1 Transportation Engineering – BCV403

Module 3
Subgrade soil
Subgrade soil is an integral part of the road pavement structure which directly receives the
traffic load from the pavement layers. The subgrade soil and its properties are important in
the design of pavement structure. The main function of the subgrade is to give adequate
support to the pavement and for this the subgrade should possess sufficient stability under
adverse climate and loading conditions. The formation of waves, corrugations, rutting and
shoving in black top pavements and the phenomena of pumping, blowing and consequent
cracking of cement concrete pavements are generally attributed due to the poor subgrade
conditions.
Desirable Properties
Soil is considered as one of the principal highway materials. The desirable properties of soil
as a highway material are
a) Stability
b) Incompressibility
c) Permanency of strength
d) Minimum changes in volume and stability under adverse conditions of weather
e) Good drainage
f) Ease of compaction
The soil should possess adequate stability or resistance to permanent deformation
under loads, and should possess resistance to weathering, thus retaining the desired subgrade
support. Minimum variation in volume will ensure minimum variation in differential strength
values of the subgrade. Good drainage is essential to avoid excessive moisture retention and
to reduce the potential frost action. Ease of compaction ensures higher dry density and
strength under particular type and amount of compaction.
Soil Classification
The soil available on ground consists of a mixture of gravel, sand, silt and clay at varying
proportion. Various Soil classification are in use and are as follows
• Grain size analysis
• Textural soil classification
• Burmister descriptive soil classification
• Casagarnde soil classification
• Unified soil classification
• IS Soil classification
• Highway Research Board (HRB) classification of soils

1
2 Transportation Engineering – BCV403

Highway Research Board (HRB) classification of soils

The Highway Research Board (HRB) soil classification method is also called Revised
Public Roads Administration (PRA) soil classification system. With just three simple
laboratory tests namely sieve analysis, liquid limit and plastic limit, it is possible to classify
the soils. The HRB soil classification system is generally adopted in highway engineering for
the classification of subgrade soils.
Soils are divided into seven groups A-1 to A-7. A-1, A-2 and A-3 soils are granular soils,
percentage fines passing 0.075 mm sieve being less than 35. A-4, A-5, A-6 and A-7, soils are
fine grained or silt-clay soils, passing 0.075 mm sieve being greater than 35 percent.
1. A-1 soils are well graded mixture of stone fragments, gravel coarse sand, fine sand
and non-plastic or slightly plastic soil binder. The soils of this group are subdivided
into two subgroups, A-1-a, consisting predominantly of stone fragments or gravel and
A-1-b consisting predominantly of coarse sand.
2. A-2 group of soils include a wide range of granular soils ranging between A- 1 to A-3
groups, consisting of granular soils and up to 35% fines of A-4, A-5, A-6 or A-7
groups. Based on fines content, A-2 groups are divided into subgroups A-24, A-2- 5,
A-2-6 and A2-7.
3. A-3 soils consist mainly, uniformly graded medium or fine sand similar to beach sand
or desert blown sand. Stream-deposited mixtures of poorly graded fine sand with
some coarse sand and gravel are also included in this group.
4. A-4 soils are generally silty soils, non-plastic or moderately plastic in nature with
liquid limit and plasticity index values less than 40 and 10 respectively
5. A-5 soils are also silty soils with plasticity index less than 10%, but with liquid limit
values exceeding 40%. These include highly elastic or compressible, soils, usually of
diatomaceous of micaceous character.
6. A-6 group of soils are plastic clays, having high values of plasticity index exceeding
10% and low values of liquid limit below 40%; they have high volume change
properties with variation in moisture content.
7. A-7 soils are also clayey soils as A-6 soils, but with high values of both liquid limit
and plasticity index, (LL greater than 40% and P1 greater than 10%). These soils have
low permeability and high volume change properties with changes in moisture
content.
The essential tests conducted on soil used for road design and construction to assess the
above mentioned properties are:
• In-situ density – Density of prepared subgrade as well as other pavement layers is of
importance to check field compaction control.
• Plasticity index – This is a numerical index obtained as liquid limit minus plastic
limit. It gives some idea about the plasticity characteristics of the soil.

2
3 Transportation Engineering – BCV403

• Compaction - Soil is compacted to get desired degree of compaction or densification.

The amount of compaction energy to attain maximum dry density and the respective
water content called optimum moisture content of soil are the parameters deciding the
degree of compaction.
• California Bearing Ratio – It is a penetration test carried out to evaluate strength of
soil under impact loads, directly or indirectly, the value being primarily used in the
structural design of flexible pavements.
• Moisture content: The test for determining the moisture content of the soil is vital for
assessing the existing natural state of the soil.

Group Index
The indexing system used in HRB classification to classify the fine graded soil within one
group is termed as ‘Group Index’. It is a number assigned to the soil based on its physical
properties like particle size (materials passing 0.074 mm), Liquid limit and plastic limit. It
varies from a value of 0 to 20, lower the value higher is the quality of the sub-grade and
greater the value, poor is the sub-grade. To find out the value of GI one can use the following
equation
GI = 0.2 a + 0.005 ac + 0.01 bd where,
a= percentage of soil passing 0.074 mm sieve in excess of 35 percent, not exceeding 75.
b= percentage of soil passing 0.074 mm sieve in excess of 15 percent, not exceeding 55.
c= Liquid limit in percent in excess of 40 and less than 60
d= Plasticity index in excess of 10 and not more than 30
CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO (CBR) TEST

3
4 Transportation Engineering – BCV403

This is a penetration test developed by the California division of highway for evaluating the
stability of soil subgrade. The test results have been correlated with flexible pavement
thickness requirement for highway and airfield. CBR test may be conducted in the laboratory
on a prepared specimen in a mould or in situ in the field.
Laboratory CBR test
• The laboratory CBR apparatus consists of Cylindrical mould Mould 150mm dia,
175mm height with 50mm collar height, detachable perforated base with spacer disc
of 148mm dia and 47.7mm thick is used to obtain a specimen of exactly 127.3mm
height.
• Loading Machine Compression machine operated at a constant rate of 1.25mm/min.
• Loading frame with cylindrical plunger 50mm dia & dial gauge for measuring the
deformation due to application of load.

• About 5kgs of soil is taken passing through 20 mm IS sieve and retained on 4.75mm
sieve. The soil is mixed with water up to OMC.
• Then the moist soil sample is to be compacted over this in the mould by adopting
either IS light compaction or IS heavy compaction.
• The specimen is subjected to four days of soaking and the swelling and water
absorption values are noted. The load values are noted corresponding to penetration
values of 0,0.5,1,1.5,2,2.5,3,4,5,7.5,10 and 12.5 mm.
• The load-penetration graph is plotted. The graph requires correction when there is
concavity in shape. From the graph, the load values corresponding to 2.5 and 5 mm
penetration values are noted.

4
5 Transportation Engineering – BCV403

CBR value is calculated using the equation

The load values on standard crushed stones are 1370 kg and 2055 kg at 2.5 mm and 5.0 mm
penetrations respectively. Generally, the C.B.R. value at 2.5 mm will be greater that at 5 mm
and in such a case/the former shall be taken as C.B.R. for design purpose. If C.B.R. for 5 mm
exceeds that for 2.5 mm, the test should be repeated. If identical results follow, the C.B.R.
corresponding to 5 mm penetration should be taken for design.
PLATE BEARING TEST
Plate bearing test is used to evaluate the support capability of sub-grades. Data from the tests
are applicable for the design of both flexible and rigid pavements.
In plate bearing test, a compressive stress is applied to the soil through rigid plates relatively
large size and the deflections are measured for various stress values. The deflection level is
generally limited to a low value, in the order of 1.25 to 5 mm and so the deformation caused
may be partly elastic and partly plastic due to compaction of the stressed mass with negligible
plastic deformation. The plate-bearing test was originally meant to find the modulus of sub
grade reaction in the Westergaard's analysis for wheel load stresses in cement concrete
pavements.
Test Procedure
• The test site is prepared, and loose material is removed so that the 75 cm diameter
plate rests horizontally in full contact with the soil sub-grade.
• The plate is seated accurately and then a seating load equivalent to a pressure of 0.07
kg/cm2 (320 kg for 75 cm diameter plate) is applied and released after a few seconds.
The settlement dial gauge is now set corresponding to zero load.
• A load is applied by means of jack, sufficient to cause an average settlement of about
0.25 cm. When there is no perceptible increase in settlement or when the rate of

5
6 Transportation Engineering – BCV403

settlement is less than 0.025 mm per minute (in the case of soils with high moisture
content or in clayey soils) the load dial reading and the settlement dial readings are
noted.
• Deflection of the plate is measured by means of deflection dials; placed usually at
onethird points of the plate near it's outer edge.
• To minimize bending, a series of stacked plates should be used.
• Average of three or four settlement dial readings is taken as the settlement of the plate
corresponding to the applied load.
• Load is then increased till the average settlement increase to a further amount of about
0.25 mm, and the load and average settlement readings are noted as before.
• The procedure is repeated till the settlement is about 1.75 mm or more.
• Allowance for worst subgrade moisture and correction for small plate size should be
dealt properly.

Aggregates
Aggregates constitute the major component of the pavement structure. They primarily bear
wheel load stresses as well as resist wear due to abrasive action and impact of moving wheel
loads. The desirable properties of aggregates are:
i. Strength - Resistance to crushing due to wheel loads
ii. Hardness - Resistance to abrasion and attrition
iii. Toughness - Resistance to impact due to hammering action by moving loads
iv. Durability - Resistance to disintegration due to weathering action
v. Good shapes - Not too flaky or elongated, but angular shapes are better
vi. Good adhesion with bitumen - to avoid stripping of aggregates.

6
7 Transportation Engineering – BCV403

Aggregates are of two types based on their size - coarse aggregates and fine
aggregates. Coarse aggregates are obtained by crushing parent rock masses (granite, sand
stone, etc.). Fine aggregates are obtained from natural sources (Natural sand) and by crushing
and screening rock pieces (M Sand).
FUNCTIONS
Aggregate is a collective term for the mineral materials such as sand, gravel, and crushed
stone and are the prime material used in the construction of different pavement layers
(bituminous pavement layers, cement concrete mixes for CC slab, granular base
course/granular sub-base course, drainage layer). Most of the road aggregates are prepared by
crushing the natural rock. The functions of aggregates used in various pavement layers
• to bear different magnitude of stresses due to the wheel loads.
• to resist the wear due to abrasive action of traffic
• to resist deterioration due to weathering
• to resist highest magnitude wheel load stresses
DESIRABLE PROPERTIES
Resistance of the aggregates to impact is termed as toughness.
Toughness Aggregates used in the pavement should be able to resist the effect
caused by heavy moving wheel loads.
The aggregates used in the surface course are subjected to constant
rubbing or abrasion due to moving traffic and are subjected to high
magnitude of load stresses and wear & tear. The aggregates should
Hardness
be hard enough to resist the abrasive action caused by the
movements of traffic. Resistance of the aggregates to abrasion is
termed as Hardness.
The aggregates should possess high resistance to crushing, and to
Crushing Strength
retain the strength characteristics during the service life.
The aggregates should not disintegrate during adverse weather
Durability
conditions like alternate wet-dry, freeze-thaw cycles.
Resistance from The aggregates should have resistance from getting polished rapidly
getting polished or under the traffic movement. The smooth surface will result in
smooth/slippery skidding of vehicles and accidents.
Aggregates which happen to fall in a particular size range may have
varying shapes. It is evident that the flaky and elongated particles
Shape of will have less strength and durability when compared with cubical,
aggregates angular or rounded particles of the same aggregate. Hence too flaky
and too much elongated aggregates should be avoided as far as
possible.
Affinity of aggregates to bitumen is very important property. When
the pavement layers are in contact with water for prolonged periods
Adhesion with
and if the aggregates do not have affinity to bituminous binder,
bitumen
stripping of bitumen is likely to take place from the coated
aggregates.

7
8 Transportation Engineering – BCV403

TEST ON ROAD AGGREGATES

1. AGGREAGTE IMPACT TEST [TOUGHNESS PROPERTY]
Significance The aggregates are subjected to pounding action or impact while compaction by
heavy rollers during construction process of pavement layers and under the movement of
heavy wheel loads. This may lead to the possibility of braking of some stones into smaller
pieces. Aggregates used in the pavement should be tough to resist the fracture under impact
load. Aggregate Impact Test as standardized by BIS evaluate the resistance to impact of
aggregates.
Test Set Up and Procedure
1. Aggregates passing 12.5 mm sieve and retained on 10 mm sieve is filled in a
cylindrical steel cup of internal dia 10.2 mm and depth 5 cm which is attached to a
metal base of impact testing machine.
2. The material is filled in 3 layers where each layer is tamped for 25 number of blows.
3. Metal hammer of weight 13.5 to 14 Kg is arranged to drop with a free fall of 38.0 cm
by vertical guides and the test specimen is subjected to 15 number of blows.
4. The crushed aggregate is allowed to pass through 2.36 mm IS sieve.
5. Impact value is measured as percentage of aggregates passing sieve (W2) to the total
weight of the sample (W1).
6. Aggregate Impact Value[AIV] = [W1 /W2 ]× 100

Allowable Limits
The toughness property of the aggregate may be reported as below:
Aggregate impact value, % Toughness property
Less than 10 Exceptionally tough / strong
10 – 20 Very tough / strong
20 – 30 Good for pavement surface course
Above 35 Weak for pavement surface

8
9 Transportation Engineering – BCV403

Aggregates used for wearing course, maxm. impact value 30%. For bituminous macadam the
maximum permissible value is 35 %. For WBM base courses the maximum permissible value
defined by IRC is 40 %.
MORTH GUIDELINES [maximum AIV limits]
• Base Course: 40%,
• Bituminous Surface Course (DBM, SDBC): 27%
• Bituminous Surface Course: 24%
LOS ANGELES ABRASION TEST [HARDNESS PROPERTY]
Significance
The aggregates used in the surface course are subjected to constant rubbing or abrasion due to
moving traffic and are subjected to high magnitude of load stresses and wear & tear. The
aggregates should be hard enough to resist the abrasive action caused by the movements of
traffic. To test suitability of aggregates to resist the abrading action due to traffic, different
types of abrasion tests are conducted in laboratory.
• Los Angeles Abrasion Test – BIS/IRC/MoRTH recommended test
• Deval Abrasion Test
• Dorry Abrasion Test
Of these tests, Los Angeles Abrasion Test is more commonly adopted, as the test
values of aggregates have been correlated with pavement performance studies. Los Angeles
test principle is to find percentage wear due to relative rubbing action between the aggregate
and steel balls which are used as abrasive charge. Here, both abrasion (rubbing action) and
impact (pounding action) takes place on aggregate similar to the field conditions.
Los Angeles Abrasion Test Set Up and Procedure
1. circular drum of internal diameter 700 mm and length 520 mm mounted on horizontal
axis enabling it to be rotated
2. An abrasive charge -cast iron spherical balls of 48 mm diameters and weight 340-445
g is placed in the cylinder along with the aggregates.
3. The no. of the abrasive spheres varies -grading of the sample. BIS has specified 7 sets
of grading of coarse aggregates [A,B,C,D,E,F and G]. For Grade A- 5 Kg of coarse
aggregates with abrasive charge of 12 spherical balls of total weight 5000±25 g. For
Grade B- 5 Kg of coarse aggregates with abrasive charge of 11 spherical balls of total
weight 4584±25 g.
4. The specified weight of aggregates [depends upon the gradation ~5-10 kg] along with
specified abrasive charge is placed in the cylinder.

9
10 Transportation Engineering – BCV403

5. The cylinder rotated at speed of 30-33 rpm for 500 -1000 revolutions depending upon
the gradation of aggregates. the material is sieved through 1.7 mm sieve and passed
fraction is expressed as percentage total weight of the sample.

Allowable Limits
For Granular base course [WMM,WBM] and in bituminous layers [surface dressing],
maximum value of 40% is allowed. A maximum value of 35 percent is acceptable for cement
concrete and (DBM) dense bituminous macadam binder course. For bituminous concrete, a
maximum value of 30% is specified.
AGGREGATE CRUSHING VALUE TEST [STRENGTH PROPERTY]
Significance
Stone aggregate should possess satisfactory resistance to crushing under the roller during
construction and under the application of heavy wheel loads during its service life. The
strength of aggregate is assessed by the crushing test. The test provides a relative measure of
resistance to crushing under gradually applied compressive load. Low crushing value
aggregates are generally preferred for highly quality pavements.
Test Procedure
a. The test consists of subjecting the specimen of aggregate in standard mould to a
compression test under standard load conditions
b. Test machine – steel cylinder 152 mm diameter with base plate and plunger,
cylindrical measure of 115 mm diameter and 180 mm height
c. Dry aggregates passing through 12.5 mm sieves and retained 10 mm sieves are filled
in a cylindrical measure of 11.5 mm diameter and 18 cm height in three layers.
d. Each layer is tampered 25 times with at standard tamping rod.
e. A compressive load of 40 tonnes gradually applied at the rate of 4 tonnes per minute.
f. Then crushed aggregates are then sieved through 2.36 mm sieve and weight of
passing material (W2) is expressed as percentage of the weight of the total sample
(W1) which is the aggregate crushing value.
Aggregate crushing value = W1 /W2 × 100

10
11 Transportation Engineering – BCV403

Allowable Limits
• Aggregates used in base course: maxm. 45 %
• Aggregates used in surface course: maxm. 30 %
• Aggregates used for cement concrete pavement – maxm. 30%
SHAPE TEST
Significance
Shape of aggregate particles is determined by the percentage of flaky and elongated particles
contained in it. Presence of flaky and elongated particles in aggregates used for pavement
construction may cause inherent weakness and possibility of breaking down. Angular shapes
are preferred due to increased stability derived from better interlocking. The evaluation of
shape of the particles is made in terms of flakiness index, elongation index and angularity
number.
1. Flakiness Index [FI] The Flakiness index of aggregate is the percentage by weight of
particles whose least dimension [thickness] is less than three- fifths [0.6] times of
their mean dimension. The test is not applicable to aggregate size smaller than 6.3
mm.
Procedure
1. Sample aggregates are sieved through a set of sieves and separated into specific size
ranges.
2. To separate the flaky material, aggregates are passed through appropriate elongated
slot of the thickness gauge.
3. Width of the appropriate slot would be 0.6 of the average of the size range.
4. flaky material passing the appropriate slot from each size range of aggregates are
added up (W1 g) and total weight of the sample – W g
Flakiness Index (%) = [W1/W]x 100

Allowable Limits
FI of aggregates used in BC and surface dressing should not exceed 25% and the aggregates
used in WBM and BM should not exceed 15%.

11
12 Transportation Engineering – BCV403

2. Elongation Index [EI]

Elongation Index of an aggregate is the percentage by weight of particles, the greatest
dimension of which is greater than 1.8 times their mean dimension.
Procedure
1. Sample aggregates are sieved through a set of sieves and separated into specific size
ranges.
2. To separate the elongated material, the longest side of aggregate particles from each
of the size range is passed through the appropriate gauge of the length gauge.
3. The gauge length would be 1.8 times the mean size of the aggregate
4. Elongated aggregate (aggregates having length greater than the specified gauge) from
each size range of aggregates are added up (W1 g)
5. total weight of the sample – W g
Elongation Index (%) = [W1/W]x 100

Flakiness Index and Elongation Index values in excess of 15% are generally considered are
undesirable. MORTH has specified permissible limit of Combined Index [CI], combined
flakiness and elongation index for coarse aggregates used for different pavement layers.
3. Angularity Number
Angularity or absence of rounding of the particles of an aggregate is a property which is of
importance because it affects the interlocking property of compacted aggregate layer. A well
compacted single sized round aggregates is found to have 67% solid volume and 33% air
voids. The angularity number is expressed in terms of the voids in a sample of single sized
aggregates compacted in a specified manner. Thus, angularity number measures the voids in
excess of 33%.
100 W
Angular Number = 67−
CGs
Where,
W = Mean weight of the aggregate filling cylinder
C = Weight / volume of water that can completely fill the cylinder
Gs = Specific gravity of the aggregate

12
13 Transportation Engineering – BCV403

The value of angularity number generally lies between 0 & 11. The higher the angularity
number, more angular is the aggregate.
POLISHED STONE VALUE TEST [SKID NUMBER]
Significance
The aggregates used in the surface course of pavements are subjected to abrasion and rubbing
action due to traffic movements. The presence of fine particles of sand and dust between the
pavement surface and tyres of vehicles accelerates the process of the pavement surface
getting smoothened along the wheel paths. The smoothened pavement surface becomes
slippery under wet conditions, resulting in skidding of high speed vehicles. The test is
conducted in two stages:
• In the first stage, the sample of aggregates are placed in a mould and subjected to
accelerated polishing action in machine, under standard test conditions.
• In the second stage, the polished sample is subjected to friction test using a pendulum
type skid resistance tester to determine the coefficient of friction expressed as
percentage or polished stone value.
Test Set Up
Accelerated polishing Test Procedure
1. The test specimens are clamped around the rim of the wheel
2. The rubber tyred test wheel is lowered until it rests on the surface of the test
specimens fixed around the road wheel.
3. The required weight is added and the road wheel rotates at a speed of 320 to 325 rpm.
4. Abrading sand and water are released at the specified rate and are uniformly spread
over the surface of test specimen and tyre of the test wheel where they are in contact.
5. The road wheel is continued to be rotated for a period of 3 hours.
6. The machine is stopped and test specimens are cleaned by washing with water to
remove sand. The specimen is ready for friction coefficient test

13
14 Transportation Engineering – BCV403

Friction Coefficient Test

1. Machine used to determine the skid resistance value is pendulum type friction tester.
2. One of the specimens of aggregate which was subjected to accelerated polishing is
properly fixed in the slot provided, with its longer side in the track of the pendulum
swing.
3. The surfaces of specimen and rubber shoe are wetted with clean water.
4. The pendulum and pointer are released from horizontal position by pressing the
button.
5. The pointer reading is noted as the skid number or polished stone value from the
graduated scale.

SOUNDNESS TEST
Significance

14
15 Transportation Engineering – BCV403

Soundness test is intended to study the resistance of aggregates to weathering action, by

conducting accelerated weathering test cycles. The Porous aggregates subjected to freezing
and thawing are likely to disintegrate prematurely. To ascertain the durability of such
aggregates, they are subjected to an accelerated soundness test as specified in IS:2386 part-V.
Test Procedure
1. Aggregates of specified size are subjected to cycles of alternate wetting in a saturated
solution of either sodium sulphate or magnesium sulphate for 16 - 18 hours
2. The specimen is dried in oven at 105 – 110 ˚C to a constant weight, thus completing
one cycle of immersion and drying.
3. After five cycles, the loss in weight of aggregates is examined visually (to check
excessive splitting), sieve analysis (to find any gradation change) and taking weight
(to determine any loss in weight)
Guidelines
The loss in weight should not exceed 12 percent when tested with sodium sulphate and 18
percent with magnesium sulphate.
Bituminous binders
Types and Characteristics of BITUMINOUS BINDERS
Bitumen is hydrocarbon material of either natural or pyrogenous origin found in the gases,
liquid semi solid or solid form is completely soluble in carbon di sulphide and carbon
tetrachloride. Bitumen is a complex organic material material and occurs either naturally or
maybe obtain artificially during the distillation of petroleum. Bituminous material are very
commonly used in high construction because of their binding and waterproofing properties.
The different grades of bitumen use for payment, construction, work of road and air fields are
called paving grade bitumen and those used for waterproofing of structures and industrial
floors et cetera are called industrial grade bitumen.
Cutback bitumen
Normal practice is to heat bitumen to reduce its viscosity. In some situations,
preference is given to use liquid binders such as cutback bitumen. In cutback bitumen
suitable solvent is used to lower the viscosity of the bitumen. From the environmental point
of view also cutback bitumen is preferred. The solvent from the bituminous material will
evaporate and the bitumen will bind the aggregate. Cutback bitumen is used for cold weather
bituminous road construction and maintenance. The distillates used for preparation of cutback
bitumen are naphtha, kerosene, diesel oil, and furnace oil.
There are different types of cutback bitumen like rapid curing (RC), medium curing
(MC), and slow curing (SC). RC is recommended for surface dressing and patchwork. MC is
recommended for premix with less quantity of fine aggregates. SC is used for premix with
appreciable quantity of fine aggregates.
Bitumen Emulsion

15
16 Transportation Engineering – BCV403

Bitumen emulsion is a liquid product in which bitumen is suspended in a finely divided

condition in an aqueous medium and stabilised by suitable material. Normally cationic type
emulsions are used in India. The bitumen content in the emulsion is around 60% and the
remaining is water. When the emulsion is applied on the road it breaks down resulting in
release of water and the mix starts to set. The time of setting depends upon the grade of
bitumen. The viscosity of bituminous emulsions can be measured as per IS: 8887-1995. Three
types of bituminous emulsions are available, which are Rapid setting (RS), Medium setting
(MS), and Slow setting (SC). Bitumen emulsions are ideal binders for hill road construction.
Where heating of bitumen or aggregates are difficult. Rapid setting emulsions are used for
surface dressing work.
Medium setting emulsions are preferred for premix jobs and patch repairs work. Slow setting
emulsions are preferred in rainy season.
Paving grade bitumen which is obtained from the distillation process of petroleum
crude is extensively used in the construction of flexible pavement layers, particularly the
surface and bender course. A normal range of atmospheric temperature bitumen is in semi
solid state and remains highly viscous and sticky. when the paving grade bitumen is heated it
soften at rapid rate and eating fluid consistency and the viscosity decreases with further
increase in temperature. For the construction of the bituminous payments, the paving grade
bitumen Is heated to temperature in the range of 130 to 170°C or even higher depending upon
the type and grade of bitumen selected and The type of the construction work. Mixing of the
bitumen with the aggregates is done in the hot mix to obtain hot bituminous mix.
Modified Bitumen
Certain additives or blend of additives called as bitumen modifiers can improve properties of
Bitumen and bituminous mixes. Bitumen treated with these modifiers is known as modified
bitumen. Polymer modified bitumen (PMB)/ crumb rubber modified bitumen (CRMB)
should be used only in wearing course depending upon the requirements of extreme climatic
variations. The detailed specifications for modified bitumen have been issued by IRC: SP:
53-1999. It must be noted that the performance of PMB and CRMB is dependent on strict
control on temperature during construction. The advantages of using modified bitumen are as
follows
• Lower susceptibility to daily and seasonal temperature variations
• Higher resistance to deformation at high pavement temperature
• Better age resistance properties
• Higher fatigue life for mixes
• Better adhesion between aggregates and binder
• Prevention of cracking and reflective cracking
FUNCTIONS & DESIRABLE PROPERTIES OF BITUMEN
Bituminous binders are used in binder, base and surface course of the pavement to withstand
traffic. They are also used for surface dressing/thin surfacing course for use in the base
course. The bitumen is used in the form of emulsion, as a prime coat over the granular base

16
17 Transportation Engineering – BCV403

course of flexible pavement. Bitumen in the form of cutback is used for sealer materials
(joints/crack filling) and for soil-bitumen stabilization. In all these cases, preparation of
bitumen mixes can be either hot mix or cold mix process.
The desirable properties of bitumen depend on the mix type and construction. In general,
Bitumen should possess following desirable properties.
• The bitumen should not be highly temperature susceptible: during the hottest weather
the mix should not become too soft or unstable, and during cold weather the mix
should not become too brittle causing cracks.
• The viscosity of the bitumen at the time of mixing and compaction should be
adequate. This can be achieved by use of cutbacks or emulsions of suitable grades or
by heating the bitumen and aggregates prior to mixing.
• It is desirable that the bitumen used in the bituminous mixes form ductile thin films
around the aggregates to serve as an satisfactory binder in improving the physical
interlocking of the aggregates.
• The bitumen binder should have sufficient adhesion with the aggregates in the mix in
the presence of water.
• There should be adequate affinity and adhesion between the bitumen and aggregates
used in the mix. The coated binder should not strip off from the stone aggregate under
stagnant water.
TESTS ON BITUMEN
The following tests are usually conducted to evaluate different properties of bituminous
materials.
1. Penetration test
2. Ductility test
3. Softening point test
4. Specific gravity test
5. Viscosity test
6. Flash and Fire point test
7. Loss on heating test 8. Solubility Test
Penetration test
Significance
Various types and grades of bituminous materials are available depending on their origin and
refining process. The penetration test determines the consistency of these materials for the
purpose of grading them, by measuring the depth (in units of one tenth of a millimeter) to
which a standard needle will penetrate vertically under specified conditions of standard load,
duration and temperature.

17
18 Transportation Engineering – BCV403

Test Setup and Procedure

 It measures the hardness or softness of bitumen by measuring the depth in tenths of a
millimeter to which a standard loaded needle will penetrate vertically in 5 seconds.
 BIS had standardized the equipment [penetrometer] and test procedure. The
penetrometer consists of a needle assembly with a total weight of 100g and a device
for releasing and locking in any position.
 The bitumen is softened to a pouring consistency, stirred thoroughly and poured into
containers at a depth at least 15 mm in excess of the expected penetration. The test
should be conducted at a specified temperature of 25o C.
 The initial reading of the penetrometer dial is either adjusted to zero or the initial
reading is noted. Then the needle is released by pressing a button and a stop watch is
started. The needle is released exactly for a period of 5 secs. The difference between
the initial and final penetration readings are taken as the penetration value.

Guidelines
 A grade of 40/50 bitumen means the penetration value is in the range 40 to 50 at
standard test conditions. Softer the material, higher will be its penetration value. In
hot climates, a lower penetration grade is preferred.
Limitations
 Empirical test and has no relation with the fundamental properties of the binder
 The test temperature 25oC is not the general pavement temperature, the service
temperature at hot climate may rise upto 60˚ C.
 Bitumen having same penetration value may have different performance at different
temperatures (temperature susceptibility)
In view of the above limitations, grading of bituminous binders is done based on the viscosity
test results known as ‘Viscosity Grading’.
Ductility test
Significance
Bitumen used for flexible pavement construction should form ductile thin films
around the aggregates to improve the physical interlocking of the aggregate-bitumen mixes.
The binder which does not possess sufficient ductility would crack under the wheel load and
allow the surface water to enter into the pavement resulting in deterioration and failure.

18
19 Transportation Engineering – BCV403

Ductility is the property of bitumen that permits it to undergo great deformation or

elongation.
Test Setup and Procedure
 Ductility is defined as the distance in cm, to which a standard sample or briquette of
the material will be elongated without breaking.
 Dimension of the briquette thus formed is exactly 1 cm square. The bitumen sample is
heated and poured in the mould assembly placed on a plate.
 These samples with moulds are cooled in the air and then in water bath at 27o C
temperature.
 The excess bitumen is cut and the surface is leveled using a hot knife. The mould with
assembly containing sample is kept in water bath of the ductility machine for 90
minutes.
 The sides of the moulds are removed, the clips are hooked on the machine and the
machine is operated. The distance up to the point of breaking of thread is the ductility
value which is reported in cm.

Guidelines
The ductility value gets affected by factors such as pouring temperature, test
temperature, rate of pulling etc. A minimum ductility value of 75 cm has been specified by
the BIS.
Softening Point Test
Significance
Bitumen does not melt, but change gradually from solid to liquid. Softening point denotes the
temperature at which the bitumen attains a particular degree of softening under the
specifications of test. Harder grades of bitumen possess higher softening points.
Test Setup and Procedure
 The test is conducted by using Ring and Ball apparatus.
 A brass ring containing test sample of bitumen is suspended in liquid like water or
glycerin at a given temperature.
 A steel ball is placed upon the bitumen sample and the liquid medium is heated at a
rate of 5˚C per minute.

19
20 Transportation Engineering – BCV403

 Temperature is noted when the softened bitumen touches the metal plate which is at a
specified distance below. Figure shows Softening Point test setup.

Guidelines
Generally, higher softening point indicates lower temperature susceptibility and is preferred
in hot climates. Softening point of various bitumen grades used in paving jobs vary between
35 to 70 oC.
Viscosity test
Significance
Viscosity denotes the fluid property of bituminous material and it is a measure of
resistance to flow. The flow of a liquid under an applied force will depend on its viscosity,
higher the viscosity; slower will be its movement or rate of flow. At the application
temperature, this characteristic greatly influences the strength of resulting paving mixes.
A number of test methods are available to measure the viscosity of the bitumen
depending on the grade and purpose for which the measurement is required.
 Absolute viscosity of bitumen using vacuum capillary tube viscometer
 Kinematic Viscosity of bitumen and cutback using capillary type viscometer
 Indirect measurement of viscosity of bituminous emulsion and tar by using orifice
viscometer
Absolute viscosity
The ratio between the applies shear stress and the rate of shear is called the co-efficient of
viscosity or the absolute viscosity. It is measured by using a vacuum capillary viscometer at a
temperature of 60 degree. The viscometer is mounted in a thermostatically controlled water
bath at a uniform test temperature of 60 oC. A vacuum pressure of specified value is applied
to make the bitumen flow freely though the tube. The time is noted for bitumen to flow a
certain known distance in the tube. The time taken is multiplied with calibration factor of
capillary tube gives the viscosity.
Kinematic viscosity

20
21 Transportation Engineering – BCV403

It is the measure of resistance to flow of a liquid under gravity. It is measured by using

capillary viscometer at a temperature of 135 degree. The time is noted for bitumen to flow a
certain known distance in the tube. The time taken is multiplied with calibration factor of
capillary tube gives the viscosity.
Indirect viscosity measurement – Tar Viscometer
Orifice type viscometers are used to indirectly find the viscosity of liquid binders like
cutbacks and emulsions. The viscosity expressed in seconds is the time taken by the 50 ml
bitumen material to pass through the orifice of a cup, under standard test conditions and
specified temperature. Viscosity of a cutback can be measured with either 4.0 mm orifice at
25o C or 10 mm orifice at 25 or 40oC.

Guidelines
Viscosity grading has been recommended by BIS, based on the absolute viscosity at 60 oC
and kinematic viscosity at 135 oC. VG 10, 20, 30 and 40 are the four grades of bitumen.
VG10 the absolute viscosity is 800 Poise (Min.) and kinematic viscosity value of 250 cSt
(Min).
Specific gravity test
In paving jobs, to classify a binder, density property is of great use. In most cases bitumen is
weighed, but when used with aggregates, the bitumen is converted to volume using density
values. The density of bitumen is greatly influenced by its chemical composition. Increase in
aromatic type mineral impurities cause an increase in specific gravity.
The specific gravity of bitumen is defined as the ratio of mass of given volume of bitumen of
known content to the mass of equal volume of water at 27oC. The specific gravity can be
measured using either pycnometer or preparing a cube specimen of bitumen in semi solid or
solid state.
The specific gravity of bitumen varies from 0.97 to 1.02.
Flash and fire point test

21
22 Transportation Engineering – BCV403

At high temperatures depending upon the grades of bitumen materials leave out volatiles.
And these volatiles catches fire which is very hazardous and therefore it is essential to qualify
this temperature for each bitumen grade.
BIS defined the flash point as the temperature at which the vapour of bitumen momentarily
catches fire in the form of flash under specified test conditions. The fire point is defined as
the lowest temperature under specified test conditions at which the bituminous material gets
ignited and burns.
Float test
Normally the consistency of bituminous material can be measured either by penetration test
or viscosity test. But for certain range of consistencies, these tests are not applicable and
Float test is used. The apparatus consists of an aluminum float and a brass collar filled with
bitumen to be tested. The specimen in the mould is cooled to a temperature of 5 oC and
screwed in to float. The total test assembly is floated in the water bath at 50oC and the time
required for water to pass its way through the specimen plug is noted in seconds and is
expressed as the float value.
Water content test
It is desirable that the bitumen contains minimum water content to prevent foaming of the
bitumen when it is heated above the boiling point of water. The water in a bitumen is
determined by mixing known weight of specimen in a pure petroleum distillate free from
water, heating and distilling of the water. The weight of the water condensed and collected is
expressed as percentage by weight of the original sample. The allowable maximum water
content should not be more than 0.2% by weight.
Loss on heating test
When the bitumen is heated it loses the volatility and gets hardened. About 50gm of the
sample is weighed and heated to a temperature of 163 0C for 5 hours in a specified oven
designed for this test. The sample specimen is weighed again after the heating period and loss
in weight is expressed as percentage by weight of the original sample. Bitumen used in
pavement mixes should not indicate more than 1% loss in weight, but for bitumen having
penetration values 150-200 up to 2% loss in weight is allowed.
Viscosity Grading
In India, binders were classified into penetration grades based on the value of the penetration
test determined at 25oC. Now. A more rational method of grading is adopted by BIS and is
known as Viscosity Grading. It is based on the absolute viscosity at 60 oC and kinematic
viscosity at 135 oC. Four grades are currently adopted, VG 10, 20, 30 and 40. The respective
viscosity and penetratin values are listed in the table below.
Viscosity grading of bitumen and consistency properties
Sl No. Viscosity Absolute viscosity at Kinematic viscosity at Range of
grading 600C, poise (min.) 1350C. eSt (min.) penetration
value at 250C
1 VG 10 800 250 800-100
2 VG 20 1600 300 60-80

22
23 Transportation Engineering – BCV403

3 VG 30 2400 350 50-70

4 VG 40 3200 400 40-60

Recommended viscosity grades of bitumen for use in India

Viscosity grade (VG) General application
VG - 40 Use in high stressed areas like intersections, toll plazas, truck
terminals, truck lay-byes in lieu of 30/40 penetration grade
VG – 30 Paving applications for most part of India, in lieu of 60-70
percentage grade of bitumen
VG – 20 Paving application in cold climatic conditions of North India and
in high altitude regions
VG - 10 Spraying applications: paying applications in cold regions in lieu
of 80/100 penetration grade

23