Hydra 325 - Im - 2024 - Ce Dept

Introduction to Hydraulics
All life on earth is dependent on water in one way or another. Water is essential for
survival of individuals, populations, and nations. It sustains animal and plant life, and acts
as a carrier of pollutants and purifier of waste. Water aids in transmission and storage of
energy received from the sun and provides a means for transportation of goods, navigation
of rivers and channels, and recreational activities. Water plays an important role in national
and economic development. The study of the science of water is, therefore, vitally
important.
Water is a renewable resource and follows the hydrologic cycle, as shown in Figure
1.1. The hydrologic cycle is an endless circulation and has neither beginning nor end. It is
a natural machine, a constantly running distillation and pumping system. The sun supplies
heat energy which, together with the force of gravity keeps the water moving: from the
atmosphere as evaporation and transpiration, to the oceans as stream flow, and within the
earth as stream flow and groundwater movement; and from the oceans to the atmosphere
as evaporation.
(Google Image)
Figure 1.1 The hydrologic cycle
Most of the global water is ocean water. Only a small portion of it is fresh. Of this
fresh water supply found in stream, lakes, swamps, glaciers and icecaps, and in the geologic
formation only a smaller portion is available for human consumption. Water is found over
the land (surface water) as well as below it (groundwater). At some places it is stationary
and at others it is in motion.
HYDRA 325 - HYDRAULICS 1

A. Definition of Hydraulics
The word hydraulics has been derived from the Greek word Hudour; which means
“water”. Hydraulics may be defined as the science that deals with the mechanical behaviour
of water at rest or in motion. In some contexts, it also includes the study of other fluids.
The mechanical behaviour may entail computing forces and energy associated with fluids
at rest or momentum and energy of fluids in motion, or computation of water surface
elevation in channels and flood plains, or calculation of discharge, velocity, and fluid
potential, and sediment and pollutant transport in hydraulic conduits. The science of fluids
at rest is called hydrostatics, and the science of moving fluids is called hydrodynamics;
they both are embedded in hydraulics. Hydraulics is an applied science of fluid mechanics
and studies, for the most part, the flow of incompressible fluids, which do not exhibit any
changes in density as the pressure exerted on them is varied.
B. Governing Equations
The science of hydraulics is based on three fundamental laws of physics: (1)

conservation of mass, (2) conservation of energy; and (3) conservation of momentum. The
law of conservation of mass states that matter (mass) can neither be created nor destroyed,
although it may undergo some transformation in state (e.g., via chemical processes). When
a hydraulic study does not include such processes, the law is reduced to a simple form of
mass conservation. The law of conservation of mass is mathematically expressed as
continuity equation or mass balance equation.
The law of conservation of energy states that energy can be neither created nor
destroyed, however it can be transformed from one form to another. This is the first law of
thermodynamics. Static energy can be transformed to kinetic energy and vice versa; that
is, kinetic energy may transform to static energy. In open channels, reduction in the water
level (static energy) is normally associated with an increase in the flow velocity (kinetic
energy). Likewise, as the water level increases, the velocity of flow decreases assuming
constant channel width. It should be noted that friction in hydraulic system does not cause
loss of energy; rather it converts some energy into heat. Therefore, no energy can be
damnified. The law of conservation of energy is mathematically expressed as an energy
equation. Frequently, this equation is expressed in terms of energy head. A special form of
this equation is the Bernoulli equation which will be used extensively in this course.
The law of conservation of momentum or Newton’s second law of motion,
stipulates that a body in motion cannot gain or lose momentum unless some external force
is applied. In other words, the force acting on a control volume is equal to the rate of change
of momentum. This law is mathematically expressed as momentum equation, sometimes
referred to as the equation of motion or dynamic equation.
Hydraulic processes may entail just flow of water or flow of water as well as
transport of contaminants – physical, chemical, and/or biological. The flow of water can
be analysed by using the aforementioned laws of mass, momentum, and energy. Because
contaminants are carried by water, contaminant transport can be analysed by conservation
of mass of contaminants and a relation between contaminant flux and concentrations
(referred to as flux law), in addition to the equation needed for the analysis of water flow.

C. Distinction among Hydraulics, Hydrology and Fluid Mechanics
The science of water encompasses fluid mechanics, hydraulics and hydrology.

Fluid mechanics is the study of fluids under all conditions of rest and motion. The fluids
may be gaseous or liquids, including water. The fluid mechanics approach to the study of
water employs basic principles of science and is therefore science based rather than
empirical. It provides solution to a wide variety of problems encountered in many fields of
engineering, regardless of the physical properties of fluids involved.
Contrasting hydraulics with fluid mechanics, the following distinction are noted.
Hydraulics deals primarily with water, whereas fluid mechanics deal with fluids of all
types. A hydraulic approach is more empirical and the emphasis is on finding a solution of
practical value, whereas in fluid mechanics the approach is more mathematical and the
emphasis is on understanding the behaviour of hydraulic systems by employing basic
principles of science (physics). Hydraulics can be construed as applied fluid mechanics;
thus, fluid mechanics is the mother of hydraulics. Hydraulics has also inspired many
developments in fluid mechanics, and from this perspective fluid mechanics and hydraulics
complement each other.
Hydrology is the study of space, time, and frequency characteristics of the quantity
and quality of waters of the earth encompassing their occurrence, movement, distribution,
circulation, storage, exploration, and development. These characteristics are determined by
the relation of water to the earth.
Contrasting hydraulics with hydrology, the following distinctions are noted.
Hydrology deals with water in all forms: liquid, solid, ice and snow, and water vapour,
whereas hydraulics deals primarily with liquid water. Hydrology deals with the occurrence
of water whereas hydraulics does not. A hydrologic approach is empirical, perhaps even
more than a hydraulic one.
A sharper contrast among hydraulics, fluid mechanics, and hydrology can be drawn
by looking at the spatial and temporal scales commonly employed by them. In fluid
mechanics the spatial scale can be very small. Say, a small segment of a channel or even a
point. At that scale, a detailed inquiry into temporal and frequency characteristics of the
fluid is undertaken.
In hydraulics, the spatial scale is much larger – the channel segment or overland
flow plane or estuary. At that scale, spatial averaging of hydraulic phenomena naturally
takes place, the laws of science implicitly entail empirical parameters. At that scale,
investigations are made of the temporal and frequency characteristics of the behaviour of
flow of water.
In hydrology the spatial scale is often larger than that normally is employed in
hydraulics. The spatial scale of watershed which can be as small as parking lot or as big as
the Mississippi River basin or even bigger. Indeed, even the entire globe can be taken as
spatial scale of a study in hydrology. At the spatial scale of a watershed, detailed
investigation of temporal and frequency characteristics of the quantity and quality of the
water of the earth are made in all aspects.
Hydrology deals with the water cycle and it connects hydrosphere, atmosphere,
pedosphere and lithosphere whereas the water cycle is outside the domain of hydraulics

and fluid mechanics. Because of the much larger spatial scales involved, hydrology
employs far greater averaging and therefore empiricism than does hydraulics.
D. Subject Matter of Hydraulics
The study of hydraulics is of vital importance in sustainable development of a

nation. It covers a wide field of applications in many aspects of our life. It not only elevates
the standard of our living through various hydraulic projects, such as the Salt River project,
which supplies water and power to much of the valley of the Sun near Phoenix Arizona,
but also mitigates disasters of nature, such as droughts and floods.
Hydraulics deals with water which is either at rest or in motion above the land or
below it, flows naturally or artificially, or carries, or carries physical or chemical
constituents. Hydraulics encompasses two of the three major systems of the hydrologic
cycle: the surface water system and the subsurface water system. Hydraulic does not deal
with the atmospheric system in which water is encountered in the form of precipitation,
evapotranspiration, rainfall, snowfall, hail, sleet, dew, drizzle, fog and so on. The subjects
of hydraulics covers the study of water in open channels, closed conduits, watersheds,
oceans and open seas, lakes and reservoirs, estuaries, wetlands, snowpacks, soils,
groundwater, and so on. Hydraulics also encompasses the study of constituents that are
carried by water, including sediments, chemicals, and microorganisms. The size and
dimensions of hydraulic systems may vary from a small current meter, a few centimeters
in size, to a channel, several hundreds of kilometers long and tens of square meter in cross
section. Generally, hydraulic systems and structures are relatively massive as compared
with the other engineering branches.
E. Environmental and Water Resources problems Involving Hydraulic Application
Water is essential to life. Without it, human survival could not be possible. The
extent to which modern society depends on water is apparent in the variety of ways in
which water is used. Hydraulics touches every human life in some manner. To some, it is
simply a need for drinking water, and to others, the need for water might be economic or
just for convenience. Development and utilization of water resources require conception,
planning, construction, and operation of facilities to store, distribute, regulate, control, and
utilize water. Hydraulics is concerned with utilization of water resources of various
economic needs. It deals with wide range of practical problems in the field of
environmental and water resources, especially the behaviour of water in waterways.
Generally, hydraulics is introduced to alter the natural behaviour of water source (i.e., the
use of water usage is of prime concern in hydraulics): (1) consumptive (i.e., the use of
water for various purposes, such as water supply, irrigation, water delivery, land
reclamation, and so on, where water is drawn from various resources); and (2) exploitative,
such as electric power generation, navigation, fishing, and so on.
Environmental and water resources problems involving application of hydraulics
include flood control, drought mitigation, water supply, pollution control, urban
development, industrial development, land conservation, environmental impact

assessment, land use change, forest and wildlife management, military operations, rural
development, navigation, recreation, and fisheries. These problems are addressed through
an integrated approach requiring application of fundamental knowledge of many
disciplines, in addition to hydraulics.
Hydraulics is needed for flood control. A flood occurs when a lake, reservoir, or
stream is unable to convey the amount of water it receives. The result is an inundation of
what is usually a dryland. Floods are sometimes caused by the failure of hydraulics
structures, such as dams, levees, and dykes. Natural floods are, however, more common.
The problem of flooding is defined by its areal extent, duration, intensity, and damage.
Hydraulic structures are thus designed to mitigate flooding and flood damage.
A drought occurs when the demands for water exceed the stored water considerably
in a certain region over an extended period (several years) of time. Construction of water
impoundment groundwater pumping, and interbasin transfer of water are some of the ways
involving hydraulic applications to mitigate droughts. A water supply scheme must provide
sufficient water of acceptable quality to serve its intended purpose, be in urban, agricultural
or industrial setting. The disruption in water supply should be minimum. Hydraulics aids
the design and construction of water supply schemes as well as sewage systems.
Water is an efficient and economical carrier of pollutants and undesirable materials.
It dilutes the waste and disposes the water by natural processes, to a certain extent. Of
course, there is a limit to the amount of waste that can absorbed by any water course,
including rivers, lakes, reservoirs and seas. Environmental hydraulics deals with such
issues.
Water is essential for urban and industrial developments. Urban planning and
development involves construction of houses, schools, sports and recreational facilities,
roads, culverts, drainage systems, water supply schemes, and so on. Industry has an
enormous thirst for water and, therefore, hydraulic applications are numerous in industrial
development.
The largest use of water is agriculture. Vast irrigation projects that carry water long
distances are common. Open channel hydraulics is used to design systems of canals and
drains to ensure water availability and proper soil drainage. Groundwater hydraulics is used
to design the network of wells for a farm located away from a surface-water source. Dams,
culverts, spillways, bridge crossings, dykes, levees, diversions, channel-improvement
works, drainage works, and so on are typical hydraulic works required for water-resources
development and management.
Development of groundwater resources requires an understanding of groundwater
hydraulics. Aquifer’s safe yield and drawdown are estimated through the knowledge of
hydraulics of flow through porous media. In coastal areas, groundwater resources are
threatened by seawater intrusion. This problem is further exacerbated by excessive
pumping of groundwater. Hydraulics of two-phase flow is thus used to determine the safe
yield of coastal aquifers without tangible encroachment by seawater.
Hydraulic machines are used extensively in modern life. Turbines convert the water
power into mechanical power, which is then converted into electrical power via generators.
Hydroelectric power plants have significant detrimental environmental consequences. As
of 2019, the Philippines has a population of more than 100 million and there are 15 large
dams in operation. The country’s dams have a total water storage volume of 8.67 x 10 9 m3.

The Philippines has a total installed capacity connected to its three grids of about 22 728
MW, comprising 3627 MW of hydropower.
Pumps constitute a major element in water delivery systems. Unlike turbines, pump
convert mechanical power into water power. Pumping stations are constructed in open
channels (canals and drains), sewage systems, and so on to control flow. Pumps are used
in most of the buildings to elevate water to upper stories. In groundwater, pumps are used
to deliver water from wells and to pump it through water supply systems. Pumps are also
used to prevent low lying areas from flooding.

Module 1
Fluid Mechanics and Properties of Fluids
Fluid Mechanics is the study of fluid either in motion (Fluid Dynamics) or at rest
(Fluid Statics) and the subsequent effects of the fluid upon boundaries, which may be solid
surfaces or interfaces with other fluids. Both liquids and gases are classified as fluids.
1.1 Introduction to Fluids

A. Definition of Fluids
Fluids are substances that are capable of flowing and conform to the shape of
containing vessels. When in equilibrium, fluid cannot sustain tangential or shear forces.
All fluids have the same degree of compressibility and offer little resistance to chance of
form.
B. Distinction between liquid and a gas

A liquid being composed of relatively closed-packed molecules with strong
cohesive forces tends to retain its volume and will form a free surface in a gravitational
field if unconfined from above. Since gas molecules are widely spaced with negligible
cohesive forces, a gas is free to expand until it encounters confining walls. A gas has no
definite volume and when left to itself without confinement, a gas forms on atmosphere
which is essentially hydrostatic. Gas cannot form a free surface and therefore occupies all
portion of any container regardless of its shape and size. Liquids are practically
incompressible and may so be considered without introducing appreciable error. On the
other hand, gases are compressible and usually must so be treated.
1.2 Dimension and units

A dimension is the measure by which a physical variable is expressed quantitative.
A unit is a particular way of attaching a number to a quantitative dimension. Thus, length
is a dimension associated with such variables as distance, and height, while centimeters are
both numerical units for expressing length.
In fluid mechanics, there are only four primary dimensions from which all other
dimensions can be desired, mass, length, time, and temperature. Take note that Kelvin unit
uses no degree symbol.
Primary Dimension English Units SI Units

Mass Slug Kilogram (kg)
Length Foot (ft) Meter (m)
Time Seconds (sec) Seconds (sec)
Temperature (ordinary) Fahrenheit (°F) Celsius (°C)
Temperature (absolutely) Rankine (°R) Kelvin (°K)
Some conversion factors:

1 Newton of a force = 1N = 1 kg-m/sec2
1 Pound of a force = 1lb = 1 slug ft/sec2
1 slug = 14.59 kg

When dealing with usually large or very small numbers a series of prefixes have been
adopted for use with SI units the most commonly used prefixed are:
Multiple Prefix Symbol
9
10 Giga G
6
10 Mega M
3
10 Kilo k
10-2 centi c
-3
10 milli m
10 -6
micro μ
1.3 Properties of Fluids
In addition to the properties like mass, velocity, and pressure usually considered in
physical problems, the following are the basic properties of a fluid:
1. Pressure (P)
Pressure is the stress at a point in a statics fluid.
English Unit SI Unit
2
lb/in Pascal = Pa
2
lb/ft kiloPascal= kPa
2. Temperature (T)
Temperature is a measure of internal energy level of a fluid.
°F °C
°R °K
5
°R = °F + 460° °C = 9 (°F − 32)
9
°K = °C + 273° °F = 5 (°C + 32)
3. Density (ρ)
The density of a fluid, is generally designated by the Greek symbol ρ(rho). The
density of a fluid is its mass per unit volume. Density is highly variable in gases and
increases nearly proportional to the pressure unit. Density in liquid is nearly constant.
The density of water at 4°C is 1000 kg/m3. It increases only by 1 percent (1%) if the
pressure is increased by a factor of 220.
In general, liquids are denser than gases at atmospheric pressure. The heaviest
common liquid is mercury and the lightest gas is hydrogen. Comparing the densities at
20°C and 1 atm. Mercury: ρ = 13,580 kg/m3 and Hydrogen: ρ= 0.0838 kg/m3 . They
differ by a factor of 162,000.
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝒎
𝝆= 𝝆=
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑽
slug/ft3 kg/m3

For an ideal gas, its density can be found from the specific gas constant and ideal
gas law:
𝑷
𝝆=
𝑹𝑻
Where: 𝑃 = absolute pressure of gas in Pa
R = gas constant Joule/kg-°K
For air:R = 287j/kg-K = 1716 lb-ft/slug-
T = absolute temperature in °Kelvin
Approximate Room-Temperature Densities of Common Fluids

Fluid ρ in kg/m3
Air (STP) 1.29
Air (21°F, 1 atm) 1.20
Alcohol 790
Ammonia 602
Gasoline 720
Glycerin 1,260
Mercury 13,600
Water 1,000
4. Specific weight (γ or w)
The specific weight of a fluid is designated by the Greek symbol γ (gamma), and is
generally defined as the weight per unit volume. Just as a mass has a weight, w = mg,
density and specific weight are simply related by gravity.
𝜸 = 𝝆𝒈
Where: g = local acceleration of gravity
ρ = density
lb/ft3 N/m3
Note: It is customary to use:
g = 32.174 ft/s2 or 32.2ft/s2 = 9.81 m/s2
ρ= 1000 kg/m3 = 1.94 slugs/ft3
Unit weight for water:
γ water = 62.4 lb/ft3 = 9810 N/m3
5. Specific Gravity (S.G. or s)

Specific gravity, also called as relative density, and it is defined as the ratio of a fluid
density to a standard reference fluid. We use water for liquids and air for gases as standard
reference liquid.
For liquids we take water as a standard fluid with density ρ=1000 kg/m3.
For gases we take air or O2 as a standard fluid with density, ρ=1.293 kg/m3
𝝆𝒍 𝜸𝒍 𝝆𝒈 𝜸𝒈
𝑺. 𝑮.𝒍 = = 𝑺. 𝑮.𝒈 = =
𝝆𝑯𝟐 𝑶 𝜸𝑯𝟐 𝑶 𝝆𝒂𝒊𝒓 𝜸𝒂𝒊𝒓

Note: Specific Gravity is dimensionless .Unit weight of air (𝛾air) = 12N/m3
Specific weight of common liquids at 20°C (1013m bar, abs) with g = 9.81 m/s2
Carbon Tetrachloride 15.6 kN/m3

Ethyl Alcohol 7.76 kN/m3
Gasoline 6.6 kN/m3
Glycerine 12.3 kN/m3
Kerosene 7.9 kN/m3
Motor Oil 8.5 kN/m3
Water 9.81 kN/m3
6. Vapor Pressure
The pressure at which a liquid will vaporize, or boil, at a given temperature, is
called its vapor pressure. This means that boiling occurs whenever the local pressure
equals the vapor pressure. Vapor pressure increases with temperature. Note that there
are two ways to boil a liquid. One way is to raise the temperature, assuming that the
pressure is fixed. For water at 14.7 psi, this can be accomplished by increasing the
temperature of water at sea level to 212°F, thus reaching the temperature where the
vapor pressure is equal to the same value.
However, boiling can also occur in water at temperatures much below 212°F if the
pressure in the water is reduced to the vapor pressure of water corresponding to that
lower temperature. For example, the vapor pressure of water at 50°F (10°C) is 0.178
psi. Therefore, if the pressure in water at 50°F is reduced to 0.178 psi, the water boils.
7. Specific Volume (Vs)

Specific volume is the volume occupied by a unit mass of fluid commonly applied
to gases and is usually expressed in m3/kg specific volume is true reciprocal of density.
𝟏
𝑽𝒔 =
𝝆
ft3/slug m3/kg
8. Viscosity (μ) – is the property of a fluid which by virtue of conclusion and interaction
between fluid molecules offers resistance to shear deformation. Fluids with high
viscosities such as syrup deforms relatively more slowly than low viscosity of fluids
such as water.
lb-s/ft2 N-s/m2 = 10p
A smaller unit of viscosity called poise (p) after parseville, who was one of the first
investigations of viscosity the poise is 1gm/cm-s
1kg/m-s = 10poises

The relationship between the shear stress and the velocity field was studied by Isaac
Newton and he proposed that the shear stresses are directly proportional to the velocity
gradient.
𝜏
𝜇 = 𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑦
-is also called the coefficient of viscosity, the absolute viscosity, the dynamic
viscosity or simply the viscosity of the fluid.
9. Kinematic Viscosity (ν, or nu) is the ratio of dynamic viscosity to mass density.
𝜇
𝜈=
𝜌
The kinematic Viscosity is usually measured in cm 2/s, also called the Stokes (st)
after G. G. Stokes. The centistoke (cst) = 0.01 st is often a more convenient unit.

ft2/s m2/s= 104st
10. Surface Tension (σ) and capillarity (h) –liquids posses the properties of cohesion and
adhesion, both of which are forms of molecular attraction. Cohesion enables a liquid to
resist tensile stress, while adhesion enables it to adhere to another body the capability
of liquid to have an attraction between molecules and forms an imaginary film capable
of resisting tension at interface between two immiscible liquids or at the interface
between a liquid and gas is called surface tension.
Capillarity is due to both cohesion and adhesion. If the liquid molecules have
greater effect of adhesion, the liquid will wet a solid surface with which it is in contact
and rise at the point of contact. If cohesion predominates, the liquid surface will be
depressed at the point of contact. For example capillarity makes water rise in glass tube,
while mercury is depressed below the true level.
4𝜎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 4𝜎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
ℎ= =
𝜸𝒅 𝒘𝒅
Where:σ = surface tension in units of force per unit length

Θ = wetting angle
w or 𝜸 = specific weight of liquid
d = diameter of tube
h = capillarity rise
Note: if the tube is clean, Θ = 0° for water and Θ = 140° for Hg

Sample Problems:
1. A reservoir contains glycerin with a 2. A certain liquid weights 20,000 N and
mass of 1200 kg and a volume of its volume is 2.085 m³. Determine its
0.952 m³. Determine its weight, unit unit weight, mass density, specific
weight, mass density and specific gravity and specific volume.
gravity.

3. A certain gas is weighing 16 N/m³ at 4. The specific weight of water at
certain temperature and pressure. ordinary pressure and temperature is
Determine its density, specific 62.4 lb/ft³. If the specific gravity of
volume and specific gravity. mercury is 13.6, compute the mass
density of mercury in English units.

5. The density of the oil at 20ºC is 6. The velocity distribution of a viscous
850 kg/m³. Find its specific gravity liquid (μ = 0.9 N.s/m²) over a fixed
(relative density) and kinematic boundary is given by u = 0.68y-y² in
viscosity if the dynamic viscosity is which u is the velocity in m/s at a
5 x 10-³ kg/m.s. distance y meter above the surface.
Determine the shear stress at the
surface.

7. Estimate the height to which water 8. Estimate the capillary depression for
will rise in a capillary tube of mercury (s = 13.6) a glass tube 2 mm
diameter 3mm, if the surface tension in diameter, the surface tension is
is 0.0728 N/m and ɤ = 9810 N/ m³ 0.5414 N/m.

Module 2
Pressure
Fluid Statics is the study of pressure throughout a fluid at and the pressure forces on finite
surfaces. Since the fluid at rest, there are no stresses in it, hence the pressure, p at a point in a plane
surface (including the fluid) or (on the boundaries of its container) always act normal to the surface
and is measured in N/m2 or Pa, kN/m2 or in bars (1 bar = 105 Pa)
1.1 Unit Pressure, P

It is the intensity of pressure at any point and in a fluid.
It is the amount of Force per unit area.
𝑭
𝑷=
𝑨
Where:
P = Pressure (N/m2 of Pa, kN/m2 or kPa, lb/in2 or psi)
F = Force applied (N, lb)
A = Unit per area where the force applied (m2, in2)
1.2 Pascal’s Law

At any point of fluid/liquid at rest the pressure is the same in all directions.
Let: width = L From the figure:

𝑥
𝐹 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 =
𝑃= 𝐹 = 𝑃𝐴 𝑧
𝐴 𝑦
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 =
𝑧
Using the idea of unit pressures, the following relationships can be set up.
𝐹𝑥 = 𝑃𝑥 (𝑦𝐿) 𝐹𝑦 = 𝑃𝑦 (𝑥𝐿) 𝐹𝑧 = 𝑃𝑧 (𝑧𝐿)
By summing forces along the vertical, ∑ 𝐹𝑣 = 0
𝐹𝑦 − 𝐹𝑧 sin 𝜃 = 0
Expressing the forces in terms of pressures,
𝑥
𝑃𝑦 (𝑥𝐿) − 𝑃𝑧 (𝑧𝐿) [ ] = 0 → 𝑃𝑦 = 𝑃𝑧
𝑧
By summing forces along the horizontal, ∑ 𝐹ℎ = 0
𝐹𝑥 − 𝐹𝑧 cos 𝜃 = 0
Expressing the forces in terms of pressures,
𝑦
𝑃𝑥 (𝑦𝐿) − 𝑃𝑧 (𝑧𝐿) [ ] = 0 → 𝑃𝑥 = 𝑃𝑧
𝑧
Effectively,
𝑃𝑥 = 𝑃𝑦 = 𝑃𝑧

1.3 Absolute Pressure, Gage Pressure, and Vacuum Pressure
Engineers use several different scales for pressure. Absolute pressure is referenced to regions
such as outer space, where the pressure is essentially zero because the region is devoid of gas.
The pressure in a perfect vacuum is called absolute zero, and pressure measured relative to this
zero pressure is termed absolute pressure.
When pressure is measured relative to prevailing local atmospheric pressure, the pressure value
is called gage pressure. For example, when a tire pressure gage gives a value of 300 kPa (44 psi),
this means that the absolute pressure in the tire is 300 kPa greater than local atmospheric pressure.
To convert gage pressure to absolute pressure, add the local atmospheric pressure.
When pressure is less than atmospheric, the pressure can be described using vacuum pressure.
Vacuum pressure is defined as the difference between atmospheric pressure and actual pressure.
Vacuum pressure is a positive number and equals the absolute value of gage pressure (which will
be negative).
Gage, absolute, and vacuum pressure can be related using equations labeled as the “pressure
equations.”
𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 − 𝑃𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚
𝑃𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚 = −𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒
patm = 14.7psi = 101.3 kPa = 760mm of Hg
1.4 Pressure Variation with Elevation
Consider a cylindrical volume of fluid of length.
In reference to the figure:

𝑊 = 𝜔𝑉 → 𝑊 = 𝜔(𝑎𝐿)
By summing forces along the horizontal direction, ∑ 𝐹ℎ = 0
𝐹2 − 𝐹1 = 𝑊 sin 𝜃
Expressing the forces in terms of the pressures,
𝑝2 𝑎 − 𝑝1 𝑎 = 𝜔(𝑎𝐿) sin 𝜃
Note that ℎ = 𝐿 sin 𝜃
𝑝2 𝑎 − 𝑝1 𝑎 = 𝜔𝑎ℎ
Dividing both sides by 𝑎,
𝑝2 − 𝑝1 = 𝜔ℎ
This can be generalized in the form. For pressure variations in water
𝒑𝟐 = 𝒑𝟏 ± 𝝎𝒉
For pressure variations in any other liquid
𝒑𝟐 = 𝒑𝟏 ± 𝜸𝒉

Note: gage pressure may be positive or negative (vacuum). If point 1 is at the liquid
surface
𝒑𝟏 = 𝟎; 𝒑𝟐 = 𝝎𝒉 (gage pressure)
1.5 Pressure Head
From the Formula p=wh, h=p/w is called pressure head. Represents the height or the column
of the homogenous fluid of unit weight that will produce an intensity of pressure (p) from the
formula p2/w –p1/w =h meaning that the difference to the pressure heads at two points is the
difference of the elevation of the points.
To convert pressure head in ft of fluid p 1 to pressure head in ft of fluid or fluid b, we use

the formula.
𝐒𝐚 𝐡𝐚
hb =
𝑺𝒃
Sample Problems:
1. What is the pressure in kN/m2 at depth of 5 km below the ocean? The specific wt. of ocean
water ordinary condition is 10.05kN/m3.

2. An open tank contains 0.8 m of mercury, 1.3 m of oil and 3.4 m of water determine the
pressure at the interface between the liquids and the pressure at the bottom if the specific
gravity of the liquids are 13.6, 0.80 and 1.0 respectively.
3. In the figure shown, if the atmospheric is 101.3 kPa and the absolute pressure at the bottom
of the tank is 231.3 kPa, what is the specific gravity of olive oil?

4. If the pressure in a tank of oil (s=0.80) is 60lb/in², determine its equivalent head.
a. In feet of water
b. In m of water
c. In m of Hg
d. In feet of Hg
5. What height of mercury column will cause a pressure of 100 lb per square in. What is
the equivalent height of water column in inches and in feet?

1.6 Pressure Measurements
A. Barometer
It is a devise used to measure the intensity of pressure exerted by the atmosphere. A
simple barometer consist of a tube more than 29.9in or 30in (760mm or 762mm) long inserted
in an open container of Hg with a closed tube and at the top and open tube at the bottom and
with mercury extending from the container up to the tube.
B. Manometer
A manometer is a tube, usually bent in a form of U, containing liquid of known specific
gravity, the surface of which moves proportionally to change of pressure. It is used to measure
pressure.
Types of Manometer
a. Open type – has an atmospheric pressure surface in one leg and is capable of measuring
gage pressure
b. Difference type – without an atmospheric surface and capable of measuring only
differences in pressure.
c. Piezometer – the simplest form of manometer which is a tube tapped into the wall of
the container or conduct for the purpose of measuring pressure. The figure shown
represents the cross section of the tank or pipe containing liquid water pressure.
Piezometers are tapped into the top, side and bottom at pts. A, B and C respectively.
From the principles of pressure in a homogenous liquid at rest, it is obviously that the
level to which the liquid rises are the same in the liquid indicated piezometer above the
point in the pressure at the center of pipe is p=wh.

Limitations of Piezometer:
• Large pressures in the lighter liquids require long tubes
• Gas pressures cannot be measured because gas cannot form a free surface
Steps in the solution of open manometer problems:

1. Make an approximate sketch of the given manometer and number in order all levels of conducts
of different fluids starting level zero at free surface.
2. Starting from level zero, (zero gage pressure) at the surface proceed from level to level, adding
or subtracting pressure head (or pressure as the elevation decreases and increases giving regards
at specific gravity of the fluids.)
Steps in the solution of differential manometer problems:

1. Number the strategic points indicated by the levels of contacts of the fluids.
𝑃
2. Starting from the unknown pressure head at one of the end points, write a continued algebraic
𝑤
summation of heads progressing from point to point and equating the continued sum to the
𝑃
unknown head at the other end point.
𝑤
3. Solve the equation for the pressure head difference if desired.
Sample Problems:
1. Assuming the unit weight of air to be constant at 12 𝑁/𝑚3 , what is the approximate
height of Mt. Banahaw if the mercury barometer at the base of the mountain reads
654mm and at the same time another barometer at the top of the mountain reads 480
mm?

2. On the level ground of a high rise building, a mercury barometer reads 758 mm. At the
same time, a second barometer on the roof of the same structure reads 742 mm.
Assuring that the unit weight of air to be constant at 12 N/m3 at all elevations, determine
the height of the building.
3. In the piezometer shown, liquid stands 4.5 ft above m. What is the pressure at point
m in pounds per square inch if the liquid is a.) water, b.) oil (0.90), c.) mercury, d.)
molasses (s=1.5)? What is the pressure head in feet of each liquid?

4. Assuming standard atmospheric pressure, compute the absolute pressure at m when
fluid A is water, fluid B is mercury; z = 15 in, y = 3.5 ft.
5. A closed cylindrical tank contains 2m of water, 3m of oil (s=0.82). The air above
the liquids has a pressure of 30 kPa. If an open manometer at the bottom of the
tank has 1m of H20, determine the deflection of mercury

6. In the figure shown, fluid A is water, fluid B is mercury; z = 18 in , y = 3 ft.
Compute pressure head difference between points m and n in feet of water.
7. Two pipes A and B contain fluids under pressure and are connected by differential gage
as shown. The Substance in the lower part of the gage has a specific gravity of 1.6 and
the surface of separation is 0.45 m. The specific gravity of the fluids is 0.30 and the
pipes are 1.2 m apart vertically. The pressure at A is known to be 69.08 kPa. Determine
the pressure at B in kPa.

2.7 Transmission of Pressure
Another law of fluid statics attributed to Pascal in the transmission of pressure which
states that the pressure at any point is transmitted equally and undiminished to any
point in a liquid.
𝑃2 = 𝑃1 + 𝛾ℎ
This law has direct application in the hydraulic, jack a device used for lifting heavy
objects through the action of relative small forces.
Sample Problems:
1. In the figure shown the areas at plunger A and B are 40cm2 and 3800cm2 respectively. The
liquid in the intervening passage is oil (s.g =0.75). Determine P to maintain equilibrium
neglecting the weight of the plunger.
2. The diameters of the cylinder are 7.5cm and 60cm of the hydraulic jack. What force
is required to maintain equilibrium if the load weights 35KN?

Module 3
Hydrostatic Forces
3.1 Hydrostatic Force on Plane Surfaces
A. Force on Vertical Plane

If the pressure over a plane area is uniform, as in the case of a horizontal surface
submerged in a liquid or a plane surface inside a gas chamber, the total hydrostatic force
(or total pressure) is given by:
F= pA
Where p is the uniform pressure and A is the area
B. Force on an Inclined Plane
Consider the plane surface shown inclined at an angIe  with the horizontal. To get
the total force, 𝐹, consider a differential element of area dA. Since this element is
horizontal the pressure is uniform over this area, then;
𝒅𝑭 = 𝑷 𝒅𝑨
where: 𝑷 = 𝜸𝒉
From the illustration, the depth, 𝒉, measured vertically from the liquid surface
downwards, could be expressed in terms of the inclined distance, 𝒚, and the angle on
inclination of the surface with respect to the horizontal, 𝜽.
𝑷 = 𝜸 (𝒚 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽)
Substituting the expression for P in the differential equation above,
𝒅𝑭 = 𝜸 (𝒚 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽) 𝒅𝑨
Integrating both sides,
∫ 𝒅𝑭 = ∫ 𝜸 (𝒚 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽) 𝒅𝑨 → 𝑭 = 𝜸 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 ∫ 𝒚 𝒅𝑨

From calculus, the expression ∫ 𝒚 𝒅𝑨 is actually the First Moment of Area and can
be related to the centroid of any plane object.
̅
∫ 𝒚 𝒅𝑨 = 𝑨 𝒚
Substituting this to the expression for 𝑭,

𝑭 = (𝜸 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽)(𝑨 𝒚
̅)
Rearranging the terms in the expression,

𝑭 = (𝜸)(𝒚 ̅ 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽)(𝑨)
̅ . Thus,
̅ 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = 𝒉
From the figure, 𝒚
̅𝑨
𝑭 = 𝜸𝒉
Since 𝜸𝒉̅ is the unit pressure at the centroid of the plane area, 𝑷𝒄𝒈 , which is the
pressure acting along the axis passing through the center of gravity which is perpendicular
to the plane surface, the formula may also be expressed as:
𝑭 = 𝑷𝒄𝒈 𝑨
The distance with which the center of gravity (𝑐𝑔) and the center of pressure (𝑐𝑝)
differs by the quantity 𝒆 called the eccentricity. This can be computed using the formula
𝑰𝒈
𝒆=
𝑨𝒚̅
where:
𝑭 = Total Hydrostatic Force/Pressure on Plane Area “A”. (𝑁, 𝑙𝑏)
𝑨 = Area subjected/submerged in Liquid. (𝑚2 , 𝑓𝑡 2 )
̅ = Distance measured vertically from the center of gravity to the liquid surface. (𝑚,
𝒉
𝑓𝑡)
̅ = Distance measured along the body from the center of gravity to the liquid surface.
𝒚
(𝑚, 𝑓𝑡)
𝒆 = Distance measured from the 𝑐𝑔 to the 𝑐𝑝. (𝑚, 𝑓𝑡)
𝑰𝒈 = Plane Surface is being rotated about the horizontal axis passing through the
center of gravity (Centroidal Moment of Inertia) . (𝑚4 , 𝑓𝑡 4 )

Triangle Rectangle
Circle Semi – Circle
Quarter-circle Ellipse

Sample Problems:
1. Water stands 2 m above the top of a vertical rectangular gate (w = 3 m, h = 6 m).

Determine the total Hydrostatic Pressure and its location.

2. Water stands level on top of a vertical circular gate (diameter = 6m). Determine the
total Hydrostatic Pressure and its location.

3. Water stands 2 m below the top of a vertical triangular gate (b = 14 m, h = 14 m).
Determine the total Hydrostatic Pressure and its location.

4. On one side water stands level on top a vertical rectangular gate (w = 4 m, h = 8 m). On
the other side water stands 3 m below the top of the gate. If the gate is hinged at the bottom,
Determine the Force F at the top the gate required to open it.

5.Water stands 3m above the top of a gate (w = 2.5m, h = 7m) Determine P and yρ , if
the gate is inclined at 35°. If the gate is hinged at the bottom. Determine the Horizontal
Force F at the top to open the gate.

3.2 Total Hydrostatic Force on Curved Surfaces
𝐹 = √𝐹ℎ2 + 𝐹𝑣 2
F – Total Hydrostatic Force on curved surface
Fh – Horizontal component total hydrostatic force on
plane “A” which is the projection of the arc curve on
the vertical
Fv – Vertical component weight of the fluid which is
defined by extending the body vertically upward up
to free surface of the liquid
Case I: Fluid above the curved surface
𝐹ℎ = 𝜔ĥ𝐴
𝐹𝑣 = 𝐶𝑉 = 𝜔𝐴𝐿
𝐹 = √𝐹ℎ2 + 𝐹𝑣 2
Case II: Liquid below the curved surface.
𝐹ℎ = 𝜔ĥ𝐴
𝐹𝑣 = 𝜔𝐴𝑡𝐿

Centroids of parabolic segment and spandrel
Half Ellipse Quarter Ellipse
Sector of a Circle Parabolic Segment
Spandrel Segment of arc

Sample Problems
1. The curved section represented by AB is in the form of a quadrant of a circular cylinder

3 m long. Determine the horizontal and vertical component of the total hydrostatic force
on curved surface and their location if the radius is a 4 m and water stands 2m above
the top of the gate.

2. The curved section represented by AB is in a form of a parabolic segment of base = 1
ft and height of 3 ft. if the water stands level at the top of the curved section determine
the horizontal and vertical components of the total hydrostatic force on curved surface
and their location length of gate is 10ft.

3. Shown below is the curved section of a ship in a form of a parabolic segment (b = 2m,
h = 4m) if the sea water stands 3m above the curved section determine Fh, Yp and x
unit weight of sea water = 10 KN/m3 and 6 m.

4. In a crest gate of a dam shown, AB represent on arc of a circle of radius 20 ft. If water
stands level on top of the gate, determine Fh, Yp, Fv and X. The angle subtending at
the hinge is 60° and length of gate is 30ft.

3.3 Analysis of Hydrostatic Forces on Dams
Dams are structures that block the flow of a river, stream, or other waterway. Some
dams divert the flow of river water into a pipeline, canal, or channel. Others raise the level
of inland waterways to make them navigable by ships and barges. Many darns harness the
energy of falling water to generate electric power. Dams also hold water for drinking and
crop irrigation, and provide flood control.
Types of Dams
1. Gravity dams
2. Embankment dam
3. Arch dams
4. Buttress dam
A dam is subjected to hydrostatic forces due to water which is raised on its upstream
side. These forces cause the dam to slide horizontally.on its foundation and overturn it
about its downstream edge or toe. These tendencies are resisted by friction on the base of
the dam and gravitational forces which causes a moment opposite to the overturning
moment. The dam may also be prevented from sliding by keying its base
Steps:
With reference to Figure 3 - 8, for purposes of illustration, an assumption was made
in the shape of the uplift pressure diagram
I. Consider 1 unit (1 m) length of dam (perpendicular to the sketch)
P = whA
ℎ
P = w( 2)(h)(1)
𝑤ℎ2
P=
2

II. Determine all the forces acting:
A. Vertical forces
1. Weight of the dam
W1 = ɣcV1; W2 = ɣcV2 W3 = ɣcV3
2. Weight of water in the upstream side (if any)
W4 = ɣV4
3. Weight or permanent structures on the dam
4. Hydrostatic Uplift
U1 = ɣVu1
U2 = ɣVu2
B. Horizontal Force
1. Total Hydrostatic Force acting at the vertical projection of the
submerged portion of the dam,
F=ɣhA
2. Wind Pressure
3. Wave Action
4. Floating Bodies
5. Earthquake Load
III. Solve for the Reaction
A. Vertical Reaction, Ry
Ry = ∑Fv
Ry = W1 + W2 + W3 + W4 + U1 + U2
B. Horizontal Reaction, Rx
Rx = ∑Fh
Rx = P
IV. Moment about the Toe
A. Righting Moment, RM (rotation towards the upstream side)
RM = W1X1 + W2X2 + W3X3 + W4X4
B. Overturning Moment, OM (rotation towards the downstream side)
OM = P y + U1z1 + U2z2
V. Location of Ry (Ẍ)
𝑅𝑀 − 𝑂𝑀
Ẍ=
𝑅𝑦
Where:
ɣ = unit weight of water = 9.81kN/m3 (or 1000 kg/m3
ɣc = unit weight of concrete = 2.4ɣ (usually as 23.5 kN/m3)
Factor of Safety
Factor of safety against sliding, FSs:
𝜇𝑅𝑦
𝐹𝑆𝑠 = >1
𝑅𝑥
Factor of safety against overturning, FSo:
𝑅𝑀
𝐹𝑆𝑜 = >1
𝑂𝑀
Where:
μ=coefficient of friction between the base of the dam and the foundation

Base Distribution
The intensity of pressure acting at the base of the foundation (R y) shall be

categorized base on the following condition.
1. Resultant pressure (Ry) is at the middle of the base
𝐵
[x̅ = 2 ]
𝑅𝑦
Ph = Pt = (Average Pressure)
𝐵
2. Resultant force is at the middle third of the base near the toe
𝐵
[x̅ = 3 ]
𝑃𝐵
Ry =
2
2𝑅𝑦
P= 𝐵
(Twice the Average Pressure)
3. The resultant force Ry is outside the middle third of the base

𝐵
[x̅ < 3 ]
1 2𝑅𝑦
Ry = 2 𝑃𝑡 (3Ẍ) 𝑃𝑡 = 3Ẍ
(Ph Can be sched by ratio & proportion)
4. Ẍ is within the middle third

𝐵 𝐵
[2 >Ẍ>3]
𝑅𝑦 6𝑒
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = [1 + ]
𝐵 𝐵
𝑅𝑦 6𝑒
𝑃𝑚𝑖𝑛 = [1 − ]
𝐵 𝐵
𝐵 𝐵
e = x̅ - or − x̅
2 2

Problems:
1. Determine the height of the water that could rise on vertical side of a dam having a
triangular section 24m high and 12m wide at the base so that the maximum intensity of
the pressure at the top is twice the average pressure at the base, neglect hydrostatic
uplift (s.g. of the concrete 2.4).

2. A masonry dam is of trapezoidal section, one face is vertical, width at the top is 60 cm
and at the bottom 3 m. The dam is 7 m high with the vertical face subjected to water
pressure. If the depth of the water is 5 m, where will the resultant force intersect the
base.
a. Determine also the factor of safety against overturning and against sliding
if μ = 0.60 assuming there is no uplifting pressure consider 1m in length W c
= 23.54kN/m3.
b. Determine the pressure distribution of the base.

3. Determine the following, x̅, FSs and FSo if μ =0.80. Consider hydrostatic uplift
which varies uniformly from full head at the heel to 20% of the head at the toe.

Module 4
Buoyancy and Static Stability of Floating Bodies
1.1 Buoyancy
Archimedes Principle
A principle discovered by the, Greek scientist Archimedes that states that “any body
immersed in a fluid is acted upon by an upward force (buoyant force) equal to the weight
of the displaced fluid”.
This principle, also known as the law of hydrostatics, applies to both floating and
submerged bodies, and to all fluids.
Consider the body shown in the figure below immersed in a fluid of unit weight 𝜸.
The horizontal components of the force acting on the body are all in equilibrium since the
vertical projection of the body in opposite sides is the same.
The upper face of the body is subject to a vertical downward force which is equal
to the weight of the fluid above it, and the lower face is subject to an upward force equal
to the weight of real or imaginary liquid above it. The net upward force acting on the body
is the buoyant force.
𝐵𝐹 = 𝐹𝑣2 − 𝐹𝑣1 = 𝛾(𝑉𝑜𝑙1 ) − 𝛾(𝑉𝑜𝑙2 ) = 𝛾(𝑉𝑜𝑙1 − 𝑉𝑜𝑙2 )
Taking into account the relationship between the three volume quantities defined
in the illustration,
𝐵𝐹 = 𝛾𝑉𝐷
where:
𝛾 = unit weight of the fluid
𝑉𝐷 = volume displaced or volume submerged. Volume of the body below the
liquid surface
To solve problems in buoyancy, identify the forces acting on the floating body and
apply conditions of static equilibrium:
∑ 𝐹𝐻 = 0 ∑ 𝐹𝑉 = 0 ∑𝑀 = 0
For homogeneous solid body of volume 𝑉 “floating” in a homogeneous fluid at
rest:
𝑆. 𝐺.𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 𝛾𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦
𝑉𝐷 = ( )𝑉 = ( )𝑉
𝑆. 𝐺.𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝛾𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑

If the body of height 𝐻 has a constant horizontal cross-sectional area such as
vertical cylinders, blocks, etc.:
𝐷=( )𝐻 = ( )𝐻
If the body is of uniform vertical cross-sectional area, 𝐴, the area submerged 𝐴𝑠
is:
𝐴𝑠 = ( )𝐴 = ( )𝐴
Sample Problems:
1. An iceberg (s = 0.92) floats in sea water (s = 1.03). Determine the total volume of the
iceberg if the volume above the sea water surface is 540m 3.

2. A hollow cylinder 1.0 m in diameter and 2.0 m high weighs 3,825 N. How many kN of lead
weighing 110kN/m3 must be attached at the outside bottom of the cylinder to make it that with
1.5 m submerged in water?
3. A 5 cm x 12 cm x 6 m wooden plank is required to stand vertically in water with its top 15 cm

above the water surface. This is attained by attaching 1.0 cm thick steel plates to each wider
sides of the plank at the submerged portion. Determine the length of steel plates. sp.gr. of wood
= 0.66 & steel plates = 7.9.

4. A rectangular scow 4.5 m x 4.5 m x 9.5 m having vertical sides and ends weighs 40 long tons.
Determine the draft of flotation in
a.) Fresh water
b.) Sea water
5. A block of wood floats in water with 5 cm projecting above the water surface. When placed in
glycerin(s=1.35), the block projects 7.5 cm above the liquid surface. Determine the specific
weight of wood.

1.2 Statical Stability of Floating Bodies
A body will be on its upright position if the weight W and the buoyant force are co-linear.
Due to wind or wave action, the body is made to tilt. And because of this, the two forces W and BF
are no longer co-linear producing a couple which is equal to W(x) or BF(x). The point of
intersection between the line of action of the BF and the axis of the body is called the Metacenter
(M) and the distance from the metacenter to the center of gravity is the metacentric height (MG).
The metacentric height can be obtained using the formula below.

𝑴𝑩𝒐 − 𝑮𝑩𝒐 if 𝑮 is above 𝑩𝒐
𝑴𝑮 = {
𝑴𝑩𝒐 + 𝑮𝑩𝒐 if 𝑮 is below 𝑩𝒐
The value of 𝑀𝐵𝑜 is obtained by the general formula:

𝑰
𝑴𝑩𝒐 =
𝑽𝑫
where 𝐼 is the moment of inertia along the body of the individual
1 3
𝐼 = 𝐼̅𝑦 = 𝐵 𝐿
12
𝐵𝑜 is the center of buoyancy when the floating body is in upright position
𝑉𝐷 is the volume of the scow submerged below the surface
For a rectangular section, the formula for 𝑀𝐵𝑜 can be further specified
𝑩𝟐 𝟏
𝑴𝑩𝒐 = [𝟏 + 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝟐 𝜽]
𝟏𝟐𝑫 𝟐
where 𝐵 is the width of the floating body
𝐷 is the depth of floatation
𝜃 is the angle of inclination of the axis of the body with respect to the vertical
axis
The righting moment (𝑅𝑀) or the upsetting moment (𝑈𝑀) are computed using
𝑅𝑀 or 𝑈𝑀 = 𝑊 ∙ 𝑥 = 𝑊 (𝑀𝐺 sin 𝜃 )
where 𝐺 is the center of gravity of the floating body
𝑀𝐺 is the metacentric height
𝑅𝑀 is the righting moment or rotating moment (𝑀𝐺 > 0)
𝑈𝑀 is the upsetting moment (𝑀𝐺 < 0)

Another way of computing 𝑀𝐵𝑜 is
𝒗∙𝒔
𝑴𝑩𝒐 =
𝑽 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
where 𝑣 is the volume of wedging
𝑠 is the moment arm of the wedging as measured from the pivot
𝑉𝑠 is the volume submerged
𝜃 is the angle of heel or the angle of tilt
Sample Problems:
1. A rectangular scow 9 m wide, 15 m long and 3.6 m high has a draft in sea water of 2.4
m. Its center of gravity is 2.7 m above the bottom of the scow.
a.) Determine the initial metacentric height.
b.) If the scow is tilted until one end is just submerged in water, determine the
final metacentric height.
c.) Determine the righting/upsetting moment.

2. A scow is 12 m long, 6 m wide & 2.4 m deep. It has a draft of 1.5m fresh water in
upright position. The center of gravity of scow is in the axis of symmetry 30 cm above
the water surface. Compute
a.) The initial metacentric height.
b.) The righting moment when the angle of heel is 10 °.

3. The loaded scow has a draft of 1.8 m in fresh water when in upright position. The scow
is 6 m wide and 12 m long & 2.4 m deep. The center of gravity of the scow is 1.8 m
above the bottom of the scow along the vertical axis of symmetry. What is the
maximum safe weight that can be moved transversely from the center of the scow &
unloaded over the side without sinking it?

4. A cylindrical tank having a diameter of 40 cm and 20 cm in height, floats in mercury in
a vertical position, its depth of immersion being 8 cm. The center of gravity is 2 cm above
the liquid surface.
a. Determine the MBo
b. Determine the metacentric height
c. If water is poured into the vessel over the mercury until the surface is at the top of
the cylinder, the cylinder is partly submerged in water and in mercury. Determine
the depth of immersion in mercury.

Module 5
Fluid Flow Concepts and Measurements
Engineers have developed ways to describe fluid flow patterns and to identify
important characteristics of the flow field. This terminology allows engineers to
communicate ideas essential to the design of systems such as bridge piers, air-conditioning
ducts, airfoils, and structures subjected to wind loads.
5.1. Flow Patterns
To visualize the flow field it is desirable to construct lines that show the flow
direction. Such a construction is called a flow pattern, and the lines are called streamlines.
The streamline is defined as a line drawn through the flow field in such a manner that the
local velocity vector is tangent to the streamline at every point along the line at that instant.
Thus the tangent of the streamline at a given time gives the direction of the velocity vector.
A streamline, however, does not indicate the magnitude of the velocity. The flow pattern
provided by the streamlines is an instantaneous visualization
of the flow field.
An example of streamlines and a flow pattern is shown
in the figure on the left for water flowing through a slot in the
side of a tank. The velocity vectors have been sketched at three
different locations: 𝑎, 𝑏, and 𝑐. The streamlines, according to
their definition, are tangent to the velocity vectors at these
points. This definition leads to the equation for streamlines.
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑤
= =
𝑢 𝑣 𝑤
where 𝑢, 𝑣, and 𝑤 are the velocity components in 𝑥, 𝑦, and
𝑧 directions, respectively.
Also, the velocities are parallel to the wall in the wall region, so the streamlines
adjacent to the wall follow the contour of the wall. The generation of a flow pattern is a
very effective way of illustrating the geometric features of the flow field.
Whenever flow occurs around a body, part of it will go to one side and part to the
other as shown in the figure on the right above for flow
over an airfoil section. The streamline that follows the
flow division (that divides on the upstream side and
joins again on the downstream side) is called the
dividing streamline. At the location where the
dividing streamline intersects the body, the velocity
will be zero with respect to the body. This is the
stagnation point.
Pathline
The pathline simply is the path of a fluid particle as it moves through the flow field.
In other words, if a light were attached to a fluid particle, a time exposure photograph taken
of the moving light would be the pathline. Any particle of a stream of fluid has at any given

instant a certain velocity, 𝒗, which is a vector quantity and therefore possesses both
magnitude and direction. At the next instant forces acting on the particle may cause it to
have velocity which is different in amount and direction. The path followed by a particle
is called a path line.
Streakline
The streakline is the line generated by a tracer fluid, such as a dye, continuously
injected into the flow field at the starting point. Streakline concentrates on fluid particles
that have gone through a fixed station or point. At some instant of time the position of all
these particles are marked and a line is drawn through them. Such a line is called a
streakline.
5.2 Uniform and Non-Uniform Flow
Having introduced the general concepts of flow patterns, it is convenient to make

distinctions between different types of flows. These concepts can be best introduced by
expressing the velocity of the fluid in the form
𝒗 = 𝒗(𝒙, 𝒕)
where 𝒙 is the distance traveled by a fluid particle along a path, and 𝒕 is the time.
In a uniform flow, the velocity does not change along a fluid path.
𝝏𝒗
=𝟎
𝝏𝒙
It follows that in uniform flow the fluid paths are straight and parallel, similar to
that of the figure on the right.
In nonuniform flow, the velocity changes along a fluid path.
𝝏𝒗
=𝟎
𝝏𝒙
For the converging duct below, the magnitude of the velocity increases as the duct
converges, so the flow is nonuniform. For the vortex flow shown below, the magnitude of
the velocity does not change along the fluid path, but the direction does, so the flow is
nonuniform.
5.3 Steady and Unsteady Flow
Flows can be either steady or unsteady. In a steady flow, the velocity at a given
point on a fluid path does not change with time:
𝝏𝒗
=𝟎
𝝏𝒕
An unsteady flow exists if
𝝏𝒗
≠𝟎
𝝏𝒕
If the flow in the pipe changed with time due to a valve opening or closing, the flow
would be unsteady; that is, the velocity at any point selected on a fluid path would be
increasing or decreasing with time. Although unsteady, the flow would still be uniform.

Obviously, the pathline and streakline are very different. In general, neither pathlines
nor streaklines represent streamlines in an unsteady flow. Both the pathline and streakline
provide a history of the flow field, and the streamlines indicate the current flow pattern. In
steady flow the pathline, streakline, and streamline are coincident if they pass through the
same point.
5.4 Laminar and Turbulent Flow

Laminar flow is a well-ordered state of flow in which adjacent fluid layers move
smoothly with respect to each other. A typical laminar flow would be the flow of honey or
thick syrup from a pitcher. Laminar flow in a pipe has a smooth, parabolic velocity
distribution as shown in the figure below.
Turbulent flow is an unsteady flow characterized by intense cross-stream mixing. For
example, the flow in the wake of a ship is turbulent. The eddies observed in the wake cause
intense mixing. The transport of smoke from a smoke stack on a windy day also exemplifies
a turbulent flow. The mixing is apparent as the plume widens and disperses.
An instantaneous velocity profile for turbulent flow in a pipe is shown in the figure
above. A near uniform velocity distribution occurs across the pipe because the high-
velocity fluid at the pipe center is transported by turbulent eddies across the pipe to the
low-velocity region near the wall. Because the flow is unsteady, the velocity at any point
in the pipe fluctuates with time. The standard approach to treating turbulent flow is to
represent the velocity as a time-averaged average value plus a fluctuating quantity, 𝑢 =
𝑢̅ + 𝑢′ The time-averaged value is designated by 𝑢̅ the figure above. The fluctuation
velocity is the difference between the local velocity and the averaged velocity. A turbulent
flow is often designated as “steady” if the time-averaged velocity is unchanging with time.
In general, laminar pipe flows are associated with low velocities and turbulent flows
with high velocities. Laminar flows can occur in small tubes, highly viscous flows, or flows
with low velocities, but turbulent flows are, by far, the most common.
5.5. Discharge, 𝑸
The discharge, 𝑄, often called the volume flow rate, is the volume of fluid that passes
through an area per unit time. For example, when filling the gas tank of an automobile, the
discharge or volume flow rate would be the gallons per minute flowing through the nozzle.

Typical units for discharge are cubic feet per second (𝑓𝑡 3 /𝑠 or 𝑐𝑓𝑠), cubic feet per
minute (𝑓𝑡 3 /𝑚𝑖𝑛 or 𝑐𝑓𝑚), gallons per minute (𝑔𝑝𝑚), cubic meters per second (𝑚3 /𝑠),
and liters per second (𝐿/𝑠).
Volumetric Flow Rate

The discharge or volume flow rate in a pipe is related to the
flow velocity and cross-sectional area. Consider the idealized
flow of fluid in a pipe as shown in the figure on the right in which
the velocity is constant across the pipe section.
Note that discharge refers to volume or volumetric flow
rate. The discharge or volume flow rate equation is defined by
∆𝑉 𝑽
𝑸 = lim → 𝑸 = = 𝑨𝒗
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 𝒕
The discharge given above is based on a constant flow
velocity over the cross-sectional area. In general, the velocity
varies across the section such as in the figure on the right. The
volume flow rate through a differential area of the section is 𝑉 𝑑𝐴,
and the volume flow rate is obtained by integration over the entire
cross-section:
𝑸 = ∫ 𝒗 ∙ 𝒅𝑨
𝑨
In many problems—for example, those involving flow in pipes—one may know
the discharge and need to find the mean (average) velocity without knowing the actual
velocity distribution across the pipe section. By definition, the mean velocity is the
discharge divided by the cross-sectional area.
𝑸
̅=
𝒗
𝑨
Mass Flow Rate, 𝒎̇

The mass flow rate, 𝒎̇, is the mass of fluid passing through a cross-sectional area
per unit time. The common units for mass flow rate are kilograms per second (𝑘𝑔/𝑠),
pound mass per second (𝑙𝑏𝑚/𝑠), and slugs per second (𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔𝑠/𝑠). Using the same approach
as for volume flow rate, the mass of the fluid is ∆𝒎 = 𝝆 ∙ ∆𝑽, where 𝝆 is the average
density of the fluid. The mass flow rate equation is
∆𝑚 ∆𝑉
𝒎̇ = lim = 𝜌 lim → 𝒎̇ = 𝝆𝑸 = 𝝆𝑨𝒗
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡
The generalized form of the mass flow equation is
𝒎̇ = ∫ 𝝆𝒗 ∙ 𝒅𝑨
𝑨

5.6 The Continuity Equations
Several simplified forms of the continuity equation are used by engineers for flow
in a pipe. The equation is developed by positioning a control volume inside a pipe, as shown
in the figure below.
Mass enters through station 1 and exits through station 2. The control volume is
fixed to the pipe walls, and its volume is constant. If the flow is steady, then 𝒎𝑪𝑽 is constant
so the mass flow formulation of the continuity equation reduces to
𝒎̇𝟐 = 𝒎̇𝟏 → 𝝆𝟐 𝑨𝟐 𝒗𝟐 = 𝝆𝟏 𝑨𝟏 𝒗𝟏
For flow with a uniform velocity and density distribution, the continuity equation
above is applicable for steady flow in a pipe. If the flow is incompressible, then
𝑨𝟐 𝒗𝟐 = 𝑨𝟏 𝒗𝟏 → 𝑸𝟐 = 𝑸 𝟏
Sample Problems
1. Compute the discharge of water through 2. The discharge of air through 24 in pipe is
a 3 inches pipe if the mean velocity is 8.5 8600 cfm. Compute the mean velocity.
ft/s.

3. What diameter of pipe in inches is 4. The pipe line shown with continuous
required to carry 10 gpm of gasoline at flow has a discharge of 0.25 m3/s of
rate of 7 ft/s? water. Compute the velocity of each size
of pipe.

5. A circular chimney has a diameter of 6 m at the base and converges uniformly at a
height of 20 m. Coal gas having a specific weight of 4 N/m3 enters the chimney at the
bottom. Its specific weight increases uniformly until the top where it has a volume of
6 N/m3. Calculate the discharges in m 3/s for every 5 m up the stack if the velocity at
the bottom is 8.20 m/s.

5.7 The Energy Equation
The energy equation involves energy, work, and power as well as machines that interact
with flowing fluids. These topics are introduced in this section.
When matter has energy, the matter can be used to do work. A fluid can have several
forms of energy. For example, a fluid jet has kinetic energy, water behind a dam has
gravitational potential energy, and hot steam has thermal energy. Work is force acting
through a distance when the force is parallel to the direction of motion. Work is done when
the piston exerts a pressure force that acts on the liquid over a distance. This force produces
a torque and work is given by the cross-product of the force and the distance; or it could
be obtained by the product of torque and the angular displacement.
𝑾=𝑭×𝒅
A. Work, Energy, and Energy Head

Work and energy both have the same primary dimensions, and the same units, and both
characterize an amount or quantity. For example, 1 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑒 is the amount of thermal
energy needed to raise the temperature of 1 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚 of water by 1°𝐶. Other common units
include the 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒 (𝐽), 𝑁𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛 − 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 (𝑁 − 𝑚), 𝑘𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡 − ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 (𝑘𝑊ℎ), 𝑓𝑜𝑜𝑡 −
𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 − 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 (𝑓𝑡 − 𝑙𝑏𝑓), 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑒 (𝑐𝑎𝑙), and the British thermal unit (𝐵𝑡𝑢).
Energy is defined as the ability to do work. Both energy and work are measured in foot,
lb or kN-m. The energy possessed by a flowing fluid consists of the kinetic and the potential
energy. Potential energy in fluids may on turn be subdivided into energy due to position or
elevation above a given datum plane, and energy due to pressure in fluid.
3 Forms of Energy
1. Kinetic energy is the ability of a mass to do work by virtue of its velocity
1 1𝑊 2
𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚𝑉 2 = 𝑉
2 2𝑔
𝐾𝐸 𝑉 2
= = 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑜𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑
𝑊 2𝑔
Here, 𝒎, 𝑾, and 𝒗 are the mass, weight, and
velocity of the object, respectively.
2. Elevation energy is manifested in a fluid by

virtue of its position or elevation with respect to
some arbitrarily selected horizontal datum plane,
considered in connection with the action of
gravity.
Consider a tank which is full of water. If a
hole at the bottom is opened, the fluid with flow by
virtue of the height of water above the hole.
Elev Energy = Wz
Elev Head = Z
Where:
Z = position of the fluid above (+) or below (-) the datum

3. Pressure energy
Consider a closed tank filled with a fluid which have a small opening at the top without
pressure at the top, the fluid practically would not floe. But with P, fluid will flow.
𝑃
Pressure Energy = 𝑊 𝛾
𝑃
Pressure Head = 𝛾
Total energy of flow, E, is the sum of the kinetic and potential energy (total head).
𝑉2 𝑃
𝐸= + +𝑍
2𝑔 𝛾
5.8 Power
Power is the rate at which work is done.

For a fluid of unit weight 𝛾 or W (N/m3) and moving at rate of Q (m3/s) with a total
energy of E (m), the power in N-m/s (Joule/s) or watts is
𝑃 = 𝑄𝑊𝐸 or
𝑃 = 𝑄𝛾𝐸
𝑄𝑊𝐸
Horsepower, 𝐻𝑝 = 746
1 hp = 746 watts
= 550 ft-lb/s
Sample Problems
1. A fluid is flowing in a pipe 8 inches in diameter with a mean velocity of 10 ft/s.
The pressure at the center of the pipe is 5 lb/in2 and the elevation of the pipe above
the assumed datum is 15 ft. Compute the total head in feet if the fluid is
a. Water
b. Oil (s = 0.8)
c. Molasses (s = 1.5)
d. Gas (𝜔 = 0.040 lb/ft 3 )

2. The jet of water from a nozzle 3. At point A where the suction point
discharging into air has a diameter of leading to a pump is 4 ft below the
6 in. and a mean velocity of 120 ft/s. pump, an open manometer indicates a
Compute the velocity head and the vacuum of 7 in. of mercury. The pipe
horsepower in the jet. is 4 in. in diameter, and discharge is
1.1 cfs of oil (s = 0.85). Compute the
total head at pt A with respect to a
datum at the pump.

4. A liquid of specific gravity 1.75 flows in a 6 cm horizontal pipe. The total energy at a
certain point in the flow is 80 J/N. The elevation of the pipe above a fixed datum is 2.6
m. If the pressure at the specified point is 75 kPa,
a. Determine the velocity of flow.
b. Determine the discharge.
c. Determine the power available at the specified point in watts.

5.9 Bernoulli’s Energy Theorem
Daniel Bernoulli, a Swiss mathematician, demonstrated a theorem with reference

to fluid motion under steady flow condition. He proved that in any fluid in motion where
friction is neglected, the total energy possessed by a given mass of the fluid is the same at
every point in the path of flow.
Bernoulli’s Energy Equation Without Head Lost:

E1 = E 2
2
𝑉1 𝑃1 𝑉2 2 𝑃2
+ + 𝑍1 = + + 𝑍2
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾
Bernoulli’s Energy Equation With Head Lost:

E1 = E2 + HL
2
𝑉1 𝑃1 𝑉2 2 𝑃2
+ + 𝑍1 = + + 𝑍2 + 𝐻𝐿

Presence of Pump
A pump is a mechanical device which when installed in the flow system will add
energy (output) to the system. It is usually used to raise water from a lower to a higher
elevation.
Bernoulli’s Equation from 1 – 2

E1 + HA= E2 + HL
𝑉1 2 𝑃1 𝑉2 2 𝑃2
+ + 𝑍1 + 𝐻𝐴 = + + 𝑍2 + 𝐻𝐿1−2
Presence of Turbine
A turbine or motor is a machine used to convert energy of flow into mechanical work.
Bernoulli’s Equation from 1 – 2

E1 = E2 + HE + HL
2
𝑉1 𝑃1 𝑉2 2 𝑃2
+ + 𝑍1 = + + 𝑍2 + 𝐻𝐸 + 𝐻𝐿1−2
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 𝑥100%
𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡

Sample Problems
1. The diameter of a pipe carrying oil 2. Water is discharged through a nozzle
with specific gravity = 0.80 changes having a diameter of the jet 100 mm
gradually from 100 mm at section 1 to at a velocity of 60 m/s at a point 240
250 mm at section 2, section 1 being m below the reservoir.
3 m lower than section 2 when 0.25 a. Compute the total headloss.
m3/s is flowing. Find P2 – P1. Neglect b. Compute the horsepower
head lost. produced by the jet.
c. Compute the power lost in
friction.

3. A 20 hp suction pump operating at 70% efficiency draws water from a suction line
whose diameter is 200 mm and discharges into air through a line whose diameter is 150
mm. The velocity in the 150 mm line is 3.6 m/s. If the pressure at pt A in the suction
pipe is 34 kPa below the atmosphere, where A is 1.8 m below B on the 150 mm line,
a. Fine the energy added by the pump
b. Determine the maximum elevation above B to which water can be raised
assuming a head loss of 3 m due to friction
c. Find the pressure at B

4. A turbine is installed as shown in the figure. The gage at Pt. 1 is 80 kPa while that at
Pt. 2 it is −46 kPa. If the rate of flow is 0.48 m3/s,
a. Compute the total head extracted by the turbine.
b. Compute the input horsepower of the turbine.
c. If the efficiency of the turbine is 82%, compute its output hp.
40 350 mm Ø
T
0 1
m 1.6 m
m
Ø 2

5. The 600 mm Ø pipe conducts water from reservoir A to a pressure turbine, which
discharges through another 600 mm Ø pipe into tail race B. The head loss from A to 1
is 5 times the velocity head in the pipe and from 2 to B is 0.2 times the velocity head
in the pipe. If the discharge is 700 li/sec
a. Compute the total headloss
b. Compute the energy given up by the water to the turbine
c. What horsepower is being given up by the water to the turbine
A LEl. 60 m
1 T 2 El. 15 m
B El. 0

Module 6
Fluid Flow Measurement
6.1 Venturi Meter
Venturi meter is a device usually installed across a pipeline for the purpose of
measuring the quantity of fluid flowing in the line. It consists of converging tube which is
connected to the main pipe, a short section of uniform diameter known as the throat, and a
diverging tube which is again connected to the main pipe. The angle of divergence is
limited to about 6o to reduce the head lost caused by the turbulence as the velocity is
reduced.
Consider sections (1) and (2), neglecting friction losses,

Bernoulli’s Energy Equation between (1) and (2)
𝑉12 𝑃1 𝑉2 2 𝑃2
+ + 𝑍1 = + + 𝑍2
Transposing, combining P.E. and K.E.
𝑉2 2 𝑉1 2 𝑃1 𝑃2
− = ( + 𝑍1 ) − ( + 𝑍2 )
2𝑔 2𝑔 𝛾 𝛾
since Z1 = Z2, thus the equation can be reduced into

𝑽𝟐 𝟐 𝑽𝟏 𝟐 𝑷𝟏 𝑷𝟐
− = − (eq.1)
𝟐𝒈 𝟐𝒈 𝜸 𝜸
The Venturi Principle states that “the increase in kinetic energy per unit weight is
equal to the decrease in potential energy per unit weight.”

If the elevations and difference in pressure between pt. 1 and 2 are known, the
problem can be solved by relating velocities V1 and V2 by continuity equation.
𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝐴2 𝑉2
𝐴2
𝑉1 = 𝑉
𝐴1 2
𝐴
Let 𝑛 = 𝐴2
1
𝑽𝟏 = 𝒏𝑽𝟐 (eq. 2)
Substitute eq. 2 in eq. 1
𝑉2 2 (𝑛𝑉2 )2 𝑃1 𝑃2
− = −
2𝑔 2𝑔 𝛾 𝛾
𝟐𝒈 𝑷 𝑷𝟐
𝑽𝟐 = √(𝟏−𝒏𝟐 ) ( 𝜸𝟏 − ) (eq. 3)
𝜸
The theoretical values of Qt can be computed once V1 and V2 are known. The actual
discharge Q can be computed by multiplying the Qt by the coefficient of discharge or meter
coefficient C.
𝑄𝑡 = 𝐴2 𝑉2
𝑸 = 𝑪𝑸𝒕 (eq. 4)
The actual discharge may be accomplished by series of observation, usually by
measuring the total amount of fluid passing through the device for a known period.

Sample Problems
1. A test to determine the discharge coefficient of a 5 cm by 1.25 cm Venturi meter,
the total weight of water passing through the meter in 5 minutes was measured as
3420 N. A mercury – water differential gage connected to inlet base and throat
showed an average deflection of 38 cm. Determine the meter coefficient.

2. A 150 mm diameter horizontal Venturi meter is installed in a 450 mm diameter
water main. The deflection of mercury in the differential manometer connected
from the inlet to the throat is 375 mm of mercury.
a. Determine the discharge neglecting headloss
b. Compute the discharge if the headloss from the throat is 300 mm of water
c. Determine the meter coefficient

3. A 30 cm by 15 cm Venturi meter is installed in a vertical pipe. The vertical distance
from the inlet to the throat is 30 cm. The flow is upward through the meter
containing a gage liquid (s = 1.50) attached to inlet base and throat, the deflection
being 80 cm. Determine the actual flow if C = 0.97.

4. A vertical venture meter, 150 mm in diameter is connected to a 300 mm diameter
pipe. The vertical distance from the inlet to the throat being 750 mm. If the
deflection of mercury from the inlet to the throat is 360 mm, determine the flow of
water through the meter if the meter coefficient is 0.69. Determine also the headloss
from the inlet to the throat.

6.2 Nozzle
A nozzle is a converging tube installed at the end of a pipe or hose for the purpose
of increasing the velocity of flow. It may be used, in particular to provide a high velocity
stream for firefighting or for measuring the flow of fluid in the pipe or hose into which it
is connected.
Two types in common use:
1. Converging part may be frustum of a cone
2. Or the inside be convex
Consider sections (1) and (2), neglecting 𝑉1 2 𝑃1 𝑉2 2

friction losses, + =
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔
Bernoulli’s Energy Equation between (1)
𝟏 𝑽 𝟐 𝑷𝟏
and (2) 𝑽𝟐 = √𝟐𝒈 ( 𝟐𝒈 + ) (eq. 1)
𝜸
𝑉1 2 𝑃1 𝑉2 2 𝑃2 𝑉1 2 𝑃1
+ + 𝑍1 = + + 𝑍2 if = + ;
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾
The lost can be expressed as a percentage
since Z1 = Z2, thus the equation can be of the velocity head in the jet
reduced into 𝑉2 = 𝑉𝑡 = √2𝑔𝐻
𝑉1 2 𝑃1 𝑉2 2 𝑃2 𝑉𝑎 = 𝐶𝑣 𝑉𝑡
+ = +
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 𝑉𝑎 = 𝐶𝑣 √2𝑔𝐻;
𝑃2
= 0, point 2 is exposed to the Where Cv = coefficient of velocity
𝛾
𝑸 𝒂 = 𝑽𝒂 𝑨 𝟐
atmosphere
or 𝑸𝒂 = 𝑪𝒗 𝑨𝟐 √𝟐𝒈𝑯 (eq. 2)
Actually, there is a loss of head between these points and this is obtained by
considering actual conditions at the tip, that is
Head Loss = Initial Head - Actual Head

𝑉1 2 𝑃1 𝑉𝑎 2
𝐻𝐿𝑁 = + −
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔
2 2
From 𝑉𝑎 = 𝐶𝑣 √2𝑔𝐻 → 𝑉𝑎 = 𝐶𝑣 2𝑔𝐻
𝑉 2
𝐻 = 𝐶 𝑎2𝑔 → actual head
𝑣
𝑉𝑎 2 𝑉𝑎 2
𝐻𝐿𝑁 = −
𝐶𝑣 2𝑔 2𝑔
𝑽𝒂 𝟐 𝟏
𝑯𝑳𝑵 = ( − 𝟏) (eq. 3) head loss due to nozzle
𝟐𝒈 𝑪𝒗 𝟐

Sample Problems
1. A nozzle 10 cm by 4 cm is strained vertically upward. At a point 30 cm below the
tip, the pressure is maintained at 145 KPa. If the available power in the jet is 2.6
KW, find
a. The height through which the jet of water will rise, neglecting air friction
b. The value of Cv
c. The diameter of the jet 6m above the tip of the nozzle

2. Calculate the minimum power of the pump which will send the jet over the wall.
Neglect losses.

6.3 Pitot Tube
A tube with circular cross section bent in the shape of an L, with both ends open
was first used by a French scientist, Henri Pitot in 1732, it is a device used in measuring
the velocity fluid in an open channel.

𝑉12 𝑃1 𝑉2 2 𝑃2
+ + 𝑍1 = + + 𝑍2
since Z1 = Z2=V2= 0 (at stagnation point 2, V = 0),

thus the equation can be reduced into
𝑉1 2 𝑃1 𝑃2
+ =
2𝑔 𝛾 𝛾
𝑃2 𝑃1
𝑉1 = √2𝑔 ( − )
𝛾 𝛾
𝑃2 𝑃1
But 𝐻 = −
𝛾 𝛾
𝑉𝑡 = 𝑉1 = √2𝑔𝐻
𝑉𝑎 = 𝐶𝑡 𝑉𝑡
𝐶𝑡 = coefficient of Pitot Tube

Pitot tube in a pipe
1 2
Sg gr = S1
y
Sg gr = S2
𝑃1 𝑆1 𝑃2 𝑆1
+ 𝑦𝑆1 + ℎ𝑆2 − (ℎ + 𝑦)𝑆1 =
𝛾 𝛾
𝑃2 𝑆1 − 𝑃1 𝑆1
= 𝑦𝑆1 + ℎ𝑆2 − (ℎ + 𝑦)𝑆1
𝛾
(𝑃2 − 𝑃1 )𝑆1
= ℎ(𝑆2 − 𝑆1 )
𝛾
(𝑃2 − 𝑃1 ) ℎ(𝑆2 − 𝑆1 )
=
𝛾 𝑆1
(𝑃2 − 𝑃1 )
𝑉 = 𝐶𝑡 √2𝑔
𝛾
ℎ(𝑆2 − 𝑆1 )
𝑉 = 𝐶𝑡 √2𝑔
𝑆1

Sample Problem
1. A pitot static tube (C=1.0) is used to measure air speeds. With water in the
differential manometer and a gage difference of 75 mm, calculate the air speed
𝑘𝑔
using 𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 1.16 𝑚3.
2. A pitot static tube (C=1.0) is is placed at a point where the velocity is 2.0 m/s.
The specific gravity of fluid is 2.0, and the upper portion of the manometer
contains air (γ_air=12 N/m^3). Compute for the value of h (m).

Module 7
Flow in Orifice
7.1 Steady Flow in Orifice
Orifice is an opening with a closed perimeter through which fluid flows. The
primary purpose of this opening is to measure and control the fluid flow. The upstream
face maybe rounded or sharp. An orifice with prolonged side such as piece of pipe, having
a length of about three times its diameter is called a tube. According to shape, orifice maybe
circular, square or rectangular in cross-section. A circular sharp-crested orifice is the most
commonly used for metering because of the simplicity of its design and construction.

𝑉12 𝑃1 𝑉2 2 𝑃2
+ + 𝑍1 = + + 𝑍2
Where V1= 0, P1 and P2 = 0 (exposed to atmosphere, Z1 = H, and Z2 = 0 (datum)
𝑽𝟐 = √𝟐𝒈𝑯 (eq 1)
A. Coefficient of Velocity
Experimentally, it is found out that the actual mean velocity of the jet from a sharp-
edged orifice is little less than the theoretical velocity. This difference is attributed to the
fluids viscosity which was neglected in deriving the formula above, to correct for the head
losses initially neglected, a correction factor known as coefficient of velocity Cv must be
multiplied to the theoretical velocity.
𝑽𝒕 = 𝑽𝟐 = √𝟐𝒈𝑯
𝑉𝑎 = 𝐶𝑣 𝑉𝑡
𝑽𝒂 = 𝑪𝒗 √𝟐𝒈𝑯
The discharge through an orifice is therefore:
𝑄𝑡 = 𝐴𝑉𝑡
𝑸𝒕 = 𝑨√𝟐𝒈𝑯
𝑸𝒂 = 𝑪𝑨√𝟐𝒈𝑯

B. Coefficient of Contraction
In the figure shown, the individual particles of the mass approaching the orifice
follow converging paths. Due to the inertia of the particles getting close to the inner wall,
they cannot make abrupt changes in their direction as they get to the opening. This causes
them to follow curvilinear paths affecting a contraction of the jet up to a section, say B-C,
at which point the stream paths are assumed to be parallel, and the pressure having a value
equal to that of the surrounding medium.
The section B-C where the contraction of the jet ceases is called the vena contracta
and its distance from the inner wall of the orifice is approximately ½ of the diameter of the
orifice. Moreover, the unit less ratio of the area of the vena contracta to the area of the
orifice is known as the coefficient of contraction, Cc.
𝒂
𝑪𝒄 =
𝑨
C. Coefficient of Discharge
The theoretical discharge is the product of the area of the orifice and the theoretical
velocity.
𝑸𝒕 = 𝑨𝑽𝒕
Furthermore, the real or actual discharge is obtained at the issuing jet (Vena
contracta) and represented as the product of the area of the contracted section and the actual
velocity.
𝑄𝑎 = 𝐴𝑉𝑎
𝑄𝑎 = 𝐶𝑐 𝐴(𝐶𝑣 √2𝑔𝐻)
𝑄𝑎 = 𝐶𝑐 𝐶𝑣 𝐴√2𝑔𝐻
Where
C = coefficient of discharge, C = CcCv
A = cross-sectional area of orifice

D. Submerged orifice
A submerged orifice is the one with downstream force submerged as shown. If the
surface is subject to atmospheric pressure, and neglecting velocity of approach, the head H
is given by
𝑯 = 𝒉𝟏 − 𝒉𝟐 = 𝒉
l.s
h
h1 h2
If there is a pressure on top of the liquid surface, convert it into equivalent height if
the liquid in the container.
E. Horizontal orifice discharging upward
HL
h
H
𝐻𝐿 = ℎ − 𝐻

Sample Problems
1. Solve for the theoretical velocity of the jet, the actual velocity and the discharge of
the orifice considering the following:
a. P1 = P2 = 0
h = 5 m of oil P1
Do = 5cm
Cc = 1. 0 (rounded)
Cv = 0.97 P2
b. P1 = P2 = 0 h
h = 5 m of water V2
Do = 5cm
Cc = 0.62 (sharp edged)
Cv = 0.98
c. P1 = 70 kPa
P2 = 0
h = 1.6 m (liquid s = 3.0)
Do = 7.5 cm
Cc = Cv = 0.95 (rounded)

2. The horizontal orifice is 7.5 cm in diameter with C c = 0.63, Cv = 0.98. When h =
2.30 m, compute the height to which the jet will rise above the orifice. What is the
diameter of the jet 1 m above the orifice? Neglect air friction.

3. Water flows from a tank through 200 mm and 125 mm diameter orifices with a total
drop in the water surface of 12.0 m. The coefficient of discharge for each orifices
is C = 0.65. assuming the flow to be uniform and neglecting velocity of approach,
determine the following:
a. Height h1
b. Height h2
c. Maximum discharge
h1
h2 12.0 m
200 mm ∅ 125 mm ∅

4. A jet is issued from the side of a tank under a constant head of 3 m. The side of the
tank has an inclination of 1H to 1V. The total depth of water in tank is 6.70 m.
Neglecting air resistance and assuming Cv = 1.0, determine the following:
a. The maximum height to which the jet will rise
b. The point it strikes a horizontal plane 1.20 m below the bottom of the tank,
and
c. The velocity of the jet as it strikes the ground

5. An orifice at the side of the tank is located 1 m above the bottom of the tank which
is resting on the ground. The jet of water strikes a distance of 2.75 m horizontally
away from the orifice with Cv = 0.98. The height of the tank is 4 m and it is filled
with water 2 m depth and on top of it is another liquid having a depth of 1 m.
a. Determine the velocity of the jet.
b. Determine the equivalent constant head of water that causes flow out of the
tank.
c. Determine the specific gravity of the liquid.

7.2 Unsteady Flow in Orifices: Discharge under a Falling or Rising Head
𝑄𝑖 ≠ 𝑄𝑜
Case 1: Qi = 0, the surface drops and the volume decreases

Rate of change in the volume is the outflow, Qo
𝑑𝑉𝑜𝑙 ℎ1
1 𝐴𝑑ℎ
= 𝑄𝑜 = 𝐶𝐴𝑜 √2𝑔ℎ 𝑡= ∫
𝑑𝑡 𝐶𝐴𝑜 √2𝑔 ℎ2 ℎ1/2
𝑑𝑉𝑜𝑙
𝑑𝑡 = Sides of the tank are vertical, A is
𝐶𝐴𝑜 √2𝑔ℎ constant
𝟐𝑨
ℎ2 < ℎ < ℎ1 𝒕= {𝒉𝟏 𝟏/𝟐 − 𝒉𝟐 𝟏/𝟐 }
ℎ1 𝑪𝑨𝒐 √𝟐𝒈
1 𝑑𝑉𝑜𝑙
𝑡= ∫
𝐶𝐴𝑜 √2𝑔 ℎ2 ℎ1/2
Case 2: when 𝑸𝒊 ≠ 𝑸𝒐 at time t = 0

a. 𝑄𝑖 < 𝑄𝑜 , the liquid surface drops
𝑑𝑉𝑜𝑙 𝒉𝟏
𝑨𝒅𝒉
= 𝑄𝑜 − 𝑄𝑖 𝒕=∫
𝑑𝑡 𝒉𝟐 𝑪𝑨𝒐 √𝟐𝒈𝒉 − 𝑸𝒊
ℎ1
𝑑𝑉𝑜𝑙
𝑡=∫ 𝐴 = 𝑓(ℎ)
ℎ2 𝐶𝐴𝑜 √2𝑔ℎ − 𝑄𝑖
b. 𝑄𝑖 > 𝑄𝑜 , the liquid surface rises and the volume increases

𝑑𝑉𝑜𝑙
= 𝑄𝑖 − 𝑄𝑜
𝑑𝑡
𝒉𝟐
𝑨𝒅𝒉
𝒕=∫
𝒉𝟏 𝑸𝒊 − 𝑪𝑨𝒐 √𝟐𝒈𝒉

Unsteady Flow in a submerged orifice
Unsteady flow problem in a submerged orifice usually requires the determination

of the time for the equalization of the surfaces in the two tanks, that is, when the flow
through the orifice ceases or when the surfaces reach the same elevation, using the free-
flow type.
ℎ𝑜
𝑑𝑉𝑜𝑙
𝑡=∫
0 𝐶𝐴𝑜 √2𝑔ℎ
ℎ𝑜 = ℎ1 − ℎ2 at t = 0
𝑨𝟏 𝑨𝟐
𝒅𝑽𝒐𝒍 = 𝒅𝒉
𝑨𝟏 + 𝑨𝟐
A1 and A2 – cross sectional areas of the chambers
A1 A2
dVol1 Vlost
dh1
H2 H1
dVol2 Vgain
dh2
Vlost = Vgain
𝐻1
𝐴2 𝑑ℎ2
𝑡=∫
𝐻2 𝑄𝑜
𝐻1
1 𝐴1 𝐴2
𝑡= ∫ 𝐻 −1/2 𝑑ℎ
𝐶𝐴𝑜 √2𝑔 𝐻2 𝐴1 + 𝐴2
𝟐 𝑨𝟏 𝑨𝟐
𝒕= (√𝑯𝟏 − √𝑯𝟐 )
𝑪𝑨𝒐 √𝟐𝒈 𝑨𝟏 + 𝑨𝟐

Sample Problems
1. A vertical cylindrical tank has an orifice in its side at a point 0.60 m above the bottom.
If the discharge reduces the depth of water in the tank from 6 m to 4 m in 78 seconds,
what is the time required to reduce the depth from 3.6 m to 1.6 m?
2. A tank is in the shape of a frustum of a cone having its bases horizontal and the axis
vertical. The tank is 3 m high and filled with water. It has a diameter of 2.5 m at the top
and 1 m at the bottom. What is the time required to empty the tank through a sharp-
edged orifice 7.5 cm square? C = 0.60.

3. A hemispherical shell with the base horizontal and uppermost is filled with water. If
the radius is 2.5 m, determine the time required to empty the container through the
sharp-edged 15 cm diameter orifice (C=0.60) located at the lowest point.

4. A sharp-edged orifice 10 cm in 5. A sharp-edged orifice 10 cm in
diameter in the side of the tank having diameter in the side of the tank having
a horizontal cross-section 2 m square a horizontal cross-section 2 m square
discharges water under a constant discharges water under a constant
head. The rate by which the head is head. The rate by which the head is
kept constant is suddenly changed kept constant is suddenly decreased
from 0.023 m3/s to 0.034 m3/s. How
from 0.034 m3/s to 0.023 m3/s. How
long will it take after the change
long will it take after the change
occurs for the head over the orifice to
be 2 m? Use C = 0.60. occurs for the head to drop by 1m?
Use C = 0.60.

6. Two vertical circular cylindrical tanks are connected near the bottom by a short tube
having a cross-sectional area of 78.5 cm2. The inside diameters of the tanks are 3 m
and 1.5 m respectively. The tanks contain oil. With the valve connecting tube closed,
the oil surfaces are 4 m in the larger tank and 0.60 m in the smaller tank above the tube.
With C = 0.78, find the time required for the surfaces to equalize following a quick
opening of the valve. Assume the properties of the tube to be similar to that of an
orifice.

7. Two vertical cylindrical tanks 1 and 2 having diameters 2 m and 3 m respectively are
connected with a 200 mm diameter tube at the lower portion and having C = 0.60.
When the tube is closed, the water surface in tank 1 is 5 m above tank 2. How long will
it take after opening the tube for the water surface in tank 2 to rise by 1 m?

Module 8
Weirs
Weirs are overflow structure which are built across an open channel for the purpose
of measuring or controlling the flow of liquids.
According to shape, weirs may be rectangular, triangular, trapezoidal, circular,
parabolic, or any other regular form. According to form, weirs may be sharp-crested or
broad crested.
The flow over a weir may either be free or submerged. If the water downstream
from the weir is lower than the crest, the flow is free, but if the downstream surface is
higher than the crest, the flow is submerged.
8.1 Steady Flow in weirs

A. Rectangular weir
H V1
L h V2
dh
0
d
P
𝑑𝑄𝑡 = 𝑑𝐴 𝑉𝑡
𝑑𝑄𝑡 = 𝐿 𝑑ℎ 𝑉2
𝑉1 2
𝑑𝑄𝑡 = 𝐿 𝑑ℎ √2𝑔 (ℎ + )
2𝑔
V1 = Va = velocity of approach
1/2
𝑉𝑎 2
𝐻
𝑄𝑡 = √2𝑔𝐿 ∫ (ℎ + ) 𝑑ℎ
0 2𝑔
Assuming Va is constant
3/2 3/2
2 𝑉𝑎 2 𝑉𝑎 2
𝑄𝑡 = √2𝑔𝐿 [(𝐻 + ) −( ) ]
3 2𝑔 2𝑔
𝑄𝑎 = 𝐶𝑄𝑡
3/2 3/2
2 𝑉𝑎 2 𝑉𝑎 2
𝑄𝑎 = 𝐶 √2𝑔𝐿 [(𝐻 + ) −( ) ]
3 2𝑔 2𝑔
2
𝐶𝑤 = 𝐶 √2𝑔
3
𝟑/𝟐 𝟑/𝟐
𝑽𝒂 𝟐 𝑽𝒂 𝟐
𝑸𝒂 = 𝑪𝒘 𝑳 [(𝑯 + ) −( ) ]
𝟐𝒈 𝟐𝒈
𝐻 𝑉𝑎 2
If the ratio is sufficiently small, Va is negligible; ≈0
𝑃 2𝑔
𝑸𝒂 = 𝑪𝒘 𝑳𝑯𝟑/𝟐

Cw Formulas (Metric)
1. Francis Formula
𝐻
Cw = 1.84; 𝑃 < 0.40
2. Rehbock and Chow Formula
𝐻
𝐶𝑤 = 1.8 + 0.22
𝑃
3. Bazin Formula
0.02161 𝐻 2
𝐶𝑤 = 0.5518 (3.248 + ) [1 + 0.55 ( ) ]
𝐻 𝑑
Contracted Rectangular Weir
The effective length of L of a contracted weir is given by:
L L
L’ L’
One-end Contraction Two-end Contraction

(N = 1) (N = 2)
𝐿 = 𝐿′ − 0.1𝑁𝐻
Where: L’ = measured length of crest
N = number of end contraction (1 or 2)
H = measured head

Sample Problems
1. Find the width in meters of the channel at the back of a suppressed weir using the
following data:
Head, H = 28.5 cm
Depth of water, d = 2.485 m
Discharge, Q = 0.84 m3/s
Consider velocity of approach and use Francis formula.

2. A rectangular channel 6.10 m wide has a depth of 90 cm of water flowing with a mean
velocity of 0.75 m/s. Determine the height of standard sharp-crested weir that will
increase the depth in the channel of approach to 1.5 m.

3. The discharge from a 150-mm diameter orifice under a head of 3.05 m and coefficient
of discharge C = 0.60 flows into a regular channel and over a rectangular suppressed
weir. The channel is 1.83 m wide and the weir has a height of 1.50 m and the length is
0.31 m. Determine the depth of water in the channel. Use Francis formula and neglect
velocity of approach.

4. A rectangular sharp-crested weir with end contractions is 1.4 m long. How high
should it be placed in a channel to maintain an upstream depth of 2.35 m for a flow
of 400 li/sec?

B. Triangular Weir (V-Notch)
For very low heads, a V-notch weir should be used if accuracy of measurement is
required. The vertex angle Ɵ of a V-notch weir is between usually between 10° to 90° but
rarely larger.
L
Integrate:
L/2 𝐻
x 𝐿
𝑄𝑡 = √2𝑔 ∫ (𝐻ℎ1/2 − ℎℎ1/2 ) 𝑑ℎ
x/2 x/2
h
𝐻 0
𝐻
dh 𝐿 2𝐻ℎ3/2 2ℎ5/2
𝑄𝑡 = √2𝑔 [ − ]
Ɵ/2 H–h
H 𝐻 3 5 0
Ɵ 𝐿 2𝐻𝐻 3/2 2𝐻 5/2
𝑄𝑡 = √2𝑔 {[ − ] − 0}
𝐻 3 5
𝐿 4
𝑄𝑡 = √2𝑔 ( 𝐻 5/2 )
𝐻 15
4
𝑑𝑄𝑡 = 𝑉𝑡 𝑑𝐴 𝑄𝑡 = √2𝑔 𝐿𝐻 3/2
Neglecting velocity of approach 15
𝑄𝑎 = 𝐶𝑄𝑡
𝑉𝑡 = √2𝑔ℎ 𝟒
𝑑𝐴 = 𝑥 𝑑ℎ 𝑸𝒂 = 𝑪√𝟐𝒈 𝑳𝑯𝟑/𝟐
𝟏𝟓
By similar triangles
𝐿 𝑥 𝜃 𝐿/2
= tan =
𝐻 𝐻−ℎ 2 𝐻
𝐿 𝜃
𝑥 = (𝐻 − ℎ ) 𝐿 = 2𝐻 tan
𝐻 2
𝐿 4 𝜃
𝑑𝐴 = (𝐻 − ℎ) 𝑑ℎ 𝑄𝑎 = 𝐶 √2𝑔 (2𝐻 tan ) 𝐻 3/2
𝐻 15 2
𝐿 8 𝜃 5/2
𝑑𝑄𝑡 = √2𝑔ℎ (𝐻 − ℎ) 𝑑ℎ 𝑄𝑎 = 𝐶 √2𝑔 tan 𝐻
𝐻 15 2
𝐿 8
𝑑𝑄 = √2𝑔 ℎ1/2 (𝐻 − ℎ) 𝑑ℎ 𝐶𝑤 = 𝐶 √2𝑔
𝐻 15
𝐿 𝜽
𝑑𝑄𝑡 = √2𝑔 (𝐻ℎ1/2 − ℎℎ1/2 ) 𝑑ℎ 𝑸𝒂 = 𝑪𝒘 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝑯𝟓/𝟐
𝐻 𝟐
For standard 90° weir, Cw = 1.4

𝑸𝒂 = 𝟏. 𝟒𝑯𝟓/𝟐

Sample Problems
1. Determine the discharge of water over 60° triangular weir if the measured head is
19 cm. Assume C=0.60.
2. The flow in a rectangular channel varies from 225 liters per second to 350 li/s, and
it is desired to regulate the depth by installing standard 90° V-notch weir at the end.
How many weirs are needed to regulate the variations in depth to 60 mm?

C. Trapezoidal Sharp Crested Weir
The discharge from a trapezoidal weir is assumed the same as that from a
rectangular weir and a triangular weir in combination.
b L b
Ɵ/2 H Ɵ/2
𝑸 = 𝑪𝒘𝟏 𝑳𝑯𝟑/𝟐 + 𝑪𝒘𝟏 𝒁𝑯𝟓/𝟐

𝑏 𝜃
where 𝑍 = 𝐻, substituted for tan 2
Cipolletti Weir
4
4 H
Ɵ = 75.96°
1
1 𝛼 = 14.04°
Ɵ
L
𝟑
𝑸 = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟓𝟗𝑳𝑯𝟐 (Metric)

Sample Problems
1. A trapezoidal weir having side slope 2. The discharge over a trapezoidal weir
of 1H to 2V discharges 50 m3/s under is 1.315 m3/s. The crest length is 2 m
a constant head of 2m. Find the length and the sides are inclined at
of the weir assuming C = 0.60. 75°57’49” with the horizontal. Find
the head on the weir in meters.

3. Determine the discharge of the weir having a head of 0.30 m in liters/sec.
a. If a 90° triangular weir is used.
b. If a trapezoidal weir with sides inclined 14.04° with the vertical and a length of
crest of 2 m.
c. If a contracted rectangular sharp crested weir 2 m long is used.

8.2 Unsteady Flow in Weirs (Variable Head)
Reservoir or tank with constant

water surface area, As
H
Weir with
varying head
𝑯𝟏
𝑨𝒔 𝒅𝑯
𝒕=∫
𝑯𝟐 𝑸𝒐
If the flow is through a suppressed rectangular weir

𝑯𝟏
𝑨𝒔 𝒅𝑯
𝒕=∫
𝑯𝟐 𝑪𝒘 𝑳𝑯𝟑/𝟐
𝑨𝒔 𝑯𝟏 −𝟑/𝟐
𝒕= ∫ 𝑯 𝒅𝒉
𝑪 𝒘 𝑳 𝑯𝟐
𝑨𝒔 𝑯𝟐
𝒕= [−𝟐𝑯−𝟏/𝟐 ]𝑯
𝑪𝒘 𝑳 𝟏
𝟐𝑨𝒔 𝟏 𝟏
𝒕= [ − ]
𝑪𝒘 𝑳 √𝑯𝟐 √𝑯𝟏
where Cw = weir factor

L = crest length
As = constant water surface are of reservoir or tank
H1 = initial head
H2 = final head

Sample Problems
1. A spillway controls a reservoir 4.6 2. A rectangular suppressed weir of

hectares in area. The permanent crest length 1 m is constructed or cut at the
is at elevation 75 m. If water can be top of a tall rectangular tank having a
drawn from elevation 76.5 to horizontal section 20 m by 20 m. If
elevation 75.5 m in 42 minutes, find the initial head over the weir is 1 m,
the length of the spillway in meters. compute the time required to
Use Francis Formula neglecting discharge 72 m3 of water. Use Francis
velocity of approach. Formula.

3. A V-notch is located or cut at one end of a tank having a horizontal square section 10
m by 10 m. If the initial head on the weir is 1.20 m and it takes 375 seconds to discharge
100 m3 of water, what could have been the vertex angle of the weir. Use C = 0.60.

Module 9
Closed Conduit Flows
A conduit is any pipe, tube, or duct that is completely filled with a flowing fluid.
Examples include a pipeline transporting liquefied natural gas, a microchannel transporting
hydrogen in a fuel cell, and a duct transporting air for heating of a building. A pipe that is
partially filled with a flowing fluid, for example a drainage pipe, is classified as an open-
channel flow and will be analyzed in the next module.
Pipes are closed conduits through which fluids or gasses flows. In hydraulics, pipes are
referred to as conduits (usually circular) which flow full. Conduits flowing partially are
called open channels. Fluid flow in pipes maybe steady or unsteady. In steady flow, there
are two types of flow that exist, they are called laminar and turbulent flow.
9.1. Laminar and Turbulent Flows

Flow in a conduit is classified as being either laminar or turbulent, depending on
the magnitude of the Reynolds number. The original research involved visualizing flow in
a glass tube as shown in Figure 1 below. Reynolds in the 1880s injected dye into the center
of the tube and observed the following:
• When the velocity was low, the streak of dye flowed down the tube with little
expansion, as shown in Figure 1 (b). However, if the water in the tank was
disturbed, the streak would shift about in the tube.
• If velocity was increased, at some point in the tube, the dye would all at once mix
with the water as shown in Figure 1 (c).
• When the dye exhibited rapid mixing, shown in Figure 1 (c), illumination with an
electric spark revealed eddies in the mixed fluid as shown in Figure 1 (d).
Figure 9.1. Reynolds' experiment: (a) Apparatus, (b) Laminar flow of dye in tube, (c) Turbulent flow of dye in tube,
and (d) Eddies in turbulent flow.
The flow regimes shown in Figure 9.1 are laminar flow Figure 1 (b) and turbulent flow
Figures 1 (c) and (d). The flow is said to be laminar if when the particles move along a
straight, parallel paths in layer of laminae. The flow is said to be turbulent if when the
particles move in an irregular path.

A. Reynold’s Number
Reynold’s number, which is dimensionless, is the ratio of the inertia force to

viscous force. For pipes flowing full,
𝑽𝑫𝝆 𝑽𝑫
𝑹𝒆 = =
𝝁 𝒗
where
V = mean velocity in m/s
D = pipe diameter in meter
v = kinematic viscosity of the fluid in m2/s
𝜇
=𝜌
µ = absolute or dynamic viscosity in Pa-s
For non-circular pipes, use D = 4R, then the formula becomes,
𝟒𝑽𝑹
𝑹𝒆 =
𝒗
where
R = hydraulic radius = A/P
A = cross sectional area of the pipe in m2
P = perimeter in m
B. Shearing Stress in Pipes

Shear stress at the pipe wall
𝒇𝑽𝟐 𝝆 𝜸𝒉𝒇 𝑫
𝝉𝒐 = 𝟖 or 𝝉𝒐 = 𝟒𝑳
Shear velocity or friction velocity
𝜏𝑜 𝑓
𝑣𝑠 = √ = 𝑣√
𝜌 8
where 𝝉𝟎 is the shear stress at wall of pipe (in 𝑃𝑎 or 𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡 2 ),

𝒇 is the dimensionless friction factor from Darcy-Weisbach,
𝒗 is the average velocity on the conduit (in 𝑚/𝑠 or 𝑓𝑡/𝑠),
𝝆 is the fluid’s mass density (in 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 or 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔/𝑓𝑡 3),
𝜸 is the fluid’s unit or specific weight (in 𝑁/𝑚3 or 𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡 3 ),
𝒉𝒇 is the head loss due to friction (in 𝑚 or 𝑓𝑡),
𝑫 is the cross-sectional diameter of the pipe (in 𝑚 or 𝑓𝑡),
𝑳 is the length of the pipe (in 𝑚 or 𝑓𝑡), and
𝒗𝒔 is the shear velocity or friction velocity.

9.2 Head Losses in Pipes
Head losses in pipes maybe classified into two: the major head loss, which is caused
by pipe friction along straight section of pipe of uniform diameter and uniform roughness,
and minor head loss, which are caused by changes in velocity or direction of flow and are
commonly expressed in terms of kinetic energy.
A. Major Head loss, hf

There are three primary formulas used in quantifying the major head loss or pipe
friction head loss on pipes: (1) Darcy-Weisbach Formula, (2) Manning’s Formula, and (3)
Hazen Williams Formula.
1. Darcy-Weisbach Formula
𝒇𝑳 𝑽𝟐 𝟎.𝟎𝟖𝟐𝟔𝒇𝑳𝑸𝟐
𝒉𝒇 = or 𝒉𝒇 =
𝑫 𝟐𝒈 𝑫𝟓
where
f = friction factor
L = length of pipe, m
D = pipe diameter, m
V = mean velocity of flow, m/s
Q = discharge, m3/s
For non-circular pipes, use D = 4R.

Value of f:
For Laminar Flow:
𝟔𝟒
𝒇=
𝑹𝒆
For Turbulent Flow:

Colebrook Equation
𝟏 𝜺 𝟗. 𝟑𝟓
= 𝟏. 𝟏𝟒 − 𝟐. 𝟎 𝐥𝐨𝐠 [ + ]
√𝒇 𝑫 𝑹𝒆√𝒇
Colebrook-White Equation
𝟏 𝜺 𝟐. 𝟓𝟏
= −𝟐 𝐥𝐨𝐠 [ + ]
√𝒇 𝟑. 𝟕𝑫 𝑹𝒆√𝒇
where 𝒇 is the dimensionless friction factor from Darcy-Weisbach,
𝜺 is the absolute pipe roughness (in 𝑚𝑚 or 𝑖𝑛) obtained from the figure below,
𝑫 is the cross-sectional diameter of the pipe (in 𝑚𝑚 or 𝑖𝑛), and
𝑹𝒆 is the Reynolds Number.
Moody used the Colebrook-White formula to generate a design chart similar to that
shown in Figure 9.2 below. This chart is now known as the Moody diagram for
commercial pipes.

Figure 9.1. Resistance coefficient 𝒇 versus 𝑹𝒆 for sand roughened pipe
2. Manning Formula
𝟏 𝟐⁄ 𝟏⁄
𝑽= 𝑹 𝟑𝑺 𝟐
𝒏
where:
n = roughness coefficient
R = hydraulic radius, m
𝒉𝒇
𝑺= , slope of the energy grade line
𝑳
then
𝟔.𝟑𝟓𝒏𝟐𝑳𝑽𝟐 𝟏𝟎.𝟐𝟗𝒏𝟐𝑳𝑸𝟐
𝒉𝒇 = 𝟒 or 𝒉𝒇 = 𝟏𝟔
𝑫 ⁄𝟑 𝑫 ⁄𝟑
3. Hazen Williams Formula

𝑸 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟕𝟖𝟓𝑪𝟏 𝑫𝟐.𝟔𝟑 𝑺𝟎.𝟓𝟒
where:
C1 = Hazen William coefficient
D = pipe diameter, m
S = slope of the energy grade line
= hf/L
Q = discharge, m3/s
Solving for hf, the formula becomes,
𝟏𝟎. 𝟔𝟕𝑳𝑸𝟏.𝟖𝟓
𝒉𝒇 =
𝑪𝟏.𝟖𝟓
𝟏 𝑫
𝟒.𝟖𝟕

B. Minor Head Loss
Minor Head Loss due to Sudden Contraction

The loss of head, hc, caused by a reduction in the cross sectional area of the stream
which results to an increase in the velocity of flow. The contraction maybe sudden or
maybe tapered. A special case of this is the loss of the head at the entrance to a pipe from
a reservoir. The head loss is given by the formula
𝑽𝟐
𝒉𝒄 = 𝑲𝒄
𝟐𝒈
where V is the velocity in the smaller pipe and Kc is the minor loss coefficient due
to sudden contraction.
Figure 9.3. Illustration of a Sudden Contraction as a Pipe Connection
Values of Kc: Sudden Contraction

Velocity RATIO
V2 (m/s) D2/D1
0.00 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
0.60 0.49 0.49 0.48 0.45 0.42 0.38 0.28 0.18 0.07 0.03
1.50 0.48 0.48 0.47 0.44 0.41 0.37 0.28 0.18 0.09 0.04
3.00 0.47 0.46 0.45 0.43 0.40 0.36 0.28 0.18 0.10 0.04
6.00 0.44 0.43 0.42 0.40 0.37 0.33 0.27 0.19 0.11 0.05
12.00 0.38 0.36 0.35 0.33 0.31 0.29 0.25 0.20 0.13 0.06
Figure 9.4. Illustration of a Sudden Contraction as Water Flows from a Large Tank into a Pipe
Type of Connection (Entrance) 𝑲𝒄

Flush Connection 0.50
Projecting Connection 1.00
Rounded Connection 0.05

Minor Head Loss due to Sudden or Gradual Enlargement
The loss of head he, caused by an increase in cross sectional area of the stream
which results to a decrease in the velocity of flow. The enlargement may either be sudden
or gradual. A special case of this is the head loss at the outlet end of a pipe where it
discharges into a reservoir. The head loss is given by the formula
𝑽𝟐
𝒉𝒆 = 𝑲𝒆
𝟐𝒈
where V is the velocity in the smaller pipe and Ke is the minor loss coefficient due
to sudden or gradual expansion.
Figure 9.5. Illustration of a Sudden Expansion as a Pipe Connection
Values of Ke: Sudden Enlargement

Velocity RATIO
V1 (m/s) D1/D2
0.00 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
0.60 1.00 1.00 0.96 0.86 0.74 0.60 0.44 0.29 0.15 0.04
1.50 0.96 0.95 0.89 0.80 0.69 0.55 0.41 0.27 0.14 0.04
3.00 0.91 0.89 0.84 0.76 0.65 0.52 0.39 0.26 0.13 0.04
6.00 0.86 0.84 0.80 0.72 0.62 0.50 0.37 0.24 0.12 0.04
12.00 0.81 0.80 0.75 0.68 0.58 0.47 0.35 0.22 0.11 0.03
Values of Ke: Gradual Enlargement

RATIO
Ɵ D1/D2
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
5° 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.01
15° 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.15 0.15 0.13 0.10 0.06
30° 0.49 0.49 0.48 0.48 0.46 0.43 0.37 0.27 0.16
55° 0.64 0.63 0.63 0.62 0.60 0.55 0.49 0.38 0.20
60° 0.72 0.72 0.71 0.70 0.67 0.62 0.54 0.43 0.24
Value of K from the tank of pipe (exit only) is taken as 1.0

Minor Head Loss due to Obstructions
The loss of head ho, caused by obstruction such as gates, valves, and any other pipe
fittings which produce a change in cross-sectional area in the pipe or in the direction of
flow. The head loss is given by the formula
𝑽𝟐
𝒉𝒐 = 𝑲𝒐
𝟐𝒈
Threaded Pipe Fittings

𝑲𝒐
(Obstruction)
Globe valve – wide open 10.0
Angle valve – wide open 5.0
Gate valve – wide open 0.2
Gate valve – half open 5.6
Minor Head Loss due to Bends

The loss of head hb, due to bends or curves in the pipe, which produced a change
in the direction of flow. The head loss is given by the formula
𝑽𝟐
𝒉𝒃 = 𝑲𝒃
𝟐𝒈
where V is the velocity in the smaller pipe and Kb is the minor loss coefficient due
to sudden or gradual expansion.
Threaded Pipe Fittings (Bends) 𝑲𝒃

90° miter bend
Without vanes 1.1
With vanes 0.2
Interpolate for values

90° smooth bend
of 𝒓/𝒅
1 0.35
2 0.19
4 0.16
6 0.21
8 0.28
10 0.32
Return Bend 2.2
Straight-through flow 0.4
Tees
Side-outlet flow 1.8
90° elbow 0.9
45° elbow 0.4

Sample Problems:
1. A pipe has a diameter of 20 mm and has a length of 80 m. A liquid having a kinematic

viscosity of 4 x 10-5 m2/s is flowing through the pipe at a velocity of 3 m/s.
a. Compute the Reynolds number
b. Compute the friction factor
c. Compute the head loss of the pipe

2. The head loss of a 120 m length of 3. Oil having a specific gravity of 0.869
tube having a diameter of 10 mm is 30 and dynamic viscosity of 0.0814 Pa-s
m. Oil flows through a tube at a flows through a cast iron pipe at a
Reynolds number of 1800. velocity of 1 m/s. The pipe is 50 m
a. Compute the friction factor long and 150 mm in diameter.
b. Compute the kinematic a. Find the head lost due to
viscosity of the fluid in m2/s friction, and
c. Compute the discharge in b. The shearing stress at the
li/min walls of the pipe

4. In a syringe, the drug had a density of 900 kg/m3 and an absolute viscosity of 0.002 Pa-
s. The flow through the needle is 0.4 mL/s. Neglect head loss in the larger cylinder
a. Determine the Reynolds number through the needle
b. Determine the head loss
c. Determine the required force, F, to produce the given flow
d2 = 10 mm
d1 = 0.25 mm
Q F
20 mm 30 mm

5. The pipe flow in the figure is driven by the pressurized air in the tank. Assuming f =
0.014 and the flow rate of 13.60 li/s
a. Find the velocity of the water in the pipe
b. Find the head loss in the pipe neglecting minor losses
c. Find the gage pressure needed to provide a flow rate of 13.60 li/s
20 m
P 50 mm Ø
100 m
10 m
40 m

6. There is a leak in a horizontal 300-mm diameter pipeline. Upstream from the leak two
gages 600 m apart showed a difference of 140 KPa. Downstream from the leak two
gages 600 m apart showed a difference of 126 KPa. Assuming f = 0.025, how much
water is being lost from the pipe.

7. What commercial size of a new cast iron pipe shall be used to carry 4,490 gpm with a
lost head of 10.56 feet per mile.
a. Using f = 0.019
b. Using n = 0.014
c. Using C1 = 130

8. In a pipe carrying 57 li/s of water, determine the head loss and the pressure difference
resulting from a change of section:
a. due to sudden contraction from 20 cm to 15 cm
b. due to sudden enlargement from 15 cm to 20 cm

9.3 Reservoir Problems
A. Pipe Discharging from a Reservoir
LS hc
EG
H hf (a – b) hf
HG 𝑉2
2𝑔
(a) (b)
Horizontal Pipe
If friction is neglected the velocity at the discharge end of the pipe shown in the
figure will be the same as the theoretical flow velocity from an orifice,
𝑽 = √𝟐𝒈𝑯
For a pipe having a uniform diameter, the head loss between any two sections, say
a and b, is measured by the height difference hf (a – b), of the liquid in the piezometers tapped
at these sections.
The energy gradient shows a drop at the entrance from the tank to the pipe due to
sudden contraction loss, hc. Since the velocity of the liquid mass entering the pipe increases,
𝑉2
a corresponding drop in the hydraulic gradient equal to the velocity head in the pipe, 2𝑔, is
shown. The total head H is
𝑽𝟐
𝑯 = 𝒉𝒄 + 𝒉𝒇 +
𝟐𝒈
which is easily verified by writing the energy equation between the reservoir and the
discharge of the pipe.
Assuming turbulent flow conditions and using the Darcy-Weisbach equation, H

may be written as
𝑽𝟐 𝒇𝑳𝑽𝟐 𝑽𝟐
𝑯 = 𝑲𝒄 + +
𝟐𝒈 𝑫𝟐𝒈 𝟐𝒈
or
𝑽𝟐
𝑯=𝑪
𝟐𝒈
where
𝒇𝑳
𝑪 = 𝑲𝒄 + +𝟏
𝑫

Sample Problems:
1. A horizontal pipe 20 cm in diameter 2. A 20 mm diameter commercial steel
and 30 m in length discharges water pipe, 30 m long is used to drain an oil
from a reservoir. If the entrance is tank. Determine the discharge when
sharp-cornered, what is the difference the oil level in the tank is 3 m above
between the water surface in the the exit of the pipe. Neglect minor
reservoir and the discharge end of the losses.
pipe if the flow is 140 liters/s? a. Assume f = 0.12
Assume f = 0.021. b. Assume n = 0.011
c. Assume C1 = 100

3. The water system in a suburban area consists of an old 20 cm pipe line 750 m long
which conveys water from a pump to a reservoir whose water surface is 105 m higher
than the pump. Water is pumped at the rate of 70 li/s. Neglecting minor losses
a. Determine the head loss added by the pump using the 20 cm pipeline.
Assume f = 0.033.
b. If the old pipe is replaced with a new 25 cm diameter pipe, compute the energy
supplied by the pump. Assume f = 0.022.
c. Determine the horsepower saved by replacing the old pipe with a new 25 cm
pipe.

B. Pipe Between Two Reservoirs
LS hc 𝑉2
2𝑔 EG hf
he
h HG
h2
V
1· ·2
The flow analysis of the pipe system follows:

At the pipe entrance, as the velocity changes from zero in the reservoir to the mean
𝑉2
value V in the pipe, the pressure head h is changed to the velocity head 2𝑔. This is shown
as a drop in the hydraulic gradient. In the short distance between the contracted stream and
the section where normal flow starts, the hydraulic gradient has a corresponding rise. As
for the energy gradient, there is a drop at the entrance hc due to contraction. From the
entrance to the discharge end there is a further drop in the energy gradient and hf attributed
to pipe losses. Upon reaching this end the energy gradient again drops by he due to the
enlargement loss. All in all, the total energy lost is
𝑯 = 𝒉𝒄 + 𝒉𝒇 + 𝒉𝒆
𝑉2 𝑉2
and if ℎ𝑐 = 0.50 2𝑔 and ℎ𝑒 = 1.00 2𝑔, then H becomes
𝒇𝑳𝑽𝟐 𝑽𝟐
𝑯= + 𝟏. 𝟓𝟎
𝑫𝟐𝒈 𝟐𝒈
utilizing the Darcy-Weisbach equation to express hf.
Sample Problems
1. A new cast-iron pipe 30 cm in diameter connects two reservoirs. It is 30 m long with
both ends being sharp-cornered and submerged. Determine the difference in the water
elevations if the discharge is 450 liters/s. Assume f = 0.019.

2. A wood stave pipe 120 m long is to carry 3400 li/sec across a ravine. Water enters one
end of the pipe from an open flume, and discharges at the other end into another flume.
If the difference in the flume is to be 1 m,
a. Determine the necessary diameter of pipe, assuming well designed transition
(Kc = 0.1, Ke = 0.2) and neglecting the effect of velocity in the flume.
Use f = 0.013.
b. Compute the velocity of water in the pipe,
c. Compute the minor losses.

3. Two reservoirs A and B have elevations of 250 m and 100 m respectively. It is
connected by a pipe having a diameter of 250 mm and a length of 100 m. A turbine
is installed at a point in between A and B. The discharge flowing in the pipeline is
150 li/s. If C = 120,
4. Determine the head loss due to friction
5. Determine the head extracted by the turbine
6. Compute the power generated by the turbine

C. Branching Pipes
Consider three reservoirs A, B, and C shown in the figure below connected to common
junction P’ by pipes 1, 2, and 3 with friction losses h f1, hf2, and hf3 respectively. Assume
that the pipes sufficiently long (≥ 1000 D) so the minor losses may be taken negligible. By
reason of continuity the flows into and out of junction P are equal. And, as indicated by the
piezometric tube at the junction, the pressure head pp/w is common to all three pipes.
The main objective is to locate the position (elevation) of the energy at the junction
P. This position represents the water surface of an imaginary reservoir at P’. The difference
in elevation between this surface and the reservoir surface represents the head lost in the
pipe leading to the corresponding reservoir.
Case 1: Given the discharge in one of the pipes, find the elevation of the other reservoir or
may be the diameter or length of one of the pipes.
Procedures:
1. Given the flow in one of the pipe leading to or flowing out from a reservoir of the
other reservoir of known elevation, solve for its head loss hf.
2. Determine the elevation of the energy grade line at the junction of the pipes (P’) by
adding or subtracting the head loss in the pipe from the elevation of the water
surface in the reservoir.
3. Draw a line from P’ to the surface of the other reservoir. These lines represents the
EGL (energy grade lines) of each pipe. The difference in elevation between P’ and
the surface of the reservoir is the head loss in the pipe.
4. Solve for the required variable.

Case 2: Given all the pipe properties and elevation of all reservoirs, find the flow in each
pipe which can be solved by trial and error.
Procedures:
1. Given all the elevation of reservoirs and pipe properties, determine the direction of
flow of each pipe. The highest reservoir always has an outflow and the lowest
always has an inflow.
2. The flow in the 2nd pipe can be determined by assuming that Q2 = 0 or hf2 = 0. This
condition makes hf1 = H1 and hf3 = H2, which in actuality is not true. Q1 and Q2
may be obtained from either Darcy-Weisbach or Manning equation by assuming
trial values of f or n (if these are not given)
3. If Q1 > Q3, the flow in pipe 2 is directed toward reservoir B. If Q1 < Q3, the flow in
pipe 2 is directed away from reservoir B. Whatever the result may be, the
piezometric surface is correspondingly corrected: above reservoir B if Q 1 > Q3, or
below reservoir B if Q1 > Q3.
4. Finally, the continuity of flow equation and the head loss relations are written based
on the result obtained from 2 and 3.

Sample Problems
1. A 1,200 mm diameter concrete 1,800 m long carries 1.35 m 3/s from reservoir A,
whose water surface is at elevation 50 m, and discharges into two concrete pipes,
each 1,350 m long and 750 mm in diameter. One of the 750 mm diameter pipe
discharges into reservoir B in which the water surface is at elevation 44 m.
Determine the elevation of the water surface of reservoir C into which the other 750
mm diameter pipe is flowing. Assume f = 0.02 for all pipes.

2. Determine the flow into or out of each reservoir in the pipe system shown in the
figure. Use n = 0.11 for all pipes.

3. The turbine shown in the figure is located in the 350 mm-diameter line. If the turbine
efficiency is 90%, determine its output in kilowatts.

4. Determine the flow in each of the pipes shown the figure. Assume f = 0.02 for all pipes.

9.6 Pipe Systems in Series
LS hc1
hf1 he1
hf2 hc2 hf3 H
he2
LS
V1
V2 V3
H = hc1 + hf1 + he1 + hf2 + hc2 + hf3 + he2
If minor losses are considered negligible,

H = hf1 + hf2 + hf3
Equivalent Length of Pipes

𝒉𝒇𝒆 = 𝒉𝒇
𝒇 𝑫𝒆 𝟓
𝑳𝒆 = 𝑳 ( )
𝒇𝒆 𝑫
where fe and De are the properties of the standard pipe, while L, f, and D are those of the
given pipe whose equivalent length is Le.
for minor losses:
𝑲𝑫
𝑳𝒆 =
𝒇

Sample Problems:
1. The compound pipe in series of the previous figure has the following properties:
L1 = 400 m, D1 = 30 cm, f1 = 0.020
L2 = 600 m, D2 = 60 cm, f2 = 0.019
L3 = 500 m, D3 = 45 cm, f3 = 0.020
If the flow through the system is 230 liters/s, determine the head lost. Check by the
equivalent length method.

2. Three concrete pipes are connected in series. If the flow in the pipe is 0.10 m 3/s,
L1 = 360 m, D1 = 200 mm, f1 = 0.0248
L2 = 300 m, D2 = 150 mm, f2 = 0.0242
L3 = 600 m, D3 = 250 mm, f3 = 0.0255
a. Determine the total head loss of the pipe
b. Determine the length of a 200 mm diameter equivalent pipe
c. Determine the diameter of a 1,260 m long equivalent pipe with f = 0.0255

3. A series arrangement for a horizontal with details of each pipe is shown below. The
pressure head at point A is 200 m and the discharge through the system is 0.179
𝑉2
𝑐
m3/s. The energy loss at the contraction BC is given as 0.3 2𝑔 and the energy loss
(𝑉𝐷 − 𝑉𝐸 )2
at the expansion DE is 2𝑔
Pipe Diameter (m) Length Friction factor, f
AB 0.300 61 m 0.020
CD 0.150 30.5 m 0.015
EF 0.300 30.5 m 0.020
a. Calculate the elevation of energy gradient at B

b. Calculate the elevation of energy gradient at D
c. Calculate the elevation of energy gradient at F

9.7 Pipe System in Parallel
Top View
Pipe 1 Q1
A B
QA Pipe 2 Q2 QB
Pipe 3 Q3
hf
A
Elevation B
QA = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 = QB
Since the pressure at A or B is the same at both ends of the three pipes, then the head loss
in each pipe is the same, or
hf = hf1 = hf2 = hf3
If the pipeline before and after the junctions A and B, respectively, are included in the
system, them the total loss of head will be
H = hfA + hf1 + hfB
where hf1 may be replaced either by hf2 or hf3. The losses hfA and hfB are those pipes before
and after the junctions, respectively.

Sample Problems:
1. The total discharge into the pipe system of the figure below is 440 liters/s.
Determine the flow division into each pipe. Use n = 0.020 for all pipes. The lengths
and diameters of the pipes are
L1 = 600 m, D1 = 30 cm
L2 = 500 m, D2 = 25 cm
L3 = 800 m, D3 = 40 cm
Pipe 1 Q1
A B
QA Pipe 2 Q2 QB
Pipe 3 Q3

2. The total head lost from A to E in the figure shown is 20 m. Find the discharge in
each pipe assuming f = 0.02 for all pipes.
L1 = 450 m L2 = 650 m L5 = 540 m
D1 = 600 mm D2 = 500 mm D5 = 600 mm
A B D E
L3 = 360 m L4 = 480 m
C
D3 = 450 mm D4 = 450 mm

9.8 Water Hammer
Water hammer (or hydraulic shock) is the momentary increase in pressure, which
occurs in a water system when there is a sudden change of direction or velocity of the
water.
When a rapidly closed valve suddenly stops water flowing in a pipeline, pressure
energy is transferred to the valve and pipe wall. Shock waves are set up within the system.
Pressure waves travel backward until encountering the next solid obstacle (or change in
density), then forward, then back again. The pressure wave’s velocity is equal to the speed
of sound; therefore it “bangs” as it travels back and forth, until dissipated by friction losses.
Anyone who has lived in an older house is familiar with the “bang” that resounds
through the pipes when a faucet is suddenly closed. This is an effect of water hammer.
A less severe form of hammer is called surge, a slow motion mass oscillation of
water caused by internal pressure fluctuations in the system. This can be pictured as a
slower “wave” of pressure building within the system. Both water hammer and surge are
referred to as transient pressures.
If not controlled, they both yield the same results: damage to pipes, fittings, and valves,
causing leaks and shortening the life of the system. Neither the pipe nor the water will
compress to absorb the shock.
Critical time (tc) of closure of a valve is equal to 2L/c, where L is the length of the
pipe in the upstream of the valve up to the reservoir, and c is the velocity of sound in fluid.
If the closure time of a valve is less than tc the maximum pressure difference
developed in the downstream end is given by 𝜌𝑐𝑉; where V is the velocity in the pipeline.
Water hammer pressures are quite large. Therefore, engineers must design piping
systems to keep the pressure within acceptable limits. This is done by installing an
accumulator near the valve and/or operating the valve in such a way that rapid closure is
prevented. Accumulators may be in the form of air chambers for relatively small systems,
or surge tanks. Another way to eliminate excessive water hammer pressures is to install
pressure-relief valves at critical points in the pipe system.
Valve closure:
➢ Water in close proximity to the valve is brought to rest.
➢ Sudden change of velocity in the water mass cause a local
pressure increase, DP
➢ Water column is compressed and the pipe walls expands
slightly.
➢ Both compression and expansion help provide a little extra
volume, allowing water enter the section continuously until it comes
to a complete stop.
➢ A wave of increased pressure propogates up the pipe toward
reservoir, the entire pipe is expanded and the water column within is
compressed by the increased pressure.
t = L/C ➢ The entire water column within the pipe comes to a complete
halt. (V=0)

2nd period (EGL in the pipe > EGL in reservoir)
➢ The halted water in the pipe flows back into the reservoir as soon as
the pressure wave reached the reservoir.
➢ Decreased pressure wave travels downstream toward the valve.
➢ During this period water behind the wave front moves in the
upstream direction as soon as the column decompresses.
➢ By the time, decreased pressure wave arrives
at the valve, the entire water column of water within
the pipe is in motion in the upstream direction.
➢ Pressure at the valve to drop below the normal static pressure.
➢ Pressure at the valve to drop below the normal static pressure.
t = 2L/C 3rd osciallation period (Pressure at the valve < normal static
pressure)
➢ This period begins as a wave of negative pressure propagates up
the pipe toward reservoir.
➢ As the instant negative pressure reaches the reservoir the water
column within the pipe again comes to a complete standstill.
➢ EGL of the reservoir > EGL of the pipe water flows into the
pipe
4th osciallation period (Pressure at the valve < normal static

pressure)
➢ This period is marked by a wave of normal static pressure moving
downstream toward the valve.
➢ The water mass behind the wave front also moves in the
downstream direction.
➢ As the pressure wave arrives the valve, the entire pipe returns to
original EGL and water is moving downstream.
4th osciallation period-continue (Pressure at the valve < normal

static pressure)
➢ For an instant the conditions throughout the pipe are somewhat similar to the
conditions at the time of valve closure except the water velocity.
➢ Water velocity has been reduced because of the energy losses.
➢ Another cycle starts
➢ Four sequential waves travels up & down the pipe in exactly the same manner
as the first cycle .
➢ Pressure waves are smaller in magnitude.
➢ Pressure-wave oscillations continues until finally the waves die out
completely.

1. Celerity, c
a. For rigid pipes 6. Time of travel of the pressure wave
up and back (round trip), t
𝐸𝐵
𝑐=√ 2𝐿
𝜌 𝑡=
𝑐
𝑃 = 𝜌𝑐𝑉 𝐸𝐵
𝑐=√
𝜌
b. For non-rigid pipes
𝐸𝐵
𝑐=√ 𝐸𝐵 𝐷 2. Change in pressure, ∆𝑃
𝜌 (1 + 𝐸𝑡 ) ∆𝑃 = 𝜌𝑐𝑉
𝑃 = 𝜌𝑐𝑉
3. Mach Angle 𝜶
2. Time of Closure, t 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑐
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛼 = =
2𝐿 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑉
𝑡= 𝑉
𝑐
𝑀𝑎 =
𝑐
𝟐𝑳
3. When 𝒕 >
𝒄
𝑃 2𝐿 Where:
= P = water hammer pressure
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑐 V = velocity of water
EB = bulk modulus of water
4. Rise in pressure when the valve is 𝜌 = mass density of water
suddenly closed c = celerity
∆𝑃 = 𝜌𝑐𝑉 E = bulk modulus of steel
𝐸𝐵 D = diameter of pipe
𝑐=√ t = thickness of pipe
𝜌
L = length of pipe in meter
∆𝑃 = change in pressure
5. Velocity of sound through water, 𝑉𝑝 𝑉𝑝 = velocity of sound
𝐸𝐵 Ma = Mach angle
𝑉𝑝 = √
𝜌

Sample Problems:
1. The elasticity and dimension of the pipe are such that the celerity of the pressure is 970
m/s. Suppose the pipe has the length of 1,600 m and a diameter of 1.2 m and an initial
flow of 0.85 m/s.
a. Find the water hammer pressure for the instantaneous valve closure.
b. How much time should be allowed for closing a valve to avoid water hammer?
c. Find the appropriate water hammer pressure of the valve if it is closed in 4 sec.

2. A non-rigid steel pipe of 60 cm in diameter is to carry a maximum static head of 350
m of water and additional pressure due to water hammer when quick closing valve
stops a flow of 0.85 m3/s. The pipe has a thickness of 18 mm and a bulk modules E B =
2,068.5 MPa, E = 200,000 MPa for steel.
a. Compute the celerity of the pressure wave.
b. Compute the total pressure on the pipe after the closure of the valve.
c. Compute the maximum stress acting on the pipe.

3. A valve is suddenly closed in a 200 mm Ø pipe. The increase in pressure is 700 kPa.
Assuming that the pipe is rigid and the bulk modulus is 2.07 x 10 9 N/m2.
a. Compute the celerity of the pressure wave
b. Compute the velocity of flow
c. If the length of the pipe is 650 m long, compute the water hammer pressure at the
valve if it is closed in 3 sec.

4. Water from a reservoir flowing through a pipe having a dimeter of 600 mm with a
velocity of 1.75 m/s is completely stopped by a closure of a valve situated 150 m from
the reservoir. Assume that the pressure increases at a uniform rate and there is no
damping of the pressure wave. The pipe has a thickness of 20 mm and bulk modulus
of water is 2.2 x 109 N/m2 and modulus of elasticity of steel is 1.4 x 1011 N/m2.
a. Compute the celerity of the pressure wave
b. Compute the equivalent bulk modulus of water.
c. Compute the pressure of the pipe after the closure of the valve

Module 10
Open Channel
In general, the term open channel is used to define all natural streams and artificial
canal having surfaces exposed to the pressure of the atmosphere. All forms of closed
conduits which flow only partially full are also in the category of open channels. Unlike in
pipes flowing full and flowing under pressure, the flow in an open channel depends upon
the slope of the streambed as the slope of water surface.
In an open channel flow, the hydraulic grade line is coincident with the stream
surface since the pressure at the surface is atmospheric.
The flow in open channels may either be uniform or non-uniform.
The main types of open channels are natural streams or rivers; artificial canals or
flumes; sewers, tunnels and pipelines not flowing full.
10.1 Uniform Flow

Essential properties of uniform flow in an open channel are
a. uniform depth, or d1 = d2 = depth at any section
b. uniform area, A1 = A2 = area at any section
c. uniform velocity, or V1 = V2 = velocity at any section
d. equal slopes of energy gradient, streambed and water surface, or S = So = Sws, where
ℎ𝑓
𝑆= is the slope of the energy gradient, So is the slope of the streambed and Sws
𝐿
is the slope of the water surface or the hydraulic gradient
1 2
𝑉1 2 EGL
2𝑔
ℎ𝐿 = 𝑆𝐿
Slope = S
Sws 𝑉2 2
𝑑1 2𝑔
Streambed, Slope = So 𝑑2
𝑆𝑜 𝐿 A
Flow Section
A. Specific Energy
The energy equation between sections 1 and 2 gives
E1 = E2 + hf
𝑉1 2
Where: 𝐸1 = + 𝑑1, the total energy per unit weight at section 1
2𝑔

𝑉2 2
𝐸2 = + 𝑑2 , the total energy per unit weight at section 2
2𝑔
hf is the frictional less between two section
L is the length of the channel
B. Chezy Formula
In the figure above, the head lost between any points in the channel is
hL = SL
where S is the slope of the energy grade line and L is the length or run. The head loss
balances the loss in height in the channel.
For a given channel shape and bottom roughness and constants are denoted by C,
𝑽 = 𝑪√𝑹𝑺 C = Chezy coefficient
𝐴
𝑸 = 𝑨𝑪√𝑹𝑺 R = 𝑃, hydraulic radius (m),
Where: V = mean velocity of flow (m/s) S = slope of the energy grade line
Values of C (SI Units)

a. Kutter’s Formula c. Bazin Formula
𝟏
+ 𝟐𝟑 +
𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟓𝟓 𝟖𝟕
𝒏 𝑺 𝑪= 𝒎
𝑪= 𝒏 𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟓𝟓 𝟏+ 𝑹
𝟏+ (𝟐𝟑 + ) √
√𝑹 𝑺 d. Powell Equation
𝑪 𝜺
b. Manning Fomula 𝑪 = −𝟒𝟐 𝒍𝒐𝒈 ( + )
𝑹𝒆 𝑹
𝟏 𝟏
𝑪 = 𝑹𝟔 Where n = roughness coefficient
𝒏 m = Basin coefficient
𝟏 𝟐 𝟏
𝑽 = 𝑹𝟑 𝑺𝟐 R = hydraulic radius
𝒏
𝟏 𝟐 𝟏 𝜀 = roughness, m
𝑸 = 𝑨 𝑹𝟑 𝑺𝟐 Re = Reynold’s number
𝒏
S = slope of EGL
C. Boundary Shear Stress, 𝝉𝒐

The average boundary shear stress, 𝜏𝑜 , acting over the wetted surface of the channel is
given by
𝝉𝒐 = 𝜸𝑹𝑺
Where 𝛾 = unit weight of the liquid
R = hydraulic radius
S = slope of the EGL
D. Normal Depth
The normal depth, dn, is the depth at which uniform flow will occur in an open channel.
Normal depth may be determined from Chezy formula with S = So.

Sample Problems
1. A trapezoidal channel has a bottom width of 6 m and side slopes of 2 horizontal to
1 vertical. If the depth of flow is 1.2 m and the flow is 20.40 m 3/sec
a. Compute the specific energy
b. Compute the slope of the channel if n = 0.014
c. Compute the average shearing stress at the boundary
d. Determine the value of n in the Kutter formula
e. Determine the value of m in the Bazin formula

2. A 600-mm radius sewer pipe is laid on a slope of 0.001 and has a roughness
coefficient of n = 0.012, was found to be 7/8 full. Determine the discharge through
the pipe.

3. A rectangular, concrete channel, 15 m 4. Water flows in a triangular V-notch
wide is to carry water at a rate of steel channel, with vertex of angle of
22 m3/s. If the channel slope is 60°, at a velocity of 1.2 m/s. Find the
0.00025, determine the normal depth normal depth if the channel is laid on
of flow. Use roughness coefficient of a slope of 0.0017. Use n = 0.014.
n = 0.013.

E. Most Efficient Section (MES)
Also known as the most economical sections, these are sections which, for a given slope S,
channel cross-sectional area A, and roughness n, the rate of discharge is a maximum.
Of all canal shapes, the semicircular open channel is the most efficient. For wooden flumes
the rectangular shape is usually employed. Canals excavated in earth must have a
trapezoidal cross section, with the slope less than the angle of repose of the bank material.
To derive the proportions for most efficient sections, minimize the perimeter with the
cross-sectional area constant.
Rectangular Section
b = 2d
R = d/2 d
b
Trapezoidal Section
x
R = d/2
x = 2y Ø Ø d
Ø = 30° y
Triangular Section
A = d2
Ø = 90°
d
Ø
Circular Sections
A circular channel will have its maximum discharge when the depth of flow, d, is 93.8%
of the diameter D, and the velocity is a maximum when the depth is 82% of the diameter.
D
d

Sample Problems
1. A rectangular canal, 6.5 m wide and 1.4 m deep lined with smooth stone (n = 0.013)
has a hydraulic slope of 0.001. What savings in earth excavation and lining per
meter length of canal could have been effected by using the best proportion of
rectangular canal section but adhering to the same discharge and slope?

2. A trapezoidal flume of most efficient proportion has a base width of 1.5 m. Its full
discharge is 3 m3/s. If the same material were used for a most efficient rectangular
section, by how much would the discharge be decreased in m3/s?

3. A triangular channel with most 4. Determine the maximum flow
efficient proportion discharges through a 1.2 m diameter concrete
water at the rate of 1 m3/s. culvert which is laid on a slope of
Assuming n = 0.018 and 0.09. Use n = 0.013.
S = 0.0021 calculate the normal
depth of flow in meters.

F. Alternate Stages of Flow
The channel shown in the figure below carries water at a depth of d and a mean velocity of
V.
𝑉2
The total specific energy in the channel is 𝐻 = 2𝑔 + 𝑑
solving for V, 𝑉 = √2𝑔(𝐻 − 𝑑)
and the discharge is, 𝑄 = 𝐴√2𝑔(𝐻 − 𝑑)
If the equation will be plotted (as shown in the figure at the right side), it can be seen that
when 𝑑 = 0, 𝑄 = 0 and when 𝑑 = 𝐻, 𝑄 = 0 and by substituting values of d in terms of H
a curve is established.
EGL d
𝑉2
2𝑔 Upper stage, FN < 1.0
subcritical FN = 1.0
H Qmax
depth
d Lower stage, FN > 1.0 critical depth, dc
supercritical
depth
0 Q
Variation of discharge with
depth for constant energy
It appears in the curve that, within limits (from 0 to H), there are two depth at which any
given discharge will flow with the same energy content. These two depths are called
alternate stages, and are spoken as the tranquil or upper stage and the rapid or lower stage.
On the upper stage, the Froude number FN < 1, while on the lower stage FN > 1.0.
G. Froude Number
The ratio of the inertia force gravity and For rectangular channel, L= depth of flow
is given by the expression. d
𝑽 𝑽
𝑭𝑵 = 𝑭𝑵 =
√𝒈𝑳 √𝒈𝒅
H. Critical Depth, dc
From the figure shown above that there is a certain depth dc, that for a given total specific
energy H, the discharge is maximum. This depth is called the critical depth and is defined
as the depth at which for a given total head, the discharge is maximum, or conversely, the

depth at which for a given flow, the specific energy is minimum. Its value can be obtained
by differentiating the following equation:
𝑸 = 𝑨√𝟐𝒈(𝑯 − 𝒅)
Critical Depth on Rectangular Section
𝒒 = 𝒅√𝟐𝒈(𝑯 − 𝒅)
Where:
q = unit flow in m3/s per meter width of canal
𝑄
𝑞 = = 𝑉𝑑
𝑏
Q = total flow in m3/s
b = channel width in m
𝟐 𝟑
𝒅𝒄 = 𝑯 𝒐𝒓 𝑯 = 𝒅𝒄
𝟑 𝟐
𝟑 𝒒𝟐
𝒅𝒄 = √
𝒈
replacing q=Vd
𝑽
= 𝟏(Froude number, F)
√𝒈𝒅
Critical Slope
The slope required to give uniform flow at critical depth is known as the critical slope S.
The equation for critical slope for a wide rectangular channel is
𝒏 𝟐 𝑽𝟐
𝑺𝒄 = 𝟒
𝑹 ⁄𝟑
Critical Depth on Any Section

B
𝑸𝟐 𝑩 𝑸𝟐 𝑨 𝟑
= 𝟏 𝒐𝒓 =
𝒈𝑨𝟑 𝒈 𝑩
dc
Where A and/or B, if variable must be expressed Area = A
in terms of dc
The critical velocity V, in irregular channel can be
taken by replacing 𝑄 = 𝐴𝑐 𝑉𝑐
𝒈𝑨𝒄
𝑽𝒄 = √
𝑩𝒄

Sample Problems
1. Water is flowing at a depth of 1.5 m in a 3-m wide rectangular channel having n =
0.013 and S = 0.0009.
a. What is the stage of flow?
b. Determine the critical depth
c. Determine the critical slope

2. A triangular flume having side slope of 1:1 carries water at the rate of 4 m 3/s. The
bottom of the flume is on a slope of 0.004 with n = 0.013.
a. Determine the stage of flow
b. What is the critical depth of the given flow

3. If water flows full in trapezoidal canal having a base width of 1.8 m, width at the top
of 2.8m and a depth of 1.2 m. Assume S = 0.002 and n = 0.012.
a. Compute the rate of flow in the canal
b. Compute the critical depth
c. Determine the type of flow

I. Irregular Open Channel
For natural streams which are most often irregular in shape, the same fundamental
principles of open-channels may also be applied with the consideration of certain additional
factors such as:
a. Variation of slope and channel section,
b. Non-uniformity of flow
c. Variation of roughness coefficient.
However, an appropriate solution is possible by breaking down irregular section into

simple elementary sections and independently analyzing each divided section. In the figure
below is the section of a natural stream in flood stage. It is divided into two sections by the
dotted line ab: the main section and the overbank section. Obviously, under low tide the
overbank section does not have any flow. Moreover, it will have a higher coefficient of
roughness due to the possible presence of vegetation or small trees.
a Overbank section (os)
Main section (ms) b
The total discharge through the irregular channel is

Q = Qms + Qos
where
1
𝑄𝑚𝑠 = 𝐴𝑚𝑠 𝑅 2/3 𝑆𝑚𝑠 1/2
𝑛𝑚𝑠 𝑚𝑠
1
𝑄𝑜𝑠 = 𝐴𝑜𝑠 𝑅𝑜𝑠 2/3 𝑆𝑜𝑠 1/2
𝑛𝑜𝑠
by the Manning equation.
In the computation of the wetted perimeter, the dividing line ab must not be
included since no appreciable shear is occurring along this line. The values of the roughness
coefficients nms and nos, and the slope Sms and Sos are ordinarily taken as average values
within a certain reach of the stream.

Sample Problem
1. A flood occurs in a main channel having a trapezoidal section (side slope on both
sides: 2H to 1V) and base width of 12 m. The depth of flow in this section is 3.60
m and the flood spills out over an almost horizontal plane on the side of the main
channel. The width of the flood plain is 60 m with an overflow depth of 1 m. If n =
0.025 for the main channel and two times as large for the overflow section, estimate
the discharge if the slope for both is 0.00030.

10.2 Non-Uniform Flow
Uniform flow rarely occurs in natural streams because of changes in depth, width,
and slope along the channel. The Manning equation for uniform flow can be applied to
non-uniform flow with accuracy dependent on the length of reach L taken. Thus a long
stream should be divided into several reaches if varying length such that the change in
depth is roughly the same within each reach.
1 2
𝑉1 2
2𝑔
EGL ℎ𝐿 = 𝑆𝐿
Slope = S
𝐻1 Sw.s. 𝑉2 2
𝑑1 2𝑔
Streambed,
𝐻2
Slope = So 𝑑2
𝑆𝑜 𝐿
Section 1 L Section 2
V1, R1, S1 V2, R2, S2
𝑯𝟐 − 𝑯𝟏
𝑳=
̅
𝑺𝒐 − 𝑺
𝑺𝟏 + 𝑺𝟐
̅
𝑺=
𝟐
Where H = specific energy

𝑉2
𝐻= +𝑑
2𝑔
L = length of reach
So = slope of channel bed
S1 and S2 = slope of EGL at sections 1 & 2 respectively, computed using Manning’s
formula
If the slope of EGL is not known, the slope 𝑆̅, may be approximated as
̅𝟐
𝒏𝟐 𝑽
̅
𝑺 = 𝟒/𝟑
𝑹̅
̅ ̅
Where 𝑉 and 𝑅 are the averages of the velocities and hydraulic radii at the two end sections.

Sample Problems
1. A rectangular flume of planed timber (n = 0.012) is 1.5 m wide and carries 1.70 m 3/s
of water. The bed slope is 0.00060. At a certain section the depth is 1 m. Find the
distance to the section where the depth is 0.75 m.

2. A small stream has a trapezoidal cross section with base width of 12 m and side slope
2 horizontal: 1 vertical in a reach of 8 km. During a flood, high water levels recorded
at either ends of the reach are as below:
Section Elevation of Water surface Remarks
bed elevation
Upstream 100.20 102.70 Manning’s n =
0.030
Downstream 98.60 101.30
Estimate the discharge in the stream.

3. A reinforced concrete drainage outfall 2 m in diameter was constructed with a uniform
slope of 2 per thousand and discharges to the sea as shown in the figure. During the
recent heavy downpour, the peak flow in the drainage pipe was 2.05 m 3/s. Assuming
steady flow and n = 0.015, determine the distance between manholes 1 and 2.
L
MH #1 MH #2 MH #3
d1 = 1.25 m d2 = 1.50 m

A. Hydraulic Jump
It is an abrupt rise in water surface which results from retarding water flowing at lower
stage. The change in stage is from a depth less than the critical depth to a one greater than
critical depth but due to loss of head in the jump, the total energy after the jump is less than
the alternate stage before the jump.
EGL
HL
𝑉2 2
𝑉1 2 2𝑔
F
2𝑔 V2
V1 F2
d2 m
F1 dc
m d1
1 2
For rectangular sections

𝒒𝟐 𝒅𝟏 𝒅𝟐 (𝒅𝟏 + 𝒅𝟐 )
=
𝒈 𝟐
(𝒅 𝟐 − 𝒅 𝟏 )𝟑
𝑯𝑳 =
𝟒𝒅𝟏 𝒅𝟐
For non-rectangular section
𝑸𝟐 𝒉𝟏 𝑨 𝟏 − 𝒉𝟐 𝑨 𝟐
= 𝟏 𝟏
𝒈 −
𝑨𝟐 𝑨𝟏
𝑽𝟏 𝟐 𝑽𝟐 𝟐
𝑯𝑳 = ( + 𝒅𝟏 ) − ( + 𝒅𝟐 )
𝟐𝒈 𝟐𝒈
h1 – centroid of section 1 below the water surface

h2 – centroid of section 2 below the water surface

Sample Problems
1. If a discharge of 1 m3/s per meter 2. Water is flowing in a 3 m wide
width of the channel has a velocity of rectangular channel at a depth of 360
4 m/s, to what depth could it possible mm. A hydraulic jump occurs and the
jump? Check the critical depth. depth of water downstream from the
jump is 1300 mm. Determine the
discharge.

3. A hydraulic jump occurs in a trapezoidal channel with side slope of 1:1 and base width
of 4 m. If the upstream depth is 1.0 m and the downstream depth is 2.0 m, compute the
discharge and the power lost in the jump

4. A spillway 1.5 m deep goes over a dam 30 m high. Using a weir factor Cw of 1.92,
determine
a. The depth of flow at the foot of the spillway and after the jump
b. Velocity of flow after the jump
c. The energy after the jump
d. The head loss in the jump

Hydra 325 - Im - 2024 - Ce Dept

Uploaded by

Document Informationclick to expand document information

Document Informationclick to expand document information

Copyright:

Available Formats

Hydra 325 - Im - 2024 - Ce Dept

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Hydra 325 - Im - 2024 - Ce Dept

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Introduction to Hydraulics

HYDRA 325 - HYDRAULICS 1

The science of hydraulics is based on three fundamental laws of physics: (1)

HYDRA 325 - HYDRAULICS 2

The science of water encompasses fluid mechanics, hydraulics and hydrology.

HYDRA 325 - HYDRAULICS 3

D. Subject Matter of Hydraulics

The study of hydraulics is of vital importance in sustainable development of a

E. Environmental and Water Resources problems Involving Hydraulic Application

HYDRA 325 - HYDRAULICS 4

HYDRA 325 - HYDRAULICS 5

HYDRA 325 - HYDRAULICS 6

1.1 Introduction to Fluids

B. Distinction between liquid and a gas

1.2 Dimension and units

Primary Dimension English Units SI Units

Temperature (absolutely) Rankine (°R) Kelvin (°K)

Some conversion factors:

HYDRA 325 - HYDRAULICS 7

1.3 Properties of Fluids

HYDRA 325 - HYDRAULICS 8

Approximate Room-Temperature Densities of Common Fluids

5. Specific Gravity (S.G. or s)

HYDRA 325 - HYDRAULICS 9

Carbon Tetrachloride 15.6 kN/m3

7. Specific Volume (Vs)

HYDRA 325 - HYDRAULICS 10

English Unit SI Unit

Where:σ = surface tension in units of force per unit length

HYDRA 325 - HYDRAULICS 11

HYDRA 325 - HYDRAULICS 12

HYDRA 325 - HYDRAULICS 13

HYDRA 325 - HYDRAULICS 14

HYDRA 325 - HYDRAULICS 15

1.1 Unit Pressure, P

1.2 Pascal’s Law

Let: width = L From the figure:

HYDRA 325 - HYDRAULICS 16

patm = 14.7psi = 101.3 kPa = 760mm of Hg

1.4 Pressure Variation with Elevation

Consider a cylindrical volume of fluid of length.

In reference to the figure:

HYDRA 325 - HYDRAULICS 17

1.5 Pressure Head

To convert pressure head in ft of fluid p 1 to pressure head in ft of fluid or fluid b, we use

HYDRA 325 - HYDRAULICS 18

HYDRA 325 - HYDRAULICS 19

HYDRA 325 - HYDRAULICS 20

HYDRA 325 - HYDRAULICS 21

Steps in the solution of open manometer problems:

Steps in the solution of differential manometer problems:

HYDRA 325 - HYDRAULICS 22

HYDRA 325 - HYDRAULICS 23

HYDRA 325 - HYDRAULICS 24

HYDRA 325 - HYDRAULICS 25

HYDRA 325 - HYDRAULICS 26

3.1 Hydrostatic Force on Plane Surfaces