: Low achievers take either a high or low risk, and high achievers take a
moderate risk.
2. Need for immediate feedback:People with high n Ach prefer activities which provide immediate and
precise feedback information on how they are progressing towards a goal. High achievers tend to be more
satisfied in jobs or careers, such as sales or certain managerial positions, in which they are frequently
evaluated by specific performance criteria. On the other end of the scale, high achievers tend to be
frustrated in research and development or teaching, where feedback on performance is very imprecise,
vague.

3. Satisfaction with accomplishment perse: High achievers find accomplishing a task intrinsically
satisfying in and of itself or they do not expect or necessarily want the accompanying material rewards.
A good illustration of this characteristic involves money, but not for the usual reasons of wanting money
for its own sake or for the material benefits that it can buy. Rather, high n Ach people look at money as a
form of feedback or measurement of how they are doing. Given the choice between a simple task with a
good payoff for accomplishment, and a more difficult task with a lesser payoff, other things being equal,
high achievers generally choose the latter.

4. Preoccupation with the tasks: Once high achievers select a goal, they tend to be totally preoccupied
with the task until it is successfully completed. They cannot stand to leave a job half finished and are not
satisfied with themselves until they have given their maximum efforts. High achievers often strike others
as being unfriendly and as “loners”. They tend to be very realistic about their abilities and do not allow
other people to get in the way of their goal accomplishments. Obviously, with this type of approach, high
achievers do not always get along well with other people.

The four characteristics noted above have evolved out of McClelland’s basic research over the years.
More recently, Jay Hall and his colleagues have reported the results of a comprehensive study that
compared the managerial styles and methods of 16,000 high – medium – low – achieving managers. The
following are some of their major finding.

1. Low n Ach mangers are pessimistic and have a basic distrust of the intent and competence of their
subordinates. High n Ach managers are optimistic and view their subordinates favourably.

2. High n ach managers are concerned with aspects of the job that provide personal fulfillment; they
talk to their subordinates about these things and attempt to structure the job so that their
subordinates can receive such fulfillment. On the other hand, moderate achievers are concerned
mainly with status symbols, and low achievers with job security, and both try to motivate their
subordinates the same way.
3. High n Ach managers readily use participative methods with their subordinates, while moderate
and low n Ach managers do not tend to involve their subordinates in the decision – making process.
4. High n Ach managers tend to be very open in their interactions and communications with others
(both bosses and subordinates), while moderate achievers are preoccupied with their own ideas
and feelings and low achievers tend to avoid interacting and communicating altogether.
5. High achievers show concern for both people and production, whereas moderate achievers show
high concern for production and low concern for people, and low achievers are concerned mainly
with self-preservation and do not seem to care about people or production.
 TABLE 5 :Categories of Non – Financial Rewards

Consumables Manipulate Visual and Tokens Social Rewards Job Design

tables Auditory
Rewards
Coffee – break Desk Office with a Early time Friendly greetings Jobs with
treats Accessories window off with pay more
responsibility
Free Lunches Wall plaques
Informal
Food Baskets Company Car Piped – in Stocks recognition
Watches music Job rotation
Festival turkeys
Trophies Formal
Dinners for the Stock acknowledgement
family on the Commendations Redecoration options of achievement Special
company Rings/tie pins of work assignments
environment
Company Appliances and Solicitation of
Picnics furniture for the Movie suggestions
passes Cross -
home
After – work Company training
wine and Home shop literature
Solicitation of
cheese parties tools Garden Trading advice
tools stamps Knowledge
Private office training
Clothing
Compliment on
Club privileges Paid-up work progress
Use of company Popular insurance Authority to
recreation speakers or policies schedule own
facilities lecturers work
Recognition in
Use of company house organ.
convenience Dinner and
center Book club theatre Flexible hours
discussions tickets
Use of company Pat on the back
facilities for Smile Flexible
personal
Vacation breaks
projects Verbal or non –
trips
verbal recognition
or praise
Job sharing
Coupons
redeemable
at local Participation
stores in discussions
 Participation
in teams

Effective Communication
Communication is as old as human civilization. Man used to communicate with his fellow beings by
means of sounds, signals, gestures when there was no language developed. Minus communication, human
society could not have been as it is today. It is communication which has transformed mankind into the
most developed rational and prosperous group on the earth.
What is Communication?
Communication is the activity of conveying information. The word communication has been derived
from the Latin word ‘communis’, meaning to share. It basically involves a sender, a message and a
receiver.
Communication is a continuous and dynamic process involving more than one person. It is a cyclic process
denoting continuous flow of information. It essentially involves sender, message and recipient. The sender
conceives ideas and encodes them into suitable medium (facts, figures, pictures), sends them through
appropriate channel (email, phone, speech) to the recipient. The recipient decodes the message,
understands it and encodes feedback and sends it to the sender. The process continues
The Process of Communication
Communications refers to a set of techniques used for expressing ideas effectively and the technology of
transmission of information by print or telecommunication media.
Communication is lexically meant to be the imparting or exchanging of information by speaking, writing
or using some other medium.
It is the act of conveying intended meaning from one entity or group to another through the use of
mutually understood signs or semiotic rules.
Definitions of Communication
Communication is defined by different authors as follows.
Ordway Tead
“Communication is a composite of (a) information given and received, (b) of a learning experience in
which certain attitudes, knowledge and skills change, carrying with them alternations of behaviour, (c)
of a listening effort by all involved, (d) of a sympathetic fresh examination of issues by communicator
himself, (e) of a sensitive interaction of points of view leading to a higher level of shared understanding
and common intention.”
G.G. Brown.
“Communication is transfer of information from one person to another, whether or not it elicits
confidence. But the information transferred must be understandable to the receiver.”
Louis A. Allen
“Communication is the sum of all the things one person does when he wants to create understanding in
the mind of another. It is a bridge of meaning. It involves a systematic and continuous process of telling,
listening and understanding.”
Fred G. Meyer
“Communication is the intercourse by words, letters or messages”.
Keith Davis
“Communication is the process of passing information and understanding from one person to another.”
Importance of Communication in Society
It is communication that binds people and society together. It is considered as a natural process.
Society moves on human interactions and exchange of ideas, thoughts, and feelings. Relationship builds
up through communication.
Lack of communication among the people in society will severely affect social cohesion and cohabitation.
Progress and prosperity will come to a standstill if there is no effective communication. Communication
is a factor of building and maintaining good relations. It enables people to understand each other.
Communication is as important and meaningful in individual life as in the society. Individuals make
friends, builds up relationship and lead a true social life through communicating effectively with the
fellow beings.
Importance of Communication in Business
Communication is the lifeline of a business organization. It is essential for realizing the objectives of an
organization.
According to Millet, “Communication is blood stream of an organization”.
Chester I. Barnard viewed communication as the means by which people are linked together in an
organization to achieve a common purpose.
The importance of communication can be assessed as follows −
• Communication is needed to establish and disseminate the goals of a business organization.
• The smooth and unperturbed functioning of an enterprise.
• Communication helps the organization in arriving at vital decisions.
• It also helps a lot in planning and coordination.
• It is a basic tool for motivation and an increase in the morale of the employees largely depend
upon the effectiveness of communication.
• It helps a business as means of bringing about maximum production at the lowest level by
maintaining good human relationship in the organization.
• It works as an effective link between branches of the organization situated at great distances.
• It helps in publicizing goods and services.
• It reduces rumors and ensures smooth running of the organization as a whole.
Interpersonal Skills
Interpersonal skills refer to the ability to communicate or interact well with other people. In business
lexicon, it means the set of abilities enabling a person to interact positively and work effectively with
others.
It is the process by which people exchange information, feelings, and meaning through verbal and non-
verbal messages: it is face-to-face communication.
Components of Interpersonal Skills
The following are the different components of interpersonal skills −
Interpersonal communication is not just about what is actually said - the language used - but how it is
said and the non-verbal messages sent through tone of voice, facial expressions, gestures and body
language.

Communication style refers to the way in which the act of communicating is carried on. Styles of
communication may differ from occasion to occasion. Each style serves a different purpose.
The knowledge of communication style is required in order to understand which one best suits or which
one to use on different occasions. It is also required to know the effect of each communication style on
normal social interactions and of course, on business conversations and interactions.
Whatever style a communicator uses, he/she should solely aim at having an effective communication.
There are four major styles of communication which are discussed below.
Aggressive Communication Style
Let us now see what this aggressive communication style is all about −
• In Aggressive style of communication, one always stands up for one’s rights simultaneously
overlooking others. Sometimes doing so may result in the violation of the other’s rights.
• They may have a loud voice and articulate mostly in the second person.
• Their non-verbal cues are narrow eyes, clenched fists, pointing fingers, rigid posture and hard
stares.
 • These types of communicators often face disrespect from others. They are the worst victims of
low self-esteem. As a consequence, they easily incur other people’s wrath and in the worst case
people avoid them out of fear.
Passive Communication Style
Let us now see what this passive communication style is all about −
• Passive communication style stands in contrast to aggressive style in meaning and uses.
• The passive style of communication allows the communicator to put others’ rights before his and
thus reduce his own self-worth.
• Passive communicators always consider themselves to be inferior to others. They negate their
personal feelings, rendering themselves unimportant.
• They fail to express their needs, wants, feelings, opinions and beliefs and express them in an
apologetic and self-effecting manner. They have an overly soft voice with an apologetic
demeanor.
• They create a negative impression on others by their non-verbal signals. They shy away from
maintaining eye contact with people.
• Their downcast eyes, stooping posture and excessive nodding of the heads may indicate lack of
drive and motivation.
• The aim of passive behavior is to avoid conflict and to please others.
Manipulative Communication Style
Let us now see what this manipulative communication style is all about −
• People adopting the manipulative communication style are often scheming, shrewd and
calculating.
• They are at adept at influencing and controlling others for their own benefits.
• They have a hidden message when they speak and many times other persons are unaware of their
hidden intention.
• They act cunningly and tactfully and influence people in an insidious way such as sulking,
shedding fake tears, indirectly asking for their needs to be met. They sometimes become
successful in making people feel sorry or obliged to help them.
• However, their hidden motives are exposed. They are shunned and ridiculed by other people.
Assertive Communication Style
Let us now see what this assertive communication style is all about −
• Assertive communication style is regarded as the best communicating style. It is more rational
and proper than other styles of communication.
• This style teaches one to stand up for one’s rights while having respect for others rights.
• Those communicating with assertive communicating style give importance and regard to others
as well as to their own rights.
 • They deal with people on equal terms.
• They exude confidence in whatever they do and always own up responsibility for their actions.
Assertive communicators stand firmly on their foot and don’t buckle under pressure.
• Talking straight on the face, looking directly, always at ease with oneself and others, relaxed and
smooth body movements are some of the strong characteristics of any assertive communicator.
• Assertive communicators always buzz with life and activity wherever they go.
• These people are positive with a high self-esteem. As they give respect to all and they also get the
same back in abundance.
• The aim of assertive behavior is to satisfy the needs and wants of any two parties in a given
situation.
Amongst these three distinctive styles of communication, the Assertive style of communication is the
one to strive for.
Effective communication:
Communication needs to be effective and efficient for better and smooth functioning of an organization.
Effective communication is defined as communication between two or more persons in which the
intended message is −
• properly encoded
• delivered through appropriate channel
• received
• properly decoded and understood by the recipient(s)
In other words, communication is said to be effective when all the parties (sender and receiver) in the
communication, assign similar meanings to the message and listen carefully to what all have been said
and make the sender feel heard and understood.
In a business organization, communication is said to be effective when the information or data shared
among the employees effectively contribute towards organization’s commercial success.
In the words of R.W. Griffin, "Effective communication is the process of sending a message in such a
way that the message received is as close in meaning as possible to the message intended".
American Management Association (AMA) has defined effective communication based on the following
ten points −
• Clear idea regarding topics and receiver of communication.
• Determination of purpose.
• Understanding the environment of communication.
• Planning for communication with consulting others.
• Consider the content of the message.
 • To make the receiver aware about the value of communication.
• There must be feedback from the receiver.
• To define properly whether communication messages are of short-run or long-run importance.
• All actions must be suitable with communication.
• Good listening.
Effective Communication is defined as the ability to convey information to another effectively and
efficiently. Business managers with good verbal, nonverbal and written communication skills help
facilitate the sharing of information between people within a company for its commercial benefit.
Significance of Effective Communication
In this section, we will understand the significance of effective communication −
Construct and Foster Sustainable and Productive Relationship
Effective communication should be the focus in businesses as it becomes largely difficult to properly
construct and foster productive relationship without it.
Give space to Innovations
Effective communication facilitates innovations in a business organization by allowing employees and
management to come up with innovative ideas that might further help in the overall development of the
organization.
Help Build an Effective Team
A work environment enriched with effective or open communication helps in building a cohesive and
effective team. Effective communication always boosts the morale of employees. It brings in the zeal in
employees to work towards achieving the common objectives of the organization.
Effective Management
When there is hassle-free and open communication between the management and the employees, it leads
to a steady rise in the pace of progress of the organization. Effective communication, therefore, yields
effective management..
Contributes to the Overall Growth of the Organization
Effective communication builds desired interpersonal, interdepartmental and management-employee
relationship which in turn are essential preconditions for realizing the vision of the organization. In other
words, effective communication contributes to the overall growth of the business.
Effective communication in the organization enables the employees to deepen their connection with
others and improve teamwork, decision-making, and problem-solving capacity.
Characteristics of Effective Communication
The characteristics or principles of effective communication are pivotal for ensuring a productive
communication. The major characteristics are as follows −
Completeness of the Message
Communication must be complete so as not to baffle the recipient. Better communication helps in better
decision-making by the latter. It develops and enhances the reputation of an organization.
Clearness and Integrity of the Message
The message to be conveyed or sent must have clarity and integrity for better understanding. Clarity of
thoughts and ideas enhances the meaning of the message. The pith and substance of the message should
be based on honesty and accuracy.
Conciseness of the Message
The intended message must be free from verbosity and should be so written that it is intelligible at the
first sight. Short and intelligible message sent to the receiver is ever appealing and comprehensible. It
saves time and cost as it is understood at the first instance.
Consideration of Physical Setting and the Recipient
In order to make communication more effective, the overall physical setting, i.e., the media of
communication and the work environment, must be considered. The content of the message must take
into account the attitude, knowledge, and position of the recipient.
Clarity of the Message
The message should have clarity of thoughts and ideas in order to be understood clearly. Clear message
makes use of exact, appropriate and concrete words and symbols.
Courtesy to be Maintained
The sender's message should be so drafted or prepared that it should be polite, reflective, and enthusiastic.
It must show the sender's respect for the receiver and be positive and focused at the receiver.
Correctness of the Message
The drafting of the message should be done in such a manner that the final message doesn't have any
grammatical errors and repetitions of sentences. The message should be exact, correct and well-timed.
Effective Business Communication
Successful business largely flourishes on effective business communication. Effective communication
skills are vital for building active and effective interactions among the colleagues, clients, bosses, and
media.
It is of foremost importance for all personnel in all phases of business life in any organization.
Although everyone employed in an organization boasts of having acquired the skills of effective business
communication, there is a need ever felt for improving these skills.
Methods of Effective Business Communication
We will now see the different methods of effective business communication in brief −
• Web-based communication − For better and improved communication, anytime and anywhere.
• Video conferencing − This allows people in different locations to hold interactive meetings.
• Reports − This is important in documenting the activities of any department.
 • Presentations − This is a popular method of communication in all types of organizations, usually
involving audiovisual material, like copies of reports, or material prepared in Microsoft
PowerPoint or Adobe Flash.
• Telephone meetings − This allows speech over long distance.
• Forum boards − This allows people to instantly post information at a centralized location.
• Face-to-face meetings − The nature of such meetings is personal and should be succeeded by a
written follow-up.
Effective Business communication can further be categorized into −
• Effective oral business communication
• Effective written business communication
Effective Oral Business Communication
Effective business communication mostly involves listening and speaking. Both the speaker and the
listener share responsibility of making the message clear and understood. Besides, body language, tone
of voice, choice of words and phrases, message clarification and communication style also play a role
and impact the effectiveness of interpersonal transaction and interactions.
Techniques of Effective Oral Business Communication
In this section, we will discuss the different techniques of effective oral business communication. The
techniques are described below −
• Speakers should know how to articulate their message so as to enable the listener to understand it
well and deliver it in a manner that is consistent with the message itself.
• The speech or spoken words should be properly worded and concise.
• The speech should be contextual like serious issues are best delivered in a serious tone.
• Knowing the listener(s) and how they react is instrumental in conceiving the subject matter of the
speech.
• For effective business communication, quiet location counts much. If one party is distracted by
both external and internal distractors like sound, communication fails to yield desired result.
• Involvement of all the concerned is of vital importance to make communication effective.
Involvement means complete attention and dedication to discussion or analysis.
• Effective or active listening is essential for participants in a communication. It is practiced by both
the speaker and the listener in effective communication.
• In order to become a better listener there is a need to eliminate all distractions during the
conversations.
• Active listening involves eye contact, nods, gestures and brief comments to show understanding.
On the basis of these gestures and comments, the listener’s comprehension and reaction can be
assessed. In case the listener seems confused, the speaker needs to re-assess the wording or
delivery of the message.
 • The listener may ask questions, validate what is being said and provide input if necessary.
• While speaking or interacting with someone, don’t just listen to whatever they are saying- rather
be attentive and make mental notes.
• Asking questions during discussion or an important conversation adds weightage to
communication. It also helps the participants to learn everything they need to know. It shows that
they are listening and confirming understanding and giving respect.
• Questions are powerful instruments to make communication effective. It enables the persons
concerned to get required feedbacks.
• There are usually two types of questions to be asked during a communication process.
• Close-ended questions, which are often answered with ‘yes’ or ‘no’ are essential when the
communicators want to gather basic information quickly or want to obtain an answer without a
long or drawn-out explanation.
• Open-ended questions provide a broader and more comprehensive answer.
Feedback is a crucial part of communication and is vitally required by all concerned in a communication
process. It marks the end of a communication process. The communicator on one side should convey
his/her information in such a way that his/her targets can offer feedback or criticism on the information
given.
During a particular conversation, a discussion or meeting proper and relevant communication types and
the mediums should be put in place. Visuals should be shown to present information in a pleasant and
palatable manner.
Effective Written Business Communication
Effective written business communication is an integral part of communication system in a business
organization. Not all the communications can be oral. There has to be a number of mediums through
which an organization can communicate in the written form.
E-mails, brochures, reports, letters, ads, speeches, articles, PowerPoint presentations are instances of
business written communication.
Despite the fact that an overwhelming percentage of written communication is now produced online the
need to write well has not diminished. Organizations produce ever increasing volumes of written
communication in the form of emails, social media posts, guides, brochures, manuals, reports, and
proposals.
Pros of Written Business Communication
Following are the pros of written business communication −
• Written business communications can be edited and revised.
• They provide a permanent record of the messages and can be used as precedents.
• Enable the recipients to review the message and provide appropriate feedback
• They are considered more effective for complex business communication that include facts and
figures
 • They improve inter-organizational efficiency and enhance the image of the organization
• They can be preserved as precedents in hard copy.
Cons of Written Business Communication
Following are the cons of written business communication −
• Delay in getting feedbacks unlike in face-to-face communication; it leads to frustration and
uncertainty in business situations where a quick response is desired.
• Time consuming when it comes to composing the message
Techniques of Effective Written Communication

Types of Communication
In this section, we will discuss the different types of communication. The different types are as follows
−
• Verbal and Non-Verbal Communication
• Formal and Informal Communication
• Downward and Upward Communication
Communication is pivotal for any business to be successful. Depending upon the circumstances and
business needs, the type of communication varies.
Communication is usually based on the nature and characteristics of the message and its context in which
it is being sent. The choice of communication channel and the style of communicating affect
communication.
Verbal Communication
Verbal communication refers to the form of communication in which message is transmitted verbally;
where communication is carried out either by word of mouth or by writing.
Components of Verbal Communication
Following are the different components of verbal communication −
• Understandable Language
• Word choice
• Inflection (pattern of stress in oral speech)
• Tone
• Body language
• Eye behavior (oculesics)
• Visuals (pictures, maps, charts, graphs, colors, signs, etc.)
• Auditory elements (sounds, tunes, whistles, etc.)
Nonverbal Communication
Nonverbal Communication refers to communications made through various wordless or unspoken
mediums.
Formal and Informal Communication
There are two channels of communication that exist in an organization – formal and informal.
Formal communications are those that are formal or ‘official’. These are a part of the recognized
communication system which is engaged in the operation of the organization.
Informal communications grow out of social interactions among the people who work together within an
organization. These are based upon conventions, customs and culture prevalent therein.
The following table shows the difference between formal and informal communication.

Bases Formal communication Informal communication

 Definitions In formal communication, the In informal communication, information
interchange of information is spreads through informal channels i.e. in the
carried out by means of pre- form of grapevine (informal person to person
defined and formal channels of communication; gossip). It is built around the
the organizational structure social relationships of members of the
along the lines of authority. organization. Doesn’t follow authority lines

Also Known as Official Communication Grapevine Communication

Dependability More and well-acknowledged Comparatively less and tend to be inaccurate

Speed Time-taking; hence, slow Faster

Authenticity As this type of communication

is mostly carried out in written Lack of documentary evidence makes it
orders and documents evidence distorted and hence, inaccurate and unreliable.
and authenticity is present.

Advantages • It is more likely to be • It acts as an efficient medium of

need in businesses as it expressing certain information that
is more evidential and cannot be channeled via official
dependable. channel. It is implicit, spontaneous,
multidimensional and diverse.

Disadvantages • Generally time • Not officially recognized channels of

consuming, communication.
cumbersome and
sometimes leads to
good deal of distortion.

What is Grapevine?
Grapevine refers to an informal communication method in an organization. It is a person-to-person
method of disseminating information by informal conversion or gossip. It is found to be more efficient
than the formal one.
Types of Informal Communication
In this section, we will discuss the different types of informal communication.
Single-stranded Chain
In a single-stranded chain, information is passed by one person to another, who in turn passes it to some
other and the process continues.
Cluster Chain

In a cluster chain, information is passed by one person to his/her reliable ones, and the latter passes it to
their reliable friends and the communication continues.

Probability Chain

In a probability chain, a person passes the information to a randomly chosen person and the
communication goes on.
Gossip Chain
In a gossip chain, a person passes the information to a group of people and the members of the group
passes it to some more people and the information spreads.

Downward and Upward Communication

Communication passes on in different directions – downward, upward, or lateral in any organization. In
this section, we will discuss the downward and upward communication directions and the basic
differences that exist between them.
Downward Communication
• When communication flows or starts from people at higher levels to those at lower levels in the
organizational hierarchy.
• Downward communication can be both oral and written.
• The oral downward communication media are, for example, instructions, speeches, meetings,
telephonic talks, louder-speakers and also the grapevine.
• The written downward communication media are, for example, memoranda, letters, emails,
handbooks, pamphlets, policy statement, procedures, notices, and electronic news display.
• Higher authority or Top level of organization takes the initiative to start such communication.
• Downward communication flows from the superior authority downward to subordinates till the
bottom level in the hierarchy. Responses to downward communications move up along the same
path.
• Downward communication is called as instruction type communication system.
• It is suitable in an authoritarian environment exists in an organization.
Upward Communication
• Upward communication flows from subordinates to superiors and continues up the organizational
hierarchy.
• It is known as subordinate-initiated communication as the process of upward communication starts
with the personnel at the bottom level of the organization.
• Unlike the downward communication, upward communication is non-directive in nature.
• It establishes a participatory work culture in the organization as under this communication process
employees feel free to communicate their grievances and reservations upward.
• It enables the top level management to get feedback from lower level employees and thereby
improve organizational progress and prosperity.
• It yields mutual trust among the management and the employees and bodes well for the growth of
a strong interpersonal relationship in the organization leading to overall organizational
development.
• With this communication process, employees can be instrumental in forming new policies or
changing those that are outdated.
• Typical means of upward communication besides the chain of command are suggestions, appeal
and grievance procedures, complaint systems, counseling sessions, the grapevine, group meetings
etc.
• Upward communication is also called consultative management.
PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION
• The process of communication refers to the transmission or passage of information or message
from the sender through a selected channel to the receiver overcoming barriers that affect its pace.
• The process of communication is a cyclic one as it begins with the sender and ends with the sender
in the form of feedback. It takes place upward, downward and laterally throughout the
organization.
• The process of communication as such must be a continuous and dynamic interaction, both
affecting and being affected by many variables.
• Communication process consists of certain steps where each step constitutes the essential of an
effective communication.
• The following is a brief analysis of the important steps of the process of communication.
• The Different Elements in The Process of Communication
• We will now learn about the different elements in the process of communication.
• Sender
• The very foundation of communication process is laid by the person who transmits or sends the
message. He is the sender of the message which may be a thought, idea, a picture, symbol, report
or an order and postures and gestures, even a momentary smile. The sender is therefore the initiator
 of the message that need to be transmitted. After having generated the idea, information etc. the
sender encodes it in such a manner that can be well-understood by the receiver.
• Message
• Message is referred to as the information conveyed by words as in speech and write-ups, signs,
pictures or symbols depending upon the situation and the nature and importance of information
desired to be sent. Message is the heart of communication. It is the content the sender wants to
covey to the receiver. It can be verbal both written and spoken; or non-verbal i.e. pictorial or
symbolic, etc.
• Encoding
• Encoding is putting the targeted message into appropriate medium which may be verbal or non-
verbal depending upon the situation, time, space and nature of the message to be sent. The sender
puts the message into a series of symbols, pictures or words which will be communicated to the
intended receiver. Encoding is an important step in the communication process as wrong and
inappropriate encoding may defeat the true intent of the communication process.
• Channel
• Channel(s) refers to the way or mode the message flows or is transmitted through. The message
is transmitted over a channel that links the sender with the receiver. The message may be oral or
written and it may be transmitted through a memorandum, a computer, telephone, cell phone, apps
or televisions.

Since each channel has its advantages and disadvantages, the choice of proper selection of the channel is
paramount for effective communication.
Receiver
Receiver is the person or group who the message is meant for. He may be a listener, a reader or a viewer.
Any negligence on the part of the receiver may make the communication ineffective. The receiver needs
to comprehend the message sent in the best possible manner such that the true intent of the
communication is attained. The extent to which the receiver decodes the message depends on his/her
knowledge of the subject matter of the message, experience, trust and relationship with the sender.
The receiver is as significant a factor in communication process as the sender is. It is the other end of the
process. The receiver should be in fit condition to receive the message, that is, he/she should have channel
of communication active and should not be preoccupied with other thoughts that might cause him/her to
pay insufficient attention to the message.
Decoding
Decoding refers to interpreting or converting the sent message into intelligible language. It simply means
comprehending the message. The receiver after receiving the message interprets it and tries to understand
it in the best possible manner.
Feedback
Feedback is the ultimate aspect of communication process. It refers to the response of the receiver as to
the message sent to him/her by the sender. Feedback is necessary to ensure that the message has been
effectively encoded, sent, decoded and comprehended.
It is the final step of the communication process and establishes that the receiver has received the message
in its letter and spirit. In other words, the receiver has correctly interpreted the message as it was intended
by the sender. It is instrumental to make communication effective and purposeful.
Consider the following points related to the feedback involved in the process of communication −
• It enhances the effectiveness of the communication as it permits the sender to know the efficacy
of his message.
• It enables the sender to know if his/her message has been properly comprehended.
• The analysis of feedbacks helps improve future messages. Feedback, like the message, can be
verbal or nonverbal and transmitted through carefully chosen channel of communication.
• We can represent the above steps in a model as the model of communication process.
Types of Feedback
Kevin Eujeberry, the world famous leadership exponent mentioned the four types of feedback. The types
are as follows −
• Negative Feedback or corrective comments about past behavior
• Positive Feedback or affirming comments about future behavior
• Negative feedforward or corrective comments about future behavior
• Positive feedforward or affirming comments about future behavior
The Model of Communication Process
Let us now see the model of communication process −

The process of communication, however, is not as smooth or barrier-free as it seems. From its transmission
to receipt, the message may get interfered or disturbed with at any stage by many factors which are known
as barriers to effective communication. One of the factors is poor choice of communication method. In
addition to a poor choice of communication method, other barriers to effective communication include
noise and other physical distractions, language problems, and failure to recognize nonverbal signals.
Communication Model:

A model is a thing used to follow or imitate. Models of communication provide inputs for setting a
standard communication system and ensuring effective communication in a business organization. They
are examined from organizational perspectives. Each organization sets up its own communication system
mostly deriving inspiration from popular communication models.
• Models of communication are conceptual models that are used to explain the human
communication process.
• Models are visual representation of communicating process.
 • The first formal communication model was enunciated by Claude Elwood Shannon in 1948 and
was published with an introduction by Warren Weaver. This model is popularly known as the
Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication.
In the following sections, let us discuss the basic models of communication for easy understanding of
theirs which will help us to prepare a model of effective communication in businesses and other areas.
One-Way Communication Model
It is also known as the linear model of Communication as it occurs in a straight line from sender to
receiver and serves to inform, persuade or command.

n this type of communication, information is only transmitted from one point to another or to many points
at a single point of time.
There is no transmission of information from the receiving point. Here, the recipient is passive.
One-way communication is mostly used to transmit current information like weather information,
information about looming calamites, programs and public observations at press conferences and through
radio and TV broadcasting. The accurate time and intensity of weather phenomena are transmitted or
communicated through the medium of one way communication.
Like in two-way communication, in one-way communication the sender and recipient of the information
may be not only people but also computers or automatic devices.
It consists of the sender encoding a message and transmitting it though appropriate channel to the receiver
in the presence of noise.
It assumes that there is a clear-cut beginning and end to communication.
The Aristotle Model of Communication can be said to be a one-way model of communication in which
the sender sends the information or a message to the receiver to influence them and make them respond
accordingly. This model is considered to be the golden rule to excel in public speaking, seminars, lectures
where the sender makes his point clear by designing an impressive content, passing on the message to
the second part and they simply respond accordingly.
Aristotle was the first to take an initiative and design the communication model.
The lack of feedback from the receiver is one major drawback of this model.
In this type of model, the sender is the active member and the receiver is the passive one.
Transactional Model
‘Transactional’ simply means the exchange or interaction between people. It is based on the basic
premises of ‘exchange’ or ‘give and take’.
Hence, the transactional model of communication refers to the exchange of messages or information
between the sender and the receiver where each take turns to send or receive messages.

This model is the most general model of communication as even our daily interactions are instances of
transactional model communication.
Transactional model becomes more efficient and effective when the participants are of similar
environment, know each other and share same social system. Each person in the process reacts depending
upon factors such as their background, experience, attitudes, cultural beliefs and self-esteem.
Proper choice of channel enhances the efficiency and reliability of the communicated message.
Interactive Communication Model
Interactive communication model is also known as the convergence model.
According to this model, exchange of ideas and messages takes place both ways form sender to receiver
and vice versa.
The communication process occurs between humans or machines in both verbal and non-verbal ways.
The sender channels a message to the receiver and the receiver then becomes the sender and channels a
message to the original sender.
It emphasizes feedback indicating that communication is not a one-way but a two-way process.
Instead of information being sent one way, from the sender to the receiver, both participants send
information back and forth.
Wilbur Schramm, a scholar and an authority on communication, also proposed that both the sender and
receiver interpret the message, rather than accurately assessing the message’s meaning.
In this model, however, feedback is not simultaneous and usually takes time as this model is mostly used
for Internet.

Components of Interactive Model

In this section, we will consider the components related to the interactive model of communication. This
is one of the major models of communication −
• The sender and receiver act as both encoder and decoder and the sources of the message.
• Message is the information to be communicated.
• Feedback, that is, when the decoder forms a second message after receiving the first message.
• Field experience is the experience and knowledge which affect the message formation and
interpretation. Such knowledge and experience are often shaped by cultural, psychological, social
and situational setting in which the message is formed and is interpreted.
• Interactive model also espouses the concept of noise and barriers to communication like language,
network problems, improper channel selection which affects the communication model.
• Internet, social media, interactive marketing. ATMs, online shopping, chat room are examples of
interactive communication model.
Effectiveness of Communication Models
Communication models are authentic outcomes of systematic study of various aspects of communication.
A model of communication gives a wholesome understanding of a system or structure by which people
can understand similar systems or structure.
Consider the following important points related to the importance of communication models −
• Communication models help identify and understand the components and relationship of the
communication process being studied.
• Models represent new ideas and thought on various aspects of communication which helps us to
plan for effective communication system. They act as stimulant for the researchers and students
of communication.
• Models are pictorial representation of communication process.
• They are used for research and investigation in the field of communication.
• As communicating is a rigid process to understand, communication model can be an essential
source to understand such rigidity.
• Models predict for more effective communication in future. They also predict the success or
failure of a particular communication process.
• Models help explain a phenomena by providing information in a simplified way which otherwise
be complicated or ambiguous.
• We can use the models of communication to analyze real problems and prevent the occurrence of
future problems.
The relevance of communication models cannot be over-emphasized. They add towards realizing
effective communication system.

Communication, as we have learnt, is the lifeline of an organization. A slight disturbance in the smooth
flow of communication, downward and upward, horizontal and vertical, etc., may cost dear for the
organization.
BarriersIn Communication:
Effective communication is of utmost importance in a business organization in order to provide the
desired information on time and with accuracy to develop understanding and good interpersonal and
interdepartmental relationship in it. As a result efforts towards achieving organizational objectives can
be made collectively, effectively and efficiently.
What are Barriers?
Barriers refer to obstacles or hindrances that prevent movement, flow and access of information in or
outside of an organization.
In the lexicon of communication, barriers refer to specific items that can distort or prevent
communication within an organization. It affects effective exchange of ideas, thoughts and information.
In a nutshell, anything that hinders the process of communication at any level is a barrier to effective
communication.
Barriers can be originated at any point in the communication process.
• They can be caused by the sender.
• They may be found in the message transmission media.
• They may arise while receiving the message.
• There may be problems in receiver’s comprehending the message, etc.
Let us briefly discuss the sources of these barriers.
Barriers Caused By the Sender
The success of communication of a particular content substantially depends upon the sender, because he
is the person who works on the drafts and finalizes the message to be sent. He/she is the originator of the
communication.
The sender needs to be extremely while drafting or executing the communication to avoid allowing
barriers into the process.
The sender-generated barriers are as follows −
• Lack of knowledge or insufficient ideas about the receiver.
• Negative attitude or lack of interest towards message; unwilling to communicate it.
• Negativity towards the receiver.
• Inappropriate choice of communication channel or medium by the sender in transmitting the
message.
• Poor communication skills of the sender like use of improper and high sounding words;
grammatical errors, verbosity and unwanted use of idioms, phrases, jargons or slangs, etc.
• Inability to decide the proper timing for communicating the message.
• Indecisiveness to choose the content of the message to be communicated; it kills the effectiveness
of the communication.
• Prejudice, that is, starting any piece of communication with a bias or know-it-all attitude can prove
to be quite detrimental to the growth of communication process.
• Lack of concern for feedback from the receiver; it thwarts the intent of the communication.
Barriers in Message Transmission
The barriers related to message transmission are as follows −
• Things that come in the way of smooth transmission of message are called barriers in message
transmission.
Message transmission is disturbed because of the following barriers −
 1. Physical Barriers Distortion − It occurs when the meaning of the message is the lost
2. Barriers of message while encoding and decoding the message. Physical distrations are
3. Channel barriers also there such as, poor lightning, uncomfortable sitting,
4. Long communication unhygienic room also affects communication in meeting

Noise − It is found in the environment of communication and

interrupts the communication process. Use of loud speakers
interferes with communication

Overflow of Information − This acts like a barrier when the

receiver does not have the capacity to receive all the information
and can miss some important points or misinterpret the meaning
of the whole message altogether

Problems in Reception
Let us now see the different problems encountered in the reception of a message in the communication
process. The problems are as follows −
• The sending of a message is complete when the receiver at the other end receives it, understands
it and then sends the desired feedback to the sender.
• If there are problems in receiving the message, the whole purpose of sending the message is
defeated.
• The message is the vehicle for the sender to share feelings, thoughts, and ideas. It is the way the
sender’s mental images are transmitted to the receiver.
• The message can be immediately clear and understood, or murky and misleading, basing upon
how well all of the components in the communication process have been considered and
accommodated.
Factors Creating Problem in Reception
• Poor channel of communication through which the message is received.
• Technical problems associated with the communicating mediums.
• Not using some common tools for communications problem analysis.
• Lack of language and semantic skills on the part of the recipient.
Problems in Receiver Comprehension
The receiver in the communication chain is as significant as the sender. The receiver’s understanding the
message as desired by the sender is the basic goal of sending the message.
Dealing with Barriers to Effective Communication
Barriers in communication not only spoil the intent of the message but also in the long term affect smooth
functioning and growth of the organization. It is rightly said that communication is the lifeline of a
business organization irrespective of the latter’s size and reach.
Dealing with barriers in communication needs to be given topmost priority so that there will be a
continuous and unperturbed communication in and outside the business.
In our subsequent sections, we will see how to deal with the different barriers to communication.
• How to deal with barriers in non-verbal and verbal communication.
• How to deal with barriers in written communication.
How to Deal with Barriers in Non-verbal Communication?
Dealing with barriers in non-verbal communication is not as easy as it seems. In case one’s nonverbal
skills are poor, he/she may be sending wrong or negative message to the other.
The following are the way-outs for dealing with barriers in non-verbal communication −
• Non-verbal communication is taken for granted in face-to-face conversations, but communicating
is more than speaking and listening. It is these non-verbal elements of communication that can
provide a great deal of information and can be an important means of learning.
• Establishing a direct eye contact with the person(s) on other side; it not only increases your
confidence level but also provides others with the comfort needed to communicate with you in
return.
• Have facial expression like a smiling face; it creates an amiable and pleasant environment between
you and the listener(s).
• It is important to remember that we communicate with our bodies as well as with our voice.
Try NOT TO engage in gestures that will distract an audience, such as −
o Wringing your hands (because of nervousness)
o Keeping your hands in your pockets
o Nervous pacing
o Not moving at all
o Leaning on a podium for the entire presentation
o Constantly gesturing with a pen and or pencil
o The habit of shuffling your papers or clicking a pen
o Keeping your arms crossed (can indicate defensiveness)
o Inappropriate laughter (can show anxiety)
How to Deal with Barriers in Verbal Communication?
We will now learn how to deal with barriers in verbal communication.
Barriers to Effective Listening
Barriers are threat to the success of effective communication. They make communication inaccessible,
unintelligible thereby killing the prospect of its being effective.
Sometimes the topic of discussion may be interesting but the speaker is unable to grab your attention, or
you may be unable to comprehend because of lack of knowledge of the topic or the vocabulary or
language of the speaker.
There must be motivation and interest in a conversation to be able to listen effectively. However, even if
there is motivation and interest, there might be some barriers that affect our ability to listen well.
We will discuss the barriers to effective listening in our subsequent sections.
Linguistic/Semantic Barriers
This is one of the most common barriers to listening. Learners of a language normally face this kind of
barrier.
Unfamiliar Vocabulary
Words used by the speaker may not be familiar to you. The speaker may use difficult words and jargons.
As a result you cannot comprehend what the speaker says.
Elements of Connected Speech
The speaker is too fast. There are very few pauses and the rhythm that might not be familiar to you. You
fail to recognize familiar words because of contractions, reductions, linking. For example, the speaker
says, “I scream” and you hear “ice-cream”.
Unable to Predict, Guess, and Interpret Meaning from the Context

Get Words but Lose Ideas

You lose track if you concentrate on each and every word the speaker says, especially if you need to do
it for a long period.
Socio-Cultural Barriers:
The socio-cultural barriers also hamper effective listening.
Different Cultural Background
The speaker’s accent and pronunciation of words are not familiar to you because of difference in cultures
between you and the speaker.
Unfamiliar Subject
The subject may not be familiar to you because you are not familiar with a particular culture or are
unaware of the lifestyle of a particular society.
Psychological Barriers
Lack of interest in the topic
You may not listen if you do not have any interest in the speaker’s topic.
Inability to pay attention
Day dreaming and a wandering mind may prevent you from listening.
Prejudice
You may refuse to listen to something, which goes against your ideas and beliefs. You hear only what
you want to hear.
Physical Barriers
Physical barriers also hinder effective listening. Let us see what these physical barriers are.
Noisy surroundings
The environment may be too noisy, which may affect listening.
Physical distance
You may be too far away from the speaker or too close to the speaker to be able to hear clearly.
How to deal with Barriers in Written Communication:
Ineffective written communication may overturn everything fair intended in the content of message. It
can prevent an applicant from landing in his/her dream job, one promotion, can cancel a deal, and may
hamper the image of an organization.
Barriers in written communication entirely distort the content of the message sent and results in
communication breakdown.
It is therefore essential to cope with the barrier in written communication in order to ensure that effective
communication is established.
The following are the necessary ways to deal with such barriers.
Right People
• People who are adept in spoken and written language should be given top priority at the time of
recruitment in any organization.
• Proper training for enhancing effective communicating skills of the newcomers and also of the
existing employees should be ensured regularly.
• People drafting communication content should be well-versed in spoken and written language.
Right Language
• Simplicity, lucidity and correctness should be emphasized in all organizational written
communication.
Right Presentation
• Make your presentation or writing almost error-free.
• Avoid stuffing the message with silly errors like ‘loose’ in place of ‘lose’; ‘there’ in place of
‘their’; ‘too’ in place of ‘to’, etc. Always edit and spellcheck the content before its finalization.
Right Content
• Focus on what the message really intends to communicate; avoid dilly dallying with topic for
correspondence.
• The content needs to be precise, short and meaningful.
Right Sequence
• The written message should be written in sequence denoting proper meaning and order of matter
presented therein.
Right Channel
• Considering the content and timing of the message, the communicator should choose the most
appropriate channel to transmit the message.
 • If it is confidential or carries any sensitive information, it should be sent through such medium
which provides greater security, for instance, encrypted email.
Right Feedback
• Inappropriate or wrong feedback defeats the purpose of the message sent. It results in
communication breakdown.
• Hence, the message should be written in a desired manner and sent through appropriate channel
so as to ensure early feedback from the recipient.
Effective Communication – Elements of Poor Communication
Lack of effective communication across and beyond a business organization is termed as poor
communication. It afflicts the free flow of ideas, employee productivity, staff cooperation, innovation
and ultimately upset overall efficiency of human resources of the organization.
Poor communication elements are found in all types of communication. We have learnt about these
barriers in our previous chapters.
Reasons for Poor Communication
The flowchart given below shows the different reasons for poor communication −

Consequences of Poor Communication

Poor communication can have disastrous effect on the workforce and also on the overall productivity and
efficiency of the organization.
The following are some of the consequences of poor communication in business organizations.
• Inability on the part of the recipient to understand the message leads to confusion and
misunderstanding.
• Poor communication affects the concentration of the listener in oral communication that defeat
the meaning of the message.
• Poor communication results in ambiguity that distorts the content of the message or spoken words.
• Poor communication results in ambiguity that distorts the content of the message or spoken words.
• It leads to incomplete action as the content of the message sent or spoken is not grasped by the
recipients.
• Poor communication between the business and customers affect sales and ultimately hampers the
growth of the business.