HYDROLOGY NO.

Hydrology is the science that encompasses the

occurrence, distribution, movement and properties of the
waters of the earth and their relationship with the
environment within each phase of the hydrologic cycle.

The definition of hydrology is the branch of science or

geology that studies the Earth's water. The study of how
the major bodies of water have shifted, expanded and
changed land masses is an example of hydrology.

The hydrologic cycle is important because it is

how water reaches plants, animals and us! Besides
providing people, animals and plants with water, it also
moves things like nutrients, pathogens and sediment in
and out of aquatic ecosystems.
Hydrology is the science that encompasses the study of
water on the Earth's surface and beneath the surface of
the Earth, the occurrence and movement of water, the
physical and chemical properties of water, and its
relationship with the living and material components of
the environment.
Hydrological engineering, sometimes called hydrologic
engineering, is an engineering specialty that focuses on
water resources. There are both undergraduate and
graduate degree programs available in this field, leading
to potential career options in education, engineering, and
consultancy.
The scientific study of the properties, distribution, and
effects of water on the earth's surface, in the soil and
underlying rocks, and in the atmosphere.
The science of the properties, distribution,
and effects of water on a planet's surface, in
the soil and underlying rocks, and in the atmosphere.

The science dealing with the waters of the earth, their

distribution on the surface and underground, and the
cycle involving evaporation, precipitation, flow to the
seas, etc.

The scientific study of the properties, distribution, and

effects of water as a liquid, solid, or gas on the Earth's
surface, in the soil and underlying rocks, and in the
atmosphere.

The definition of hydrology is the branch of science or

geology that studies the Earth's water.

Hydrology is the science that encompasses the study of

water on the Earth's surface and beneath the surface of
the Earth, the occurrence and movement of water, the
physical and chemical properties of water, and its
relationship with the living and material components of
the environment.

Hydrology, particularly water flow, can affect the

local environment due to changes in water quality and
quantity. These changes can be man-made (e.g. a dam
release) or weather-related (flooding), or due to a
combination of both factors (rainfall runoff caused by poor
agricultural practices).
HYDROLOGY LECTURE NO. 2

Engineering hydrology is the science of water resource

engineering which deals with the study of occurrence,
distribution, movement and the properties of water on the
earth or beneath the earth surface or in the atmosphere.

Features of Hydrology
The engineering hydrology deals with the following
features:

1. Estimation of water resources

2. Study the components of the hydrological cycle like
precipitation, runoff, transpiration, and their
interactions.
3. Study the problems of floods and droughts and
preventive actions.
Scope of Engineering Hydrology
The main scope of engineering hydrology is:

1. Determination of Maximum Probable Flood

2. Determination of Water yield from a basin
3. Study the groundwater development
4. Determination of maximum intensity of the storm
5.
1. Determination of Maximum Probable Flood
The study of hydrology can help in determining
the maximum probable flood that can occur at a particular
location. Its frequency is also determined that is essential
for the design of hydraulic structures like dams and
reservoirs, channels and other flood control structures.
2. Determination of Water yield from a basin
For the design of dams and municipal water supply units,
river navigation etc it is necessary to determine the
occurrence, the frequency and the quantity of water that
can be yielded from a basin. This is performed in
hydrology.

3. Study the ground water development

The knowledge on hydro-geology of the area helps to
understand the groundwater development that influences
the recharge facilities like reservoirs and streams,
climate, cropping pattern etc.

4. Determination of maximum intensity of storm

The maximum intensity of storms influences the design of
drainage projects, which are studied in hydrology in
depth.

Applications of Engineering Hydrology

The main applications of engineering hydrology are:

1. Hydrology provides guidance for undergoing proper

planning and management of water resources.
2. Calculates rainfall, surface runoff, and precipitation.
3. It determines the water balance for a particular
region.
4. It mitigates and predicts flood, landslide and drought
risk in the region.
5. It estimates the water resource potential of the river
basins
6. Enables real-time flood forecasting and flood warning.
 7. Hydrology analyses the variations observed in the
catchments by bringing a relationship between the
surface water and groundwater resources of the
catchment.
8. Hydrology studies the required reservoir capacity
that is necessary for irrigation and municipal water
supply purpose during drought conditions.
9. It is used in the design and operation of hydraulic
structures
10. It is used for hydropower generation.
11. Brings measures to control erosion and sediment.

HYDROLOGY- LECTURE NO. 3

Hydrology the branch of science concerned with the
properties of the earth's water, and especially its
movement in relation to land.
"Hydro" comes from the Greek word for...
water. Hydrology is the study of water and hydrologists
are scientists who study water.
Hydrology is the scientific study of the movement,
distribution, and management of water on Earth and other
planets, including the water cycle, water resources.
Hydrology is the science that encompasses the study of
water on the Earth's surface and beneath the surface of
the Earth, the occurrence and movement of water, the
physical and chemical properties of water, and its
relationship with the living and material components of
the environment..

What is Hydrology?

Water is an essential resource that is required by all life

on Earth. Studying the movement, availability, and
quality of water are the jobs of a hydrologist. More
specifically hydrologists study the chemical properties,
biological interactions, and the physical processes that
govern the water cycle.

The water cycle or hydrologic cycle is a process by which

water is continuously cycled around the earth. This
happens through different pathways and at different rates
but the central concepts remain the same. Water
evaporates from the ocean, condenses as clouds, moves
over land, and precipitates. From there it can enter
ground water, evaporate again, or enter a stream or lake.
It will eventually find its way back to the ocean either by
falling as precipitation, flowing with a river, or by moving
ever so slowly with ground water. The hydrologic cycle is
also a process that transfers heat energy. Heat is
transported pole ward by water being evaporated and
then condensing which releases heat. Without the water
cycle the climate would be much more frigid and areas
away from the equator would be much less habitable.

Studying these different aspects allow hydrologists to do

many things such as calculate water budgets. This
process involves tracking where all the water goes in a
watershed and creating an equation with inputs and
outputs to understand water surplus and deficit. Once
completed this budget may be used by city planners to
calculate drinking water availability, farmers to calculate
irrigation needs and availability, industries to calculate if
they can produce certain items, and mining companies to
determine if excavation is cost-effective. Studying floods
is another thing that hydrologists do. This can involve
creating flood plain maps, modeling stream flow, and
predicting what may happen under certain scenarios.
Hydrologists also study pollution by looking at the
sources, transportation mechanisms, and the ultimate fate
of the pollutant. This involves looking at both point
source pollution where the source is known and nonpoint
source pollution where the source is not known.
Groundwater and surface water are investigated to see
how the pollutant travels and how it reacts in nature. The
observed data are used to determine where it will end up
and if it is harmful to the aquatic environment. Much of
what hydrologists do involves field work, lab work, and
modeling work. This creates a more complete picture of
the hydrologic cycle and aids policy makers in making
their decisions involving water.

Hydrologists typically do the following: Measure the

properties of bodies of water, such as volume and stream
flow. Collect water and soil samples to test for certain
properties, such as the pH or pollution levels. Analyze
data on the environmental impacts of pollution, erosion,
drought, and other problems.

Hydrology, particularly water flow, can affect the local

environment due to changes in water quality and quantity.
These changes can be man-made (e.g. a dam release) or
weather-related (flooding), or due to a combination of
both factors (rainfall runoff caused by poor agricultural
practices).

Hydrology has evolved as a science in response to the

need to understand the complex water system of the
earth and help solve water problems. This hydrology
primer gives you information about water on Earth and
humans' involvement and use of water.

Human activities can influence the hydrologic cycle in

many other ways. The volumes and timing of river
flows can be greatly affected by channeling to decrease
the impediments to flow, and by changing the character of
the watershed by paving, compacting soils, and altering
the nature of the vegetation.
 The main factors affecting evaporation are temperature,
humidity, wind speed, and solar radiation. The direct
measurement of evaporation, though desirable, is difficult
and possible only at point locations. The principal source
of water vapour is the oceans, but evaporation also occurs
in soils, snow, and ice.

LECTURE NO. 4

Applications of Engineering Hydrology

 Hydrology provides guidance for undergoing proper
planning and management of water resources.
 Calculates rainfall, surface runoff, and precipitation.
 It determines the water balance for a particular region.

The branches of Hydrology include:

Hydrogeology, Chemical hydrology,
Ecohydrology, Hydroinformatics, Isotope
hydrology, Surface hydrology, Hydrometeorology,
Drainage basin management and Water quality. Surface
Hydrology or Surface-water hydrology is a branch of
Hydrology.

Hydrology is the science that encompasses the

occurrence, distribution, movement and properties of the
waters of the earth and their relationship with the
environment within each phase of the hydrologic cycle.
Hydrology is the study of the amount and quality of water
being stored or conveyed on the land surface, and in soils
and rocks near the surface. The hydrological response of a
catchment is controlled by a combination of climate,
vegetation, drainage, soils and land use.

Description of Hydrologic Cycle

A fundamental characteristic of the hydrologic cycle is

that it has no beginning an it has no end. It can be studied
by starting at any of the following processes:

Earth's water is always in movement, and the natural water cycle, also
known as the hydrologic cycle, describes the continuous movement of
water on, above, and below the surface of the Earth. Water is always
changing states between liquid, vapor, and ice, with these processes
happening in the blink of an eye and over millions of years.

A (very) quick summary of the water cycle

Where does all the Earth's water come from? Primordial
Earth was an incandescent globe made of magma, but all
magmas contain water. Water set free by magma began to
cool down the Earth's atmosphere, until it could stay on
the surface as a liquid. Volcanic activity kept and still
keeps introducing water in the atmosphere, thus
increasing the surface- and groundwater volume of the
Earth.
The water cycle has no starting point. But, we'll begin in
the oceans, since that is where most of Earth's water
exists. The sun, which drives the water cycle, heats water
in the oceans. Some of it evaporates as vapor into the air.
Ice and snow can sublimate directly into water vapor.
Rising air currents take the vapor up into the atmosphere,
along with water from evapotranspiration, which is water
transpired from plants and evaporated from the soil. The
vapor rises into the air where cooler temperatures cause it
to condense into clouds.
Air currents move clouds around the globe, cloud particles
collide, grow, and fall out of the sky as precipitation.
Some precipitation falls as snow and can accumulate as
ice caps and glaciers, which can store frozen water for
thousands of years. Snowpacks in warmer climates often
thaw and melt when spring arrives, and the melted water
flows overland as snowmelt.
Most precipitation falls back into the oceans or onto land,
where, due to gravity, the precipitation flows over the
ground as surface runoff. A portion of runoff enters rivers
in valleys in the landscape, with streamflow moving water
towards the oceans. Runoff, and groundwater seepage,
accumulate and are stored as freshwater in lakes. Not all
runoff flows into rivers, though. Much of it soaks into the
ground as infiltration. Some water infiltrates deep into the
ground and replenishes aquifers (saturated subsurface
rock), which store huge amounts of freshwater for long
periods of time.
Some infiltration stays close to the land surface and can
seep back into surface-water bodies (and the ocean) as
groundwater discharge, and some groundwater finds
openings in the land surface and emerges as freshwater
springs. Over time, though, all of this water keeps moving,
some to reenter the ocean, where the water cycle
"ends" ... oops - I mean, where it "begins."

Global water distribution

For an estimated explanation of where Earth's water
exists, look at the chart below. By now, you know that the
water cycle describes the movement of Earth's water, so
realize that the chart and table below represent the
presence of Earth's water at a single point in time. If you
check back in a thousand or million years, no doubt these
numbers will be different!
Notice how of the world's total water supply of about
332.5 million cubic miles of water, over 96 percent is
saline. And, of the total freshwater, over 68 percent is
locked up in ice and glaciers. Another 30 percent of
freshwater is in the ground. Fresh surface-water sources,
such as rivers and lakes, only constitute about 22,300
cubic miles (93,100 cubic kilometers), which is about
1/150th of one percent of total water. Yet, rivers and lakes
are the sources of most of the water people use everyday.
Notice how of the world's total water supply of about 333
million cubic miles (1,386 million cubic kilometers) of
water, over 96 percent is saline. And, of the total
freshwater, over 68 percent is locked up in ice and
glaciers. Another 30 percent of freshwater is in the
ground. Thus, rivers and lakes that supply surface water
for human uses only constitute about 22,300 cubic miles
(93,100 cubic kilometers), which is about 0.007 percent of
total water, yet rivers are the source of most of the water
people use.
LECTURE NO. 5 - PROPERTIES OF WATER

Water (H2O) is a polar inorganic compound that is at room

temperature a tasteless and odorless liquid, which is
nearly colorless apart from an inherent hint of blue. It is
by far the most studied chemical compound and is
described as the "universal solvent" and the "solvent of
life". It is the most abundant substance on Earth and the
only common substance to exist as a solid, liquid,
and gas on Earth's surface. It is also the third most
abundant molecule in the universe (behind molecular
hydrogen and carbon monoxide).
Water molecules form hydrogen bonds with each other
and are strongly polar. This polarity allows it to
dissociate ions in salts and bond to other polar substances
such as alcohols and acids, thus dissolving them. Its
hydrogen bonding causes its many unique properties,
such as having a solid form less dense than its liquid
form, a relatively high boiling point of 100 °C for its molar
mass, and a high heat capacity.
Water is amphoteric, meaning that it can exhibit
properties of an acid or a base, depending on the pH of
the solution that it is in; it readily produces both and OH−
ions. Related to its amphoteric character, it
undergoes self-ionization. The product of the activities, or
approximately, the concentrations of H+
and OH−is a constant, so their respective concentrations
are inversely proportional to each other.

Water is the chemical substance with chemical

formula H2O; one molecule of water has
two hydrogen atoms covalently bonded to a
single oxygen atom.[ Water is a tasteless, odorless liquid
at ambient temperature and pressure. Liquid water has
weak absorption bands at wavelengths of around 750 nm
which cause it to appear to have a blue colour. This can
easily be observed in a water-filled bath or wash-basin
whose lining is white. Large ice crystals, as in glaciers,
also appear blue.
Under standard conditions, water is primarily a liquid,
unlike other analogous hydrides of the oxygen family,
which are generally gaseous. This unique property of
water is due to hydrogen bonding. The molecules of water
are constantly moving in relation to each other, and the
hydrogen bonds are continually breaking and reforming at
timescales faster than 200 femtoseconds
(2×10−13 seconds). However, these bonds are strong
enough to create many of the peculiar properties of water,
some of which make it integral to life.
Lecture No. 06

·Buoyant plumes — Plumes which are lighter than air

because they are at a higher temperature and
lower density than the ambient air which surrounds them,
or because they are at about the same temperature as the
ambient air but have a lower molecular weight and hence
lower density than the ambient air. For example, the
emissions from the flue gas stacks of
industrial furnaces are buoyant because they are
considerably warmer and less dense than the ambient air.
As another example, an emission plume of methane gas at
ambient air temperatures is buoyant because methane
has a lower molecular weight than the ambient air.
· Dense gas plumes — Plumes which are heavier than air
because they have a higher density than the surrounding
ambient air. A plume may have a higher density than air
because it has a higher molecular weight than air (for
example, a plume of carbon dioxide). A plume may also
have a higher density than air if the plume is at a much
lower temperature than the air. For example, a plume
of evaporated gaseous methane from an accidental
release of liquefied natural gas (LNG) may be as cold as -
161 °C.
· Passive or neutral plumes — Plumes which are neither
lighter or heavier than air.
here are five types of air pollution dispersion models, as
well as some hybrids of the five types:[1]
· Box model — The box model is the simplest of the model
types.[2] It assumes the airshed (i.e., a given volume
of atmospheric air in a geographical region) is in the
shape of a box. It also assumes that the air pollutants
inside the box are homogeneously distributed and uses
that assumption to estimate the average
pollutant concentrations anywhere within the airshed.
Although useful, this model is very limited in its ability to
accurately predict dispersion of air pollutants over an
airshed because the assumption of homogeneous
pollutant distribution is much too simple.
Gaussian model — The Gaussian model is perhaps the
oldest (circa 1936)[3] and perhaps the most commonly
used model type. It assumes that the air pollutant
dispersion has a Gaussian distribution, meaning that the
pollutant distribution has a normal probability
distribution.
 Gaussian models are most often used for predicting the
dispersion of continuous, buoyant air pollution plumes
originating from ground-level or elevated sources.
Gaussian models may also be used for predicting the
dispersion of non-continuous air pollution plumes
(called puff models). The primary algorithm used in
Gaussian modeling is the Generalized Dispersion Equation
For A Continuous Point-Source Plume.[4][5]
· Lagrangian model — a Lagrangian dispersion model
mathematically follows pollution plume parcels (also
called particles) as the parcels move in the atmosphere
and they model the motion of the parcels as a random
walk process. The Lagrangian model then calculates the
air pollution dispersion by computing the statistics of the
trajectories of a large number of the pollution plume
parcels. A Lagrangian model uses a moving frame of
reference[6] as the parcels move from their initial
location. It is said that an observer of a Lagrangian model
follows along with the plume.
· Eulerian model — an Eulerian dispersion model is similar
to a Lagrangian model in that it also tracks the movement
of a large number of pollution plume parcels as they move
from their initial location. The most important difference
between the two models is that the Eulerian model uses a
fixed three-dimensional Cartesian grid[6] as a frame of
reference rather than a moving frame of reference. It is
said that an observer of an Eulerian model watches the
plume go by.
· Dense gas model — Dense gas models are models that
simulate the dispersion of dense gas pollution plumes .

LECTURE NO. 7
Density of water and ice

The density of water is about 1 gram per cubic centimetre

(62 lb/cu ft): this relationship was originally used to define
the gram. The density varies with temperature, but not
linearly: as the temperature increases, the density rises to
a peak at 3.98 °C (39.16 °F) and then decreases ;this is
unusual. Regular, hexagonal ice is also less dense than
liquid water—upon freezing, the density of water
decreases by about 9%.
These effects are due to the reduction of thermal motion
with cooling, which allows water molecules to form more
hydrogen bonds that prevent the molecules from coming
close to each other. While below 4 °C the breakage of
hydrogen bonds due to heating allows water molecules to
pack closer despite the increase in the thermal motion
(which tends to expand a liquid), above 4 °C water
expands as the temperature increases. Water near the
boiling point is about 4% less dense than water at 4 °C
(39 °F).
Under increasing pressure, ice undergoes a number of
transitions to other polymorphs with higher density than
liquid water, such as ice II, ice III, high-density amorphous
ice (HDA), and very-high-density amorphous ice (VHDA).
The unusual density curve and lower density of ice than of water is
vital to life—if water were most dense at the freezing point, then in
winter the very cold water at the surface of lakes and other water
bodies would sink, lakes could freeze from the bottom up, and all life
in them would be killed.Furthermore, given that water is a good
thermal insulator (due to its heat capacity), some frozen lakes might
not completely thaw in summer.The layer of ice that floats on top
insulates the water below. Water at about 4 °C (39 °F) also sinks to the
bottom, thus keeping the temperature of the water at the bottom
constant .
Density of saltwater and ice

The density of salt water depends on the dissolved salt

content as well as the temperature. Ice still floats in the
oceans, otherwise they would freeze from the bottom up.
However, the salt content of oceans lowers the freezing
point by about 1.9 °C (see here for explanation) and
lowers the temperature of the density maximum of water
to the former freezing point at 0 °C. This is why, in ocean
water, the downward convection of colder water
is not blocked by an expansion of water as it becomes
colder near the freezing point. The oceans' cold water
near the freezing point continues to sink. So creatures
that live at the bottom of cold oceans like the Arctic
Ocean generally live in water 4 °C colder than at the
bottom of frozen-over fresh water lakes and rivers.
As the surface of salt water begins to freeze (at
−1.9 °C for normal salinity seawater, 3.5%) the ice that
forms is essentially salt-free, with about the same density
as freshwater ice. This ice floats on the surface, and the
salt that is "frozen out" adds to the salinity and density of
the sea water just below it, in a process known as brine
rejection. This denser salt water sinks by convection and
the replacing seawater is subject to the same process.
This produces essentially freshwater ice at −1.9 °C on the
surface. The increased density of the sea water beneath
the forming ice causes it to sink towards the bottom. On a
large scale, the process of brine rejection and sinking cold
salty water results in ocean currents forming to transport
such water away from the Poles, leading to a global
system of currents called the .

Lecture No. 8

Miscibility and condensation

Water is miscible with many liquids, including ethanol in all
proportions. Water and most oils are immiscible usually forming
layers according to increasing density from the top. This can be
predicted by comparing the polarity. Water being a relatively polar
compound will tend to be miscible with liquids of high polarity such
as ethanol and acetone, whereas compounds with low polarity will
tend to be immiscible and poorly soluble such as with hydrocarbons.
As a gas, water vapor is completely miscible with air. On the other
hand, the maximum water vapor pressure that is thermodynamically
stable with the liquid (or solid) at a given temperature is relatively low
compared with total atmospheric pressure. For example, if the
vapor's partial pressure is 2% of atmospheric pressure and the air is
cooled from 25 °C, starting at about 22 °C water will start to condense,
defining the dew point, and creating fog or dew. The reverse process
accounts for the fog burning off in the morning. If the humidity is
increased at room temperature, for example, by running a hot shower
or a bath, and the temperature stays about the same, the vapor soon
reaches the pressure for phase change, and then condenses out as
minute water droplets, commonly referred to as steam.
A saturated gas or one with 100% relative humidity is when the vapor
pressure of water in the air is at equilibrium with vapor pressure due
to (liquid) water; water (or ice, if cool enough) will fail to lose mass
through evaporation when exposed to saturated air. Because the
amount of water vapor in air is small, relative humidity, the ratio of the
partial pressure due to the water vapor to the saturated partial vapor
pressure, is much more useful. Vapor pressure above 100% relative
humidity is called super-saturated and can occur if air is rapidly
cooled, for example, by rising suddenly in an updraft.

Compressibility

The compressibility of water is a function of pressure and

temperature. At 0 °C, at the limit of zero pressure, the
compressibility is 5.1×10−10 Pa−1. At the zero-pressure
limit, the compressibility reaches a minimum
of 4.4×10−10 Pa−1 around 45 °C before increasing again
with increasing temperature. As the pressure is increased,
the compressibility decreases, being 3.9×10−10 Pa−1 at 0 °C
and 100 megapascals (1,000 bar).
The bulk modulus of water is about 2.2 GPa.[40] The low
compressibility of non-gases, and of water in particular,
leads to their often being assumed as incompressible. The
low compressibility of water means that even in the
deep oceans at 4 km depth, where pressures are 40 MPa,
there is only a 1.8% decrease in volume.

Triple point

The temperature and pressure at which ordinary solid,

liquid, and gaseous water coexist in equilibrium is a triple
point of water. Since 1954, this point had been used to
define the base unit of temperature, the kelvin
but, starting in 2019, the kelvin is now defined using
the Boltzmann constant, rather than the triple point of
water.
Due to the existence of many polymorphs (forms) of ice,
water has other triple points, which have either three
polymorphs of ice or two polymorphs of ice and liquid in
equilibrium. Gustav Heinrich Johann Apollon Tammann in
Göttingen produced data on several other triple points in
the early 20th century. Kamb and others documented
further triple points in the 1960s,

Melting point
The melting point of ice is 0 °C (32 °F; 273 K) at standard
pressure; however, pure liquid water can
be supercooled well below that temperature without
freezing if the liquid is not mechanically disturbed. It can
remain in a fluid state down to its
homogeneous nucleation point of about 231 K (−42 °C;
−44 °F). The melting point of ordinary hexagonal ice falls
slightly under moderately high pressures, by 0.0073 °C
(0.0131 °F)/atm or about 0.5 °C (0.90 °F)/70 atm as the
stabilization energy of hydrogen bonding is exceeded by
intermolecular repulsion, but as ice transforms into its
polymorphs (see crystalline states of ice) above 209.9 MPa
(2,072 atm), the melting point increases markedly with
pressure, i.e., reaching 355 K (82 °C) at 2.216 GPa
(21,870 atm) (triple point of Ice VI.

Electrical properties

Electrical conductivity
Pure water containing no exogenous ions is an
excellent insulator, but not even "deionized" water is
completely free of ions. Water undergoes auto-
ionization in the liquid state, when two water molecules
form one hydroxide anion (OH−) and one hydronium cation
(H3O+).
Because water is such a good solvent, it almost always
has some solute dissolved in it, often a salt. If water has
even a tiny amount of such an impurity, then the ions can
carry charges back and forth, allowing the water to
conduct electricity far more readily.
It is known that the theoretical maximum electrical
resistivity for water is approximately 18.2 MΩ·cm
(182 kΩ·m) at 25 °C. This figure agrees well with what is
typically seen on reverse osmosis, ultra-filtered and
deionized ultra-pure water systems used, for instance, in
semiconductor manufacturing plants. A salt or acid
contaminant level exceeding even 100 parts per trillion
(ppt) in otherwise ultra-pure water begins to noticeably
lower its resistivity by up to several kΩ·m
In pure water, sensitive equipment can detect a very
slight electrical conductivity of 0.05501 ± 0.0001 μS/cm at
25.00 °C.]Water can also be electrolyzed into oxygen and
hydrogen gases but in the absence of dissolved ions this
is a very slow process, as very little current is conducted.
In ice, the primary charge carriers are protons (see proton
conductor). Ice was previously thought to have a small but
measurable conductivity of 1×10−10 S/cm, but this
conductivity is now thought to be almost entirely from
surface defects, and without those, ice is an insulator with
an immeasurably small conductivity.

Polarity and hydrogen bonding

An important feature of water is its polar nature. The

structure has a bent molecular geometry for the two
hydrogens from the oxygen vertex. The oxygen atom also
has two lone pairs of electrons. One effect usually
ascribed to the lone pairs is that the H–O–H gas phase
bend angle is 104.48°, which is smaller than the
typical tetrahedral angle of 109.47°. The lone pairs are
closer to the oxygen atom than the electrons sigma
bonded to the hydrogens, so they require more space. The
increased repulsion of the lone pairs forces the O–H bonds
closer to each other.
Another consequence of its structure is that water is
a polar molecule. Due to the difference
in electronegativity, a bond dipole moment points from
each H to the O, making the oxygen partially negative and
each hydrogen partially positive. A large molecular dipole,
points from a region between the two hydrogen atoms to
the oxygen atom. The charge differences cause water
molecules to aggregate (the relatively positive areas
being attracted to the relatively negative areas). This
attraction, hydrogen bonding, explains many of the
properties of water, such as its solvent properties.
Although hydrogen bonding is a relatively weak attraction
compared to the covalent bonds within the water molecule
itself, it is responsible for a number of water's physical
properties. These properties include its relatively
high melting and boiling point temperatures: more energy
is required to break the hydrogen bonds between water
molecules. In contrast, hydrogen sulfide (H2S), has much
weaker hydrogen bonding due to sulfur's lower
electronegativity. H2S is a gas at room temperature, in
spite of hydrogen sulfide having nearly twice the molar
mass of water. The extra bonding between water
molecules also gives liquid water a large specific heat
capacity. This high heat capacity makes water a good heat
storage medium (coolant) and heat shield .

Lecture No. 9

Cohesion and adhesion

Water molecules stay close to each other (cohesion), due

to the collective action of hydrogen bonds between water
molecules. These hydrogen bonds are constantly breaking,
with new bonds being formed with different water
molecules; but at any given time in a sample of liquid
water, a large portion of the molecules are held together
by such bonds.
Water also has high adhesion properties because of its
polar nature. On extremely clean/smooth glass the water
may form a thin film because the molecular forces
between glass and water molecules (adhesive forces) are
stronger than the cohesive forces. In biological cells
and organelles, water is in contact with membrane and
protein surfaces that are hydrophilic; that is, surfaces that
have a strong attraction to water. Irving
Langmuir observed a strong repulsive force between
hydrophilic surfaces. To dehydrate hydrophilic surfaces—
to remove the strongly held layers of water of hydration—
requires doing substantial work against these forces,
called hydration forces. These forces are very large but
decrease rapidly over a nanometer or less. They are
important in biology, particularly when cells are
dehydrated by exposure to dry atmospheres or to
extracellular freezing.

Surface tension

Water has an unusually high surface tension of

71.99 mN/m at 25 °C which is caused by the strength of
the hydrogen bonding between water molecules. This
allows insects to walk on water.

Capillary action
Because water has strong cohesive and adhesive forces, it
exhibits capillary action. Strong cohesion from hydrogen
bonding and adhesion allows trees to transport water
more than 100 m upward.

Water as a solvent

Water is an excellent solvent due to its high dielectric

constant.Substances that mix well and dissolve in water
are known as hydrophilic ("water-loving") substances,
while those that do not mix well with water are known
as hydrophobic ("water-fearing") substances.The ability of
a substance to dissolve in water is determined by whether
or not the substance can match or better the
strong attractive forces that water molecules generate
between other water molecules. If a substance has
properties that do not allow it to overcome these strong
intermolecular forces, the molecules are precipitated
out from the water. Contrary to the common
misconception, water and hydrophobic substances do not
"repel", and the hydration of a hydrophobic surface is
energetically, but not entropically, favorable.
When an ionic or polar compound enters water, it is
surrounded by water molecules (hydration). The relatively
small size of water molecules (~ 3 angstroms) allows
many water molecules to surround one molecule of solute.
The partially negative dipole ends of the water are
attracted to positively charged components of the solute,
and vice versa for the positive dipole ends.
In general, ionic and polar substances such
as acids, alcohols, and salts are relatively soluble in
water, and non-polar substances such as fats and oils are
not. Non-polar molecules stay together in water because it
is energetically more favorable for the water molecules to
hydrogen bond to each other than to engage in van der
Waals interactions with non-polar molecules.
An example of an ionic solute is table salt; the sodium
chloride, NaCl, separates into Na+cations and Cl−anions,
each being surrounded by water molecules. The ions are
then easily transported away from their crystalline
lattice into solution. An example of a nonionic solute
is table sugar. The water dipoles make hydrogen bonds
with the polar regions of the sugar molecule (OH groups)
and allow it to be carried away into solution.

Quantum tunneling
The quantum tunneling dynamics in water was reported as
early as 1992. At that time it was known that there are
motions which destroy and regenerate the weak hydrogen
bond by internal rotations of the substituent
water monomers.On 18 March 2016, it was reported that
the hydrogen bond can be broken by quantum tunneling in
the water hexamer. Unlike previously reported tunneling
motions in water, this involved the concerted breaking of
two hydrogen bonds. Later in the same year, the discovery
of the quantum tunneling of water molecules was
reported.

Electromagnetic absorption
Water is relatively transparent to visible light, near
ultraviolet light, and far-red light, but it absorbs
most ultraviolet light, infrared light, and microwaves.
Most photoreceptors and photosynthetic pigments utilize
the portion of the light spectrum that is transmitted well
through water. Microwave ovens take advantage of
water's opacity to microwave radiation to heat the water
inside of foods. Water's light blue colour is caused by
weak absorption in the red part of the visible spectrum.

A single water molecule can participate in a maximum of

four hydrogen bonds because it can accept two bonds
using the lone pairs on oxygen and donate two hydrogen
atoms. Other molecules like hydrogen fluoride, ammonia
and methanol can also form hydrogen bonds. However,
they do not show anomalous thermodynamic, kinetic or
structural properties like those observed in water because
none of them can form four hydrogen bonds: either they
cannot donate or accept hydrogen atoms, or there
are steric effects in bulky residues. In water,
intermolecular tetrahedral structures form due to the four
hydrogen bonds, thereby forming an open structure and a
three-dimensional bonding network, resulting in the
anomalous decrease in density when cooled below 4 °C.
This repeated, constantly reorganizing unit defines a
three-dimensional network extending throughout the
liquid. This view is based upon neutron scattering studies
and computer simulations, and it makes sense in the light
of the unambiguously tetrahedral arrangement of water
molecules in ice structures.
However, there is an alternative theory for the structure
of water. In 2004, a controversial paper from Stockholm
University suggested that water molecules in liquid form
typically bind not to four but to only two others; thus
forming chains and rings. The term "string theory of
water" (which is not to be confused with the string
theory of physics) was coined. These observations were
based upon X-ray absorption spectroscopy that probed
the local environment of individual oxygen atoms.

Molecular structure
The repulsive effects of the two lone pairs on the oxygen
atom cause water to have a bent, not linear, molecular
structure allowing it to be polar. The hydrogen-oxygen-
hydrogen angle is 104.45°, which is less than the 109.47°
for ideal sp3 hybridization. The valence bond
theory explanation is that the oxygen atom's lone pairs
are physically larger and therefore take up more space
than the oxygen atom's bonds to the hydrogen
atoms. The molecular orbital theory explanation (Bent's
rule) is that lowering the energy of the oxygen atom's
nonbonding hybrid orbitals (by assigning them more s
character and less p character) and correspondingly
raising the energy of the oxygen atom's hybrid orbitals
bonded to the hydrogen atoms (by assigning them more p
character and less s character) has the net effect of
lowering the energy of the occupied molecular orbitals
because the energy of the oxygen atom's nonbonding
hybrid orbitals contributes completely to the energy of the
oxygen atom's lone pairs while the energy of the oxygen
atom's other two hybrid orbitals contributes only partially
to the energy of the bonding orbitals (the remainder of
the contribution coming from the hydrogen atoms' 1s
orbitals).
Chemical properties
In liquid water there is some self-
dissociation giving hydronium ions and hydroxide ions.
2 H2O ⇌ H3O++ OH−

The equilibrium constant for this reaction, known as

the ionic product of water,Kw, has a value of about
10−14 at 25 °C. At neutral pH, the concentration of
the hydroxide ion (OH−) equal to that of the (solvated)
hydrogen ion (H+), with a value close to 10−7 mol dm−3 at
25 °C.

Geochemistry
Action of water on rock over long periods of time
typically leads to weathering and water erosion,
physical processes that convert solid rocks and minerals
into soil and sediment, but under some conditions
chemical reactions with water occur as well, resulting
in metasomatism or mineral hydration, a type of
chemical alteration of a rock which produces clay
minerals . It also occurs when Portland cement hardens.
Water ice can form clathrate compounds, known
as clathrate hydrates, with a variety of small molecules
that can be embedded in its spacious crystal lattice. The
most notable of these is methane clathrate, 4 CH
4·23H2O, naturally found in large quantities on the
ocean floor.

Lecture No. 10

Acidity in nature
Rain is generally mildly acidic, with a pH between 5.2
and 5.8 if not having any acid stronger than carbon
 dioxide. If high amounts of nitrogen and sulfur oxides
are present in the air, they too will dissolve into the
cloud and rain drops, producing acid rain.

Isotopologues
Several isotopes of both hydrogen and oxygen exist,
giving rise to several known isotopologues of
water. Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water is the current
international standard for water isotopes. Naturally
occurring water is almost completely composed of the
neutron-less hydrogen isotope protium. Only
155 ppm include deuterium (2
H or D), a hydrogen isotope with one neutron, and fewer
than 20 parts per quintillion include tritium (3H or T),
which has two neutrons. Oxygen also has three stable
isotopes, with
O present in 99.76%, O in 0.04%, and O in 0.2% of water
molecules.
Deuterium oxide, D2O, is also known as heavy
water because of its higher density. It is used in nuclear
reactors as a neutron moderator. Tritium is radioactive,
decaying with a half-life of 4500 days; THO exists in
nature only in minute quantities, being produced primarily
via cosmic ray-induced nuclear reactions in the
atmosphere. Water with one protium and one deuterium
atom HDO occurs naturally in ordinary water in low
concentrations (~0.03%) and D2O in far lower amounts
(0.000003%) and any such molecules are temporary as the
atoms recombine.
The most notable physical differences
between H2O and D2O, other than the simple difference in
specific mass, involve properties that are affected by
hydrogen bonding, such as freezing and boiling, and other
kinetic effects. This is because the nucleus of deuterium is
twice as heavy as protium, and this causes noticeable
differences in bonding energies. The difference in boiling
points allows the isotopologues to be separated. The self-
diffusion coefficient of H2O at 25 °C is 23% higher than the
value of D2O. Because water molecules exchange
hydrogen atoms with one another, hydrogen deuterium
oxide (DOH) is much more common in low-purity heavy
water than pure dideuterium monoxide D2O.
Consumption of pure isolated D2O may affect biochemical
processes – ingestion of large amounts impairs kidney and
central nervous system function. Small quantities can be
consumed without any ill-effects; humans are generally
unaware of taste differences, but sometimes report a
burning sensation or sweet flavor. Very large amounts of
heavy water must be consumed for any toxicity to become
apparent. Rats, however, are able to avoid heavy water by
smell, and it is toxic to many animals.
Light water refers to deuterium-depleted water (DDW),
water in which the deuterium content has been reduced
below the standard 155 ppm level.

Occurrence
Water is the most abundant substance on Earth and also
the third most abundant molecule in the universe,
after H2 and CO. 0.23 ppm of the earth's mass is water and
97.39% of the global water volume of 1.38×109 km3 is
found in the oceans

LECTURE NO. 11

A reservoir is an artificial lake where water is stored.

Most reservoirs are formed by constructing dams across
rivers. A reservoir can also be formed from a natural lake
whose outlet has been dammed to control the water level.
The dam controls the amount of water that flows out of
the reservoir.
What is the difference between dam and reservoir?
A dam appears as a wall that is constructed across the
river or valley, which ensures that water forms behind the
wall constructed. ... On the other hand, the reservoir is
the water that accumulates behind the constructed dam,
which sometimes grows to be some of the largest lakes in
the world

How do dams and reservoirs work?

The construction of a dam across a river forms
a reservoir that raises the water level upstream, stores
the water, and slows down its rate of flow. This improves
the navigation conditions upstream of the dam for ships
and boats

What are dams and reservoirs used for?

A dam is built to control water through placement of a
blockage of earth, rock and/or concrete across a stream or
river. Dams are usually constructed to store water in
a reservoir, which is then used for a variety of applications
such as irrigation and municipal water supplies.

What is reservoir and types of reservoir?

There are three types of reservoirs: The valley-
dammed reservoir, which floods a valley. The bank-
side reservoir, which diverts water from local rivers. The
service reservoir, which is usually a concrete structure
holding water.

Reservoirs are very dangerous places to swim and the

government advises against people taking a dip in
a reservoir. Here's why: They tend to have very steep
sides which makes them incredibly hard to get out of.
They can be very deep, with hidden machinery that can
cause injuries.
Applications of Engineering Hydrology Hydrologists work
in conjunction with civil engineers to ensure the quality,
integrity and sustainability of
infrastructure construction projects. Civil engineers use
the knowledge, information, observation and data that
have been collected by hydrologists to design, build and
operate dams and reservoirs.

1. Determination of Maximum Probable Flood

2. Determination of Water yield from a basin
3. Study the groundwater development
4. Determination of maximum intensity of the storm
1. Determination of Maximum Probable Flood
The study of hydrology can help in determining
the maximum probable flood that can occur at a particular
location. Its frequency is also determined that is essential
for the design of hydraulic structures like dams and
reservoirs, channels and other flood control structures.
2. Determination of Water yield from a basin
For the design of dams and municipal water supply units,
river navigation etc it is necessary to determine the
occurrence, the frequency and the quantity of water that
can be yielded from a basin. This is performed in
hydrology.

3. Study the ground water development

The knowledge on hydro-geology of the area helps to
understand the groundwater development that influences
the recharge facilities like reservoirs and streams,
climate, cropping pattern etc.

4. Determination of maximum intensity of storm

The maximum intensity of storms influences the design of
drainage projects, which are studied in hydrology
The main applications of engineering hydrology are:

1. Hydrology provides guidance for undergoing proper

planning and management of water resources.
2. Calculates rainfall, surface runoff, and precipitation.
3. It determines the water balance for a particular
region.
4. It mitigates and predicts flood, landslide and drought
risk in the region.
5. It estimates the water resource potential of the river
basins
6. Enables real-time flood forecasting and flood warning.
7. Hydrology analyses the variations observed in the
catchments by bringing a relationship between the
surface water and groundwater resources of the
catchment.
8. Hydrology studies the required reservoir capacity
that is necessary for irrigation and municipal water
supply purpose during drought conditions.
9. It is used in the design and operation of hydraulic
structures
10. It is used for hydropower generation.
11. Brings measures to control erosion and
sediments.
LECTURE NO. 12

Applications of Engineering Hydrology

Hydrology is used to find out maximum probable flood at

proposed sites e.g. Dams.

 The variation of water production from catchments

can be calculated and described by hydrology.
 Engineering hydrology enables us to find out the
relationship between a catchments’s surface water
and groundwater resources
 The expected flood flows over a spillway, at a
highway Culvert, or in an urban storm drainage
system can be known by this very subject.
 It helps us to know the required reservoir capacity to
assure adequate water for irrigation or municipal
water supply in droughts condition.
 It tells us what hydrologic hardware (e.g. rain gauges,
stream gauges etc) and software (computer models)
are needed for real-time flood forecasting
 Used in connection with design and operations of
hydraulic structure
 Used in prediction of flood over a spillway, at highway
culvert or in urban storm drainage
 Used to assess the reservoir capacity required to
assure adequate water for irrigation or municipal
water supply during drought
 Hydrology is an indispensable tool in planning and
building hydraulic structures.
 Hydrology is used for city water supply design which
is based on catchments area, amount of rainfall, dry
period, storage capacity, runoff evaporation and
transpiration.
  Dam construction, reservoir capacity, spillway
capacity, sizes of water supply pipelines and affect of
afforest on water supply schemes, all are designed on
basis of hydrological equations.

LECTURE NO. 13

Water Refilling Station Study

The demand at the water refilling stations – water stores

that sell purified water – is now increasing. The quality of
purified water conforms with the national standards for
drinking water and is even better than the quality of
water produced by traditional water supply systems in
terms of removed impurities.

Over the years, as the demand for cleaner water becomes

higher, the price of household water purifiers and bottled
water has become prohibitive. Water refilling stations
managed by private entrepreneurs offer a cheaper and
more convenient solution to the public’s drinking water
needs than bottled water or the use of household filters.

At present, about 3,000 water refilling stations have

proliferated nationwide. They sell purified water of
comparable quality with bottled water at a lower price.
For example, the current price per gallon of refilled
purified water in Metro Manila ranges from P 50 to P 120
per 5-gallon container or about P 2.50 to P 6.00 per liter
while the bottled water is sold at P 12.00 to P 25.00 per
liter. Household filters, on the other hand, cost P 5,000 to
P 25,000 per unit ( 1 US $ = P 56 in 2004).
In Metro Manila, most of the water refilling stations are
connected to the pipes of two concessionaires: Maynilad
Water Company or Manila Water Company for their source
of raw water while in other areas they opt to use private
deep wells. The “potable water” supplied by the providers
is then further purified by utilizing a combination of water
treatment equipment, such as sediment filters, carbon
filters, water softeners, reverse osmosis membranes,
ultra-violet lamps, and ozone generators. Typical water
refilling stations can produce 3,000 to 12,000 litres of
purified water per day. In previous years, most of the
people were bringing a container to a water refilling
station to buy purified water.

Nowadays, because of convenience on the part of the

consumers, purified water in 5-gallon (22.7 litres)
containers are delivered by the station directly to the
people’s home. Aqua Sure, a water refilling station in
Metro Manila, can deliver 5,500 gallons (25,000 litres) a
day to its 8,000 household clients.

Features of a water refilling station

Structurally, water refilling station can be operated with a
minimum area of at least 20-25 square metres. It
comprises the following sections: refilling and selling
room, enclosed water purification room, container
washing and sanitizing room, storage room for empty and
refilled containers, source water storage facility, toilet
and an office. To operate the water store, about five
employees are needed.

1 – Manager – Overseas store operations at least 4 hours a

day
1 – Accountant/Bookkeeper – Makes financial statement of
business operations
1 – Administrative assistant – Logs and handles cash sales
and purchases
1 – Front Liner – Accepts and refills containers of
customers
1 – Technical Asst. – Maintains and runs the machine
1 – Driver/Delivery Man – Transport refilled containers to
customer’s home

The main processes in a water refilling station is dictated

by raw water quality. The typical steps are filtration
(several stages), softening, and disinfection. The
machines that could be installed for such processes are
the following:
Multi-media sediment filter – removes sediments such as
rust, sand and particles that are invisible to the naked
eye; employs a total of 5 filters.
Ion exchanger – replaces hard minerals with soft minerals.
Activated carbon filter – removes all organic chemicals,
herbicide, pesticide, offensive odor and bad taste.
Reverse osmosis membrane – the heart of the system and
the most expensive unit; removes inorganic minerals,
bacteria and viruses while retaining its oxygen content.
Since the filter size is very small at less than 0.05
micrometre, the product water could have a total
dissolved solids (TDS) of less than 10 ppm. The filtration
process rejects about 50 percent of raw water volume.
Post-carbon filter – improves the taste of water.
Ultraviolet lamp – ensures that the water is free from
disease-causing micro-organisms.
Ozone generator – inhibits the growth of bacteria in the
product tank and prolongs the shelf life of water.
The efficiency of water purification system in removing
impurities is high. The 10 water quality parameters
measured by Magtibay (2001) showed an average of 80
percent efficiency.

Institutions and policies

The agencies directly involved in the establishment
operation of water refilling stations are as follows:
The Department of Health (DOH). DOH is the main agency
responsible for protecting the health of the people. The
Sanitation Code of the Philippines mandates DOH in
protecting drinking water quality. Consequently, DOH
issues implementing rules and regulations prescribing
sanitary standards for water supply systems, including
water refilling stations.

The Center for Health Development (CHD) is the regional

branch of DOH. Its main function is to provide technical
assistance to local government units and to monitor DOH
programme implementation which includes water quality
and sanitation standards. For water refilling stations, CHD
is mandated to issue initial and operational permits.

The Local Government Units (LGUs) are mandated by

Presidential Decree (PD 856) to issue sanitary permit,
sanitary clearance, health certificates, certificate of
potability, drinking water site clearance and closure order
(if necessary) and to conduct sanitary inspection of WRS.

The Water Quality Association of the Philippines Inc.

(WQAP) is an organization of private firms who are
engaged in the manufacture, sale, and distribution of
water refilling station equipment and supplies, as well as
water treatment and purification equipment and
technology for household, institutional, commercial and
industrial applications. About 85 percent of its 250
members operates water refilling stations.

Association of Water Refilling Entrepreneurs (AWARE)

concentrates on resolving business management issues of
its members.

Presidential Decree No. 856 (PD 856) or the Sanitation

Code of the Philippines is the main law requiring all
establishments to comply with existing sanitary standards
to protect public health. Guidelines for operating a water
refilling station are indicated in the Supplemental
Implementing Rules and Regulations on Water Supply of
PD 856 issued in 1999.
LECTURE NO. 14

Water quality monitoring

Source water and product water are subject to regular
monitoring by the local health office. The national
standards for drinking water contains 54 parameters that
must be complied with. Only DOH-accredited laboratories
are allowed to conduct water testing and analysis. The
frequency of monitoring is as follows:

Bacteriological quality – at least monthly

Physical quality – at least every six (6) months
Chemical quality – at least every six (6) months
Biological quality – at least once a year
Monitoring of radioactive contaminants shall be done only
if there is significant input of radiation from the
surrounding environment.

Conclusions
Water refilling stations can be a good source of safe
drinking water in the Philippines. Purified water can meet
the aesthetic standards easily detectable by the people in
terms of taste, odor and color. The efficient water
purification processes can make the quality of water
superior to the traditional water systems. However, the
risk of contamination is possible if the handling practices
are not closely monitored.