1

Historical
Phonetics
Monday, February 15, 2016

We have seen the types of phonetic changes that have arisen; there are spontaneous changes and conditional
changes (regular and irregular). Now let's see the causes.

Substrate causes6 : the languages that existed before the arrival of the Romans intervene in the learning patterns of
Latin because when it comes to learning another language we do it in the manner of our mother tongue.

There was a change that is produced by the velar consonantal cc -kk- (germination)

-k- (voicing due to a Celtic substrate), is a feature that divides western Romania 7 from eastern Romania

-g

The group kt (nocte) in the area where there were Celts will be pronounced so (the k is weakened until it becomes
a palatal semivowel, yod) > it (in French it has given nuit and lait), in Galician/Portuguese it is pronounced noite
[noyte], leite [Leyte] undergoes a public address process and the /i/ is closed; In Spanish the /i/ palatalizes the /t/
and transforms it into a voiceless prepalatal affricate /ĉ/ (milk)

Eastern Romania undergoes a process of assimilation and kt> tt

F-> h-> Ø (explained by Basque substrate)

Changes attributed to the superstratum8 :

The losing language is at the base of the winning language. The influence of languages on new ones. In the case
of Spanish we have three superstrata (Germans, Arabs,...). The Germans were already very Romanized. Werra
(war) is a word inherited from the Germans, before it was warlike. Then came the Arabs who have not left much
of a mark in phonetics (they have left a suffix and a lot of lexicon). The Arabisms that penetrate Spain carry the
article “al-” and those that enter from Cecilia do not.

6 language that exerts an influence on another language installed later in the same territory
7 The Rhine separates them, those above are called in one way and those below are called in another way.
8Language that spreads through another linguistic domain and that is abandoned by its speakers in favor of the
original language, over which, however, it exerts some influence
Sometimes, educated pressures can influence language, such as al+consonant>au>ou>oo>o (reciprocal
assimilation)

Saltus > soto

Alterum > other

It is something considered vulgar by the elites, so they are going to stop it. Example: height > height. It is because
some have been held back in this process.

Altariu > otero (because its evolution has been slowed by pressure from the educated elites)

F->h->Ø: one was aspirated and the other was not, in the north this h- was not aspirated. Homine [omine, Ø],
female [female, was aspirated].

Philip II decided to move the headquarters of the court to Madrid where the Old Castilian style was going to
prevail because he grew up in Valladolid.

║Sebastián de Covarrubias is the author of the first monolingual dictionary, he is from Toledo. When he reaches
the h- he regrets because that one does not arrive.

The extreme apocope (11th and 12th centuries) is explained by cultural causes due to the French influence (mixed
marriages, also introduced along the Camino de Santiago) → cultural influence.
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Amendula or ad-mordiu are Latin words that, as a superstratum of Arabic, have introduced letters that were not in
Latin.

Normally linguistic fashion has a lot to do with political power. The power was in Rome and in Lurdunum
(Lyon), this means that the lexical innovations took time or never reached the lateral areas (Dacia and Spain), the
central ones (Italy and Gaul). A current called Neolinguistics (they have observed coincidence between lexis in
Dacia and Spain). Example: those on the left correspond to an older period.

formosus // bellus: the word bellus is a word imported from Italy, it is heritage and began to be introduced with
the Neoplatonic current of the 16th century

comedĕre (eat) // mandūcāre

magis // plus (more)

fabulāre (speak with imagination)// parabolāre: was replaced by a Christian Latin (loqui)

In the center the novelty and on the sides, less. A new type of vulgar vocalism is going to emerge. The most
distant parts of the empire will not receive the same news.

Also cultural factors, culture can influence the elites of society.

Causes external to the language itself

Cultural causes
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Tuesday, February 16, 2016

Nominative: Dexter – a – um

Sinister > sinister

Acc: dextrum > right-handed

Sinestrum > sinister

Ideology: the mentality makes Dexter the good side, that is, the one that predominates. Everything comes together
so that Dexter is the positive. Ideology is going to make this adjective “sinister” loaded with negative
connotations in all habits.

Obstetrics9

The sinisterness of a spatial location is worthless. For the location, a word from the Basque Ezquerra is imported,
but in made utterances there may be traces of this word sinister.

Before finishing with the causes of changes: Sandhi phenomena 10 . It has to do with phenomena that occur at the
borders of words. The French adverb dans, the final /s/ is not pronounced, but when pronounced before a vowel
they link them (dans un mois). Vessel [b] plosive or [ᵬ] fricative (the vessels).

Phonetic/phonological mutation:

Sounds are structured in a phonological system. What matters is not the sounds but the relationships they form
(oppositions). There are changes that affect this system, when this happens we speak of phonological mutation.
Phonologization, dephonologization, transphonologization

Phonologization:

It is a process by which a phonetic change causes the appearance/emergence of a new phonological opposition. It
is the creation of a new phoneme, but it is defined by the oppositions it enters into with other members of the
system. This occurs when an allophone11 It rises in the range and has an impact on the phonological level. The
phoneme k (voiceless velar stop) in Latin had two variants in front of a, o, u, and a wet k that began to palatalize
and affricate [k] e, i. This is a pan-Romanic process → it is the creation of a phonological distinction previously
non-existent in the system.

[k] + a, o, u: Cappa, covva, curare, curtu

[k]+e, i: cista (basket), cyma (top), centum (hundred)

A mere Latin variant will lead to the emergence of a new, totally different phoneme.

Dephonologization:

It is the loss of a phonological opposition in the system. The ll is being dephonologized because yeism is
becoming generalized → the disappearance of a phonological distinction.

In MS we had two apicoalveolar fricatives: /s/ /z/ were graphically represented with “ss”, “s” were neither
homophones nor homographs [‫ ]س‬and [‫ ]ز‬------------- In the 16th century it was devoiced and
the voiceless /s/ predominates → loss of the voiced ones in the sibilants.

9 Part of medicine that deals with pregnancy, childbirth and the puerperium
10 It is known as sandhi (from the Sanskrit samdhi, 'union, link'), in linguistics the different types of
phonosyntactic alterations, determined by the phonological context, that phonemes suffer in the middle of the
word or within the phrase when coming into contact with other sounds.
11 Each of the variants that occur in the pronunciation of the same phoneme, according to its position in the word
or syllable, according to the character of the neighboring phonemes, etc.
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Transphonologization:

It is when it is neither created nor suppressed but changed, instead of being located in one place it will be located
in another. /š/ ‫( ش‬voiceless prepalatal fricative in MS) > /x/ (voiceless velar fricative). The phoneme has not
disappeared but has changed, it is not created ex nihilo. Oppositions with members of the palatal order. /š/ /s/ are
written with “x”. /χ/ was for a long time written with an “x”

Go to a phonology manual (phoneme, system, paradigm, allophone, etc.).

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Wednesday, February 17, 2016

Topic 2: Vulgar Latin

Vulgar Latin (LV) supposes an oral register, it presented diatopic, diastratic and diachronic variations.

Diatopic12 : these are dialectal variations, it is an Indo-European language of the Italic stem, but it is not the only
one, other languages coexisted.

Diachronic: languages change over time. It is not the same as the L. archaic, preclassical or postclassical. When a
province…. It receives the contribution of an older Latin. It is said that Hispanic Latin is archaic Latin, because it
was conquered very early.

Diastratic13 : It has to do with social classes, they are sociolinguistic variations.

The ages of Latin: (the stages of Latin)

Classical Latin vs. Vulgar Latin (parallels)

LV: it was the spoken language of the middle classes and the classes that had not had access to institutions, these
institutions became a very sophisticated language and became differentiated from the LV (spoken register).
Proliferation of geminates and diminutives, expressiveness, affectivity. It is a language that runs parallel to the
LC. From the 1st century BC. C. the oral record (LV) begins to differentiate from the written record (LC).

LC: used the word caput to talk about the upper end of the body, this word has not found its place in any
Romance language. Tēsta (it was a clay pot), in Spanish capitia . Loqui – fabulare – parabolāre.

LC:

Archaic Latin II BC: Libyan Andronicus and Nebius

Preclassical Latin: until the first half of the 1st century BC. C. Plautus, Cato the Elder, Lucretius, Catun

Classical Latin: 14 AD. C., year of the death of Augustus (it is the Golden Age). Caesar, Titolibius, Oratius, Ovid,
Saustio.

Post-classical Latin (Silver Age), known as the Baroque: 200 AD. c.

Late Latin – low Latin: until the end of Latinity, 8th century. We would say that they are Christian authors: Saint
Augustine, Saint Geronimo (he translated the Bible into Latin)

Medieval Latin: Boethius, Saint Isidore

The LV began from the preclassic and ran parallel to the LC. From the 6th century onwards, proto-romance
appears, it has to do with the arrival of the Visigoths. It is no longer a LV but a proto-romance.

Those who knew LC begin to not be understood by those who spoke LV, the language of the church is not
understood. There is a council in Tours where clerics are forced to read homilies in the Romance language (we
are in 813). We have a written Latin and a spoken proto-romance, another leap remains to be made, a written
romance (introduced in 842) when Les testaments de Strasbourg are written.

The LV sources:

How do we know the characteristics of LV? How do we know the registry?

There are no texts written in LV, what there are are vulgarisms that appear in certain works: in grammars, for

12 Said of a linguistic difference: which is due to the different geographical origins of the speakers.
13 Said of a linguistic difference: which is due to the different sociocultural levels of the speakers.
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example the Appendix probi. The appendix consists of a list of errors with the correct forms. Vetulus non veclus.
(-ulus, -ula, -ulum, is a diminutive suffix). From these errors we come from the Romance languages and that is
what interests us.

Glossaries: they collect terms that are vulgar, we have had glossaries since the 8th century. There are glossaries
that go back to medieval Latin.

Inscriptions of low Latinity, graffiti: they existed in Pompeii.

Others are on tablets on sheets of lead: everything from spells to unwanted wishes were written.

There are literary writings that reproduce the way of speaking of even lower classes, this is what happens in
Plautus's comedy. In the same way Petronio has a work that is the Supper of Quim...

Technical treatises: treatises on new cuisine or veterinary medicine, for example.

Christian authors: they were in the phase of... before it was prohibited, then tolerated and then official. The first
classes that were Christianized were the lower classes. Augustine of Hippo “it is better that grammarians rebuke
us than that the people do not understand us.” It is very important that the syntactic change is due to the Bible. It
was written in Aramaic and Hebrew, and the New Testament... since people do not know how to speak those
languages, we face the problem of translation. The first language into which the Bible is translated is Greek. In
Alexandria the so-called translation of the seventy (the number of those who intervened) into Greek is made,
Alexandria beacon of intellectuality until the 3rd century. San Gerónimo uses a very colloquial register, the type
of syntactic construction is that of the Romance languages.

There is another source of the LV which is the reconstruction that is done from the Romance languages... but that
has not been demonstrated. The formation of the Romance languages helps to reconstruct what it has been like.
For example: sum (esse) the forms of that verb in some languages (essere/ être/ ser) make it clear that next to esse
there had to be a form *essere. Acutu (aiguiser 14 / sharpen15 ), it is postulated that there must have existed a vulgar
Latin verb *acutiare. Even loans or testimonies from non-Romance languages but neighboring areas of Romania
can provide us with testimonies of this, there are testimonies from Basque that are loans from Latin that indicate
some characteristics of spoken Latin. For example: pake (Basque) < pacem (Latin). When the Basques borrow
this word they palatalize the k in front of e, i. (palatalization would be in the 5th century). Kaiser (German) is a
loanword from Latin < caesar, the phenomenon of palatalization had not yet appeared (ke>k'>Ɵ)

Thursday, February 18, 2016

Appendix probi

What phenomena does Probus begin to document?

Postonic syncopation. Phonetic context (between what type of consonants has it been produced?) between muta
and liquid (vernaculus non vernaclus/ angulus non anglus)

53: calida non calda syncopation also occurs in the reverse order (between liquid and muta)

55: (let's relate it to 63, 65, 73) vinea non vinia cochlea non coclia: this is a phenomenon by which the number
of syllables will decrease. The phenomenon consists of reducing a hiatus into a diphthong, it becomes a
prenuclear allophone. The emergence of a yod that did not exist in classical Latin and that will exist in vulgar
Latin. The phenomenon that a hiatus transforms into a diphthong is called syneresis.

72: lancea non lancia (---k-) (the k in front of an –i leads to the current z that emerged in the 17th century) the
current result is “lance”. A yod that arises through syneresis16 .

14 Rendre plus tranchant, affûter / exciter, stimuler.

15 Make or sharpen something / sting, stimulate
16 Reduction to a single syllable, in the same word, of adjacent vowels that are normally pronounced in different
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80: 81: it is a recurring phenomenon. Probo is seeing the hiatus reduction in diphthong.

Vetulus (it is a diminutive of vetus, little old man). It happens that there is a suffix that is unstressed –ulus, -ula, -
ulum is associated with radicals that end in k. example: artikulus (the heritage word for this word is artejo). There
are going to be many words that end in -ikulus/ -ekulus, the t is going to be assimilated giving k vetulus>vekulus
>veclus

Doublet (of the same… we are going to have one vulgar and another not)

81: auris non oricla: assimilation17 and monophthongization of the diphthong au- in o. It is a trend that occurs in
LV

If the phenomenon occurs in the LV. Proto-Romance is already particular to each language while LV is common
to all languages.

Absolute chronology is when we have a date, we have exact dates (Nebrija or second edition of Celestina).
Approximate chronology that may be earlier or later.

86: cloaca non cluaca, another phenomenon of syneresis (reduction of a hiatus to a diphthong).

40: coqui (it is from the verb coquere) non coci, disappearance of the wau.

20 and 25: we have column non colonna/ formica non furmica we have reflected the vacillations of the timbre
that will be latent in LV. A ŭ gives us an ǫ > ọ vs formica is the ultracorrection.

76: ansa non asa: we are in the presence of the NS group that is going to suffer a phenomenon of total regressive
assimilation.

Arborrem arb ole loss of –e, two sounds that are the same or that share common features will be differentiated (
dissimilation ). Lateral and vibrating liquids (ryl).

Assimilation: they are two different sounds that will suffer a phenomenon of trying to equalize each other. In this
case the strong sound the “s” is the one that will triumph NS, the “n” is assimilated. This phenomenon occurred in
LV. Total regressive assimilation. NS > S | NS > S > Z > S

Then we have progressive assimilation palumbaria (14) > palomera. The MB group will experience a progressive
assimilation, the nasal feature invades the weak sound, the result will give an “m”: MB > M

AU: a reciprocal assimilation will occur between the two vowels: AU > OṶ > OỌ > O

Almost all monophthongizations are the result of total and reciprocal assimilations.

Sentendum sintiendum / serventum sirvientum/ comfortem… diphthongation: a vowel segment is split into two,
the diphthong comes from a single vowel.

Fortem > strong apocope tremendous

Dominus owner syncopation palatalization diphthongation

syllables.
17 Action and effect of assimilating (altering the articulation of a speech sound, resembling it to another
immediate or close one by replacing one or more characters of that sound with others of this one.
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Monday, February 22, 2016

The phonological system of classical Latin (LC): (in class material).

The triangular phonological system is one in whose maximum degree of opening there is no difference in
location.

The vowel system of the LC was a quantitative system, it is a feature that is equivalent to the duration of a sound
in time. It is relative not fixed, the quantity is not only of ancient languages, the quantity opposes long phonemes
to short ones. Currently the quantity is represented with points while before it was represented with -. It is a
prosodic or suprasegmental feature18 . The phonemes of the LC system were ten (there are 5 but since the long
ones are opposed to the short ones, there are 10). In addition there were three diphthongs AE, OE and AU. The
placement serves to differentiate words (palo, pelo, p?lo). Līber / liber (free / book). The quantity differentiated
the meaning: mālum / malum, oculus, os / ōs (bone / kiss).

The consonantal system of the LC: There were two types of stops: voiceless stops vs. voiced stops. b, d, g in
Latin were voiced stops / p, t, k are stops in Spanish. There were two nasals m and n. They had two liquid r and l.
Two voiceless fricatives, one alveolar /s/ and another labial /f/ and they had no more. They had neither palatal
order (/ch/, /y/, /ll/, /ñ/), nor voiced fricatives (/y/ ‫)ي‬. They had labial, dental and velar. This simple system is
reduplicated, not only is there vowel quantity but there is also consonant quantity, especially stops and liquids.
The geminates are similar to the Italian, the germination had distinctive value and will triumph in LV. Vita (life),
vitta (benda); ager (field), agger (wall). Germination is a series of homoorganic consonants 19 , a limit is
established between the two. The relaxation is missing in the first and the…. missing in the second. In the CL we
have to consider, in addition to germination and quantity (duration), accentuation: suprasegmental phonological
prosodic feature.

Nature, functions and accentuation scheme :

Nature of accent in LC: This is a more debated question, but let's assume it is musical or tonal. Tone, intonation.
Inspiratory force (intensity) also intervenes; duration should be added. In Latin, tone or musical pitch
predominated, this is known from the Latin grammarians themselves. Another testimony is that of the Latin
metric. The Latin meter is made/measured in feet, the accent is not relevant but dependent on the quantity. As the
accent was melodic and depended on the syllabic quantity which in turn depended on the vowel quantity and
other factors, therefore phonologically it could not have distinctive value, that is, it does not serve to distinguish
words. There are languages with free accent, dependent accent or fixed accent (in French it is fixed because all
words are stressed on the last syllable). What are the functions of the accent?

- The contrast20 : contrast within the word unit the stressed syllable and the unstressed syllable. The
stressed syllable is pronounced with a lower or higher tone than the others. Or higher or lower than the
other syllables.

- Culminative: it is a structure of a word where the acute is the culmination of the

other syllables, stand out.
- Demarcative: boundaries between words. Boundaries could be established between words.

But in LC it did not perform the distinctive function. This only occurs in languages with free accentuation.

18 A suprasegmental or prosodic feature is a speech feature that affects a segment longer than the phoneme , such
as stress, intonation , rhythm , duration , and others. The term suprasegmental implies the existence of elements
that fall on more than one segment at a time. Suprasegmentals result from a particular use of resources of the
phonatory apparatus .
19 Two sounds are homoorganic if they use the same parts of the tongue or other articulatory organs, thus [b] and
[m] are homoorganic because they use a labial stop
20 The contrastive function occurs in all languages.
Tiniebla (t énebras) the penultimate syllable is an open vowel, therefore the stress falls on the penultimate one.
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Classical accentuation rules:

It turns out that the stressed syllable was determined by the phonological configuration of the two syllables of the
word, the key being the penultimate one. When the word was two syllables, the accent was on the penultimate
syllable (plain or paroxytone words).

If the penultimate syllable was quantitatively long, the stress falls on the penultimate (flat) syllable.

The syllabic quantity depends on the vowel quantity. The syllable is long when there is a long vowel or a
diphthong, but not all syllables that contain a short vowel are short; It could be long by position (they are made up
of syllables where the nucleus is short but the syllable is closed) . A syllable is long by position if it contains a
short closed vowel, that is, followed by two or more consonants (mors, mortis). A syllable is short when it ends
with a short vowel.

Long words: formica (because the i is long), ballaena, ballista (long by position), infernus, caballus (horse) the
geminates lock, palumba (the penultimate one is locked by a consonant).

Proparoxytones / esdrújulas: they originate when the penultimate syllable is short, it is an open syllable. Anima>
alma, vulturem, corniculam, generum, pauperum.

-olum, -ulus are unstressed suffixes. Pute-olum if the 'o ' is short that means we have a hiatus. Taleola, mulieren.
There are going to be changes in LV.

These words have in common that the last syllable has a combination of muta+liquida
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Wednesday, February 24, 2016

We had been looking at the phonological characteristics of classical Latin and then we had looked at the nature of
accent.

The phonological transformations that will occur in LV:

1. The collapse, the collapse, fall of the quantitative system and its replacement by a
qualitative system . The result will be the emergence of several systems in the Romance
languages.
The amount will no longer be relevant. In Vulgar Latin, quantitative differences will be replaced by
qualitative ones, that is, the relevance of timbre (opening) → long/brief → closed/open. We have a
phase with interrelation of the two, but the distinctive one still depended on the quantity. The next phase,
the quantity disappears and we are left with the relevance of the bell (open/closed). In Indo-European
languages it seems that quantity was replaced by quality. The date of the phenomenon: there are
testimonies from the 1st century BC, but it had become widespread in the 3rd century. Saint Augustine
of Hippo (IV-V) says that Africans do not distinguish between ōs and ŏs. The metrics of Hispanics are
based on accent and not at all on feet like the Greeks. Rhythmic innovations are the result of the loss of
oppositions between long and short. Why does this happen? In a word, quantitative phenomena contrast
in some syllables that are longer than others. They are differences that can be subjective, while openness
are characteristics that are fixed and objective. Quantity is more relative than timbre, therefore
quantitative relationships are going to become qualitative. The change in the nature and functions of the
accent will only be perceptible depending on whether they are going to be stressed or unstressed vowels.
The differences in quantity will be noticeable in the unstressed syllables. The action of an accent that has
changed its nature. Another factor will intervene, which is the compensation that will be made between
long vowels … rŏta (the two quantities are …). In LV there is an expressive tendency to double
consonants, germination. The important thing was not the vowel quantity but the consonantal quantity.
The restructuring of syllables in relation to the consonant and vowel. The consonantal quantity was
losing relevance.

Tonic vocalism in Vulgar Latin:

classical latin Yo Yo and and to to either EITHE or or
R
1st stage Yo Yo and and to ǫ either or or
2nd stage (the amount Yo Yo and and to ǫ either or or
disappears, we only have a
bell)
We have 5 degrees of opening and speakers no 1 They distinguish them, the 5 become 4.
Yo and axis) to ǫ (we) either or
3rd stage = Vulgar Latin (it
is a system of four degrees of
opening)21
The vowel system of the LV remains as it is in Provençal and Portuguese (four degrees of opening). In Spanish a
degree has been lost, it has three degrees of opening and five vowels. The LV system involves seven vowels and
four degrees of opening. This change (which
stamp replaced quantity) did not reach all parts of the empire. Archaic system of Sardinian (they have been left
with 5 vowels that do not coincide with those of Spanish). The novelty arrived late and the substitution of quantity
for timbre affected the palatal and non-veiling series and a hybrid system was established. In Romanian the novelty
came to the palatal series (the novelty is the replacement of quantity with timbre). It is a system of commitment
that is not... we are talking about the dephonologization of quantity and its replacement by timbre.

2. Accent that is going to be phonologized, the consequences are a great variation in the treatment of tonic
21 Spanish only has three degrees
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vocalism and unstressed vocalism. Rephonologization of the accent: in LC the accent was dependent on
the quantity, the syllabic quantity depends on the vowel quantity and the structure, if the vowel quantity
collapses then the accent is released, a free accent will be made as in Spanish ( will sing, will sing and
will sing). Free accent that can be placed in various places and depending on the place the meaning
changes. Example: cecĭdi (fall) – cecīdi (hit, kill, wound): the difference was based on the quantity, the
quantity leaves room for the bell… and this will be cécidi – cecidi. There is talk of rephonologization 22 of
accent and dephonologization23 quantity. The accent is going to change its nature. A tendency to replace
the melodic accent with the intensity accent that is based on the greater or lesser expiratory force with
which a syllable in a word is pronounced. The musical pitch is replaced by the expiratory force.
3. Monophtongation phenomena
Thursday, February 25, 2016

The changes suffered by the accent in LV: (2)

In addition to preserving the demarcative (border between words), contrastive, culminating function, it will also
have the quantitative function. What other changes occur depending on the accent? Is the accent going to change
position or keep the same position?

In LC it will remain in the same place with some exceptions that have to do with the stress rules (in the case where
the consonants are mutated with liquids in the last syllable).

In LV a change occurs, in LC the border is located here cathĕ|dram what is going to happen? In LV, instead of
having this border, this other conception will occur, the limit is established between the two consonants that
previously formed a group, cathĕd|ram, an accentual dislocation will occur and the stressed syllable will no longer
be the first, but it will be the second cáthĕdram > hip.

Second group: remember the case of talĕ|ŏla (it is a diminutive suffix) > taliola, the accent falls on the penultimate.
In LV there will be a systematic break of the hiatuses, they become diphthongs. The vowel is going to close to
become the nucleus, the 'e' closes, neither the yod nor the wau are susceptible, they can withstand the accent. 24

Paríĕtem / abíĕte, in some cases they are not solved with a diphthong but rather the yod is absorbed and the 'e' is
closed one degree paríĕtem> paréte (with a dot below the e)

Words formed by prefixation:

capio –

recipĭt

plico- replĭcat

implicat

rénĕgat

it reproduces... violating the law of the penultimate. The stress analogy of the penultimate is violated. The
penultimate accent is reproduced in the prefix. Because? The word is still recognized as compound: loco Cŏllŏco,
what is the obligation of a voiceless sound between vowels --- to voice. The short diphthong tonic 'o'
co(we)lloc(g)āre gives us hang

denied deny deny

22 creating a distinction
23 disappearance of a distinction
24 The stuck syllable is the one that ends in a consonant
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The accent greatly differentiates stressed vowels from unstressed vowels (they will have fewer nuances, less
difference in timbre). The unstressed initial vowels will be maintained relatively well, but with some differences in
timbre. The pretonic or postonic vowels already in LV are less firm. They are going to have a tendency to
disappear, Latin syncopation vulgar that is going to occur in very specific contexts. The comma means that there
was a vowel: vec'lus, oc'lus. The important thing is that syncopation respects the law of phoneme combination.
Muta (plosives, voiceless or voiced). There are primary and secondary consonant clusters (the result of
syncopation or bringing together consonants that were not originally together). Calidu > cal'du (muta and liquid
and liquid and muta), positu > pŏs'tu.

They also have a nasal dŏmĭnu > dǫmnu > dwēnu below the n there is a backwards circumflex accent (it is the
only case of nasal in Spanish)

Vĭrĭ'dis > green

Another phenomenon of change of the LV: in LC there were three diphthongs ae, oe, au, those will undergo
monophthongization processes that will not all occur at the same time nor will they all succeed.

'Au' monophthong, but it is considered a rustic trend and suffers pressure from the educated elites to keep the
diphthong 'au' unchanged, in LV there will be that trend but it is stopped. That will depend on each Romance
language 'au' is maintained in Provençal, in Portuguese monophthongization does not occur normally (Douro), it is
Romance and it is not LV. Depending on each language, it is maintained or assimilated up to entire or partial
phases.
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Phonetics
Monday, February 29, 2016

We have seen the distribution of accent in the LV with a series of exceptions (hiatuses with…, mutas with liquid).

Let's talk about the monophthongization (3) of diphthongs

In LC there were 3 diphthongs that were remains of a series of six from archaic Latin: ae, oe, au; They will
continue experiencing this experience until monophthongization, the first to monophthongize is AE, which
appears from the 1st century onwards in the graffiti of Pompeii and spreads in the 3rd century, words like
quaerite, aduaentu are seen. This will give the result of ae>ē>ę (open).

The evolution is going to be the following (an open ę, it is not logical): faenum > fenu, taeda > teda, saeta> seta,

caespite>cẹspite> grass. We are in a rustic and low-class area.

What will prevail are the timbre qualities, that is, monophthongization. The diphthongs were long (quantity), as a
rule the long ones became closed and the short ones became open, then they became closed, the evolution
(ae>ē>ę) is not logical.

Caelum > sky

Caecus > blind

The second diphthong that will be monophthongized is the OE diphthong, here there is no problem of timbre
quality because it is a degree of openness... and the result will be a closed ẹ oe>ẹ. Poena > grief, coena > dinner,
phoebu > febus. This monophthongization is more consistent with the timbre quality adjustment.

The diphthong AU, its monophthongization is the result of a total reciprocal assimilation. The 'a' is assimilated by
wau au > ǫṷ > ǫọ>o. It was considered extremely rustic so there was a cultured pressure. Claudius they called
him Clodius, colis caulis. The pressure from the elite was to stop this phenomenon, this change was stopped. This
means that the AU diphthong will evolve depending on what the speakers of each language do. It remains in
Provencal and Romanian, au. In Portuguese this has not been fulfilled Douro, ouro. This assimilation is late in
Spanish and in French it is totally medieval. The diphthong AU does not monophthong in LV. It is a fairly late
process due to relative chronology issues. In some cases, this diphthong in LV will be reduced augŭstu >> agọstu,
augŭriu > agọrju, auscŭltāre> askọltare.

It is going to be reduced with a confluence of serial sounds, there is a sequence of three velar sounds, it is an
uncomfortable sequence so the speakers are going to reduce it. We have reduction of the diphthong au in a. In
Spanish with a prefix ex-, by analogy it has given listen .

(Practice 2)
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Tuesday, March 1, 2016

Class material, p. 2:

The long ones became closed, the short ones became open.

In the second stage, the ē and the ĭ merge into ẹ, in the scheme the first stage consists of the transformation of the
ē>ẹ and the ĭ>į (open), then, in the second stage, the ẹ and the į merge into an ę.

An open į from a short ĭ. 7 vowels and 4 degrees of opening, this system is maintained in Provençal and
Portuguese. We Spaniards have reduced it (we have five vowels and a vowel system with three degrees of
opening).

Ringer quantity > ringer > …

These differences in timbre are tonic vocalism.

What about Spanish? From the Latin-vulgar system, long and short quantities merge

Ánnu palatalization > year, cápra> goat voicing, the tonic a always gives us an a, we speak of spontaneous
evolution without the intervention of anything else.

The palatal/velar series: we start from a long ī > closed ị, when the open į merges with the closed one to give a
closed one, then we are left with a closed i in LV. Ficu>fig, the long ī always gives us an i.

The long ū would give a closed one, then a u which in Spanish is the same. Im-pūru, secūru, matūru

The problems begin when we have a medium degree of openness: pilu>pelo, sinu (open i) which in LV would be
a closed e>sine.

Let's see the closed ẹ coming from a closed ẹ coming from ē long monẹta > coin

In LV there is only one i and one u, there is no longer opposition

The closed ọ coming from a long ō: họra > hora, satione, titione or from a ŭ → Cepulla > onion, pullu > chicken

What about the open middle degree? What happens to a short tonic ĕ > ę > diphthong in ié

What happened to the velar series? > diphthong in ué, we lose two vowels and therefore we lose a degree of
opening.
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Phonetics
Wednesday, March 2, 2016

The diphthongization of open ę from short ĕ and open o from short ŏ. A diphthongization is not a diphthong,
diphthongs can have very varied origins. A diphthongation is when a vowel is segmented into two. The
emergence of a diphthong does NOT imply diphthongization. It consists of the segmentation/splitting of a vowel
into two vowel segments.

In the case of Spanish, diphthongization is characterized by universality, that is, it affects the open ę and the ǫ
(free syllable).25 and stuck syllable26 ) in any type of syllable. The fact that diphthongization is universal is
because we have lost a degree of openness. French and Italian diphthongize in free syllables and not in locked
syllables, which is why they have maintained four degrees of openness. The same will happen in the case of o.
Examples on sheet.

Diphthongation does not appear in all Romance languages, in Catalan there is no diphthongation. In the Peninsula
there is diphthongization in central languages and dialects (Spanish, Aragonese, etc.). First feature of
diphthongization in Spanish is universal.

The second feature is that this diphthongation is interrupted in contact with palatal (ñ, ll, y, ch): example pectu >
chest palatal sounds interrupt the diphthongation. Provençal never diphthongs, in Spanish the palatals interrupt
the diphthongization.

How and why does this process occur?

It is a process of differentiation between open ę and closed ẹ and open ǫ closed ọ. To differentiate these two
phonemes, speakers will proceed to a first phase, in the case of open ones: expressive lengthening. The second
phase is a phase of bimatization, then the syllabic attack will be differentiated from the center, closing a little and
that closing will lead to a segmental diphthong that is not yet our diphthong, it is an allophone of the phonemes ę
open and ǫ open. They are diphthongs that represent a single segment, they are monosegmatic phonemes,
therefore phonetic variants of the phonemes ę open ǫ open. Only with time will the speakers no longer
differentiate the differences with the attack and the elbow with open hear but with a sequence of phonemes: the
emergence of a biphonemic and phonological sequential diphthong. It is a desire to keep the differences clearer.
The important thing is the yod and the wau

In what period did it arise? It dates back to the Visigothic era (VI/VII), diphthongization existed in Mozarabic. A
sequential diphthong ya, ie, io/ ue, ua, uo. The fixation of timbre in /ié/ and /ué/ was earlier in Spanish than in
Leonese and Aragonese. 10th / 12th century we have our modern diphthongs like today.

There is only universal diphthongization in Spanish, it characterizes it among the major languages. When there is
a yod, diphthongation is interrupted. The yod is what causes palatalization. The palatals arise because there is a
yod.

In the case of 'o', a nasal can interrupt diphthongation. Mŏntem>mount || pŏntem>bridge – hŏminem. Nasal
vowels are closer. Nasalization in phonetics occurs when a word begins and there is... when the vowels are
nasalized they close and, then, we say monte y no muente. “ome, omne, uemne” alternate forms without
diphthongization, but they also even form “uembre”, that is, with diphthongization. The o is open nasalized, the
nasal closes and then prevents.

The diphthongs ie and ue have evolved over time.

Ie > í once the diphthong has arisen, it is reduced (medieval).

In what contexts is the diphthong reduced?

When we have a palatal lateral castello > Castiella (AX) > Castilla (Isabel la Católico), it causes the diphthong ie
to be reduced to i. ĕllu (Latin) > illo (Spanish): there would be an intersection between morphology and

25 open/free syllable (if it ends in a vowel) = without coda

26 closed/locked syllable (ends in a consonant): has a coda
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phonetics. This process would first arise in the paradigm of diminutives. This tendency to reduce the diphthong ie
into i is considered rustic and vulgar, “what a boquillia” in Libro de Buen Amor. Then it becomes generalized.

When there is an 's' especially in the implosive position27 : vĕspa > wasp, vĕspĕra > viespera > eve. This reduction
with 's' has not been generalized. Sixth > nap, fĕsta > party. In some cases the diphthong is maintained and in
others it is not.

When there is a tripthong, when a tripthong is generated by diphthongization: mĕus > mieo >mine, dĕus> dieo >
díos > dios.

We are going to complete the phenomenon of diphthongization, it is a phenomenon of splitting, the

diphthongization of open ę and open ǫ generate increasing diphthongs throughout Romania. In Spanish,
diphthongization has two fundamental characteristics, the first is universality, half open (e.g. E half open, neither
e nor è like French). This universal diphthongization eliminates one degree of opening (the LV had 4 degrees of
opening and in Spanish there are 3). We find a triangular system with a 3-degree opening similar to that of the
LC. Romanian diphthongs both in free syllables and in locked syllables in the palatal series (e, i). French and
Italian diphthongize in open syllables and not in closed ones, which allows them to maintain 4 degrees of
openness. Portuguese does not diphthong. The second is that diphthongation is interrupted before palatals, below
the palatal we have to see the yod . In some languages, the fact that there is yod has not prevented
diphthongization. Diphthongization is a Romance process, but it does not affect all Romance languages (e.g.
Catalan, Portuguese). In languages where diphthongation does not occur, such as Provençal, it is the yod that
causes diphthongization.

We were seeing the reduction of the diphthong ié > i with s (it is quite late that the palatal lateral 28 , appears in
Don Quixote) Prĕssa> priesa> haste. The explanation that has been put forward is that the normative/standard
Spanish /s/ is concave apicoalveolar, that is, it has a fairly palatal timbre. The Spanish American /s/ is different
and the /s/ of Andalusia too. The /s/ variants characterize the speakers. That very palatal sound could influence
the closure of ie > i. e.g. Dĕus > dios > god, mĕus > mine, judaeus > Jew.

The causes

What explanations have been given for this?

On the Peninsula we diphthongize the Castilians, Leonese, and Riojans (in the center). Diphthongation in
Asturian or Aragonese, for example, is not interrupted by the yod. The date of this diphthongization is after the
collapse of the Roman Empire. The sequential diphthongization would be at the end of the Visigothic era and the
segmental diphthongization in 711 (in Mozarabic there was already diphthongization).

What causes have been adduced to explain this?

There are two types of explanations (from the Pyrenees on down) and others that try to relate the Spanish
diphthongization with the Roman diphthongization (making a border).

- Tomás Navarro Tomás explained it due to the influence of the substrate of Basque (which also has 3
degrees of openness). This theory has been widely discussed. Larcos adduces substratum causes of the
Paleo-Hispanic languages. In the central and northern area the speakers had systems where there were
no 4 degrees of opening. The problem was how to differentiate the ẹ from the ę. The Castilian
diphthongization cannot be separated from the Romance diphthongization. To integrate this
phenomenon into a broader framework there have been several theories.
- Wartrurg realized that diphthongization has occurred in areas where there have been Visigoths (he looked
at Franco-Provençal, in Italian), he realized that in northern Italy there is... he postulated that the
diphthongization that occurs in These languages in free syllables would be a consequence of the strong

27 Said of a consonant: located at the end of a syllable

28 Case of Castiella > Castile
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Monday, March 7, 2016
expiratory accent that the Visigoths brought. For him, diphthongization would be the result of the
Germanic superstratum (Frankish, Lordobardian,...).

They claim that this satisfies the diphthongization of Italian, French and..., but does not satisfy that of
Spanish or Romanian, which diphthongize into a stuck syllable.
- There are theories that have to do with umlaut 29 or distance harmonization (the influence caused by vowels
at the end of a word). Example: fēcī. While in Leonese the umlaut closes, in sub-italic dialects the
umlaut causes diphthongization. Bŏnu > buono, bŏna > bona. A linguist, Schürr, thinks that there would
be a theory of metaphony or distance harmonization, harmonization in contact (the contact of a stressed
vowel with palatal vowels).30 ), this is what has happened in Provençal and Catalan, the existence of a
yod causes diphthongation. The problem with this theory is in Spanish where the yod interrupts the
diphthongation. Diphthongization in Spanish is not something isolated so it must be related to Romance
diphthongization, however the characteristics of Spanish diphthongization are very strong. The
diphthongization of free syllables and closed syllables affected Italy and reached the center of the
empire, but did not reach the ends of the empire. In the case of Spanish, they did not differentiate these
degrees of openness well. Paleo-Hispanic languages seem to have three degrees of openness. When the
empire breaks, what speakers do is exaggerate this pronunciation to differentiate them. Spanish does not
diphthong with yod/ the influence of yod.

Practices (5 of activity 3)

29 Change in timbre that the vowels of a word, or just the stressed vowel, suffer due to the influence of the final
vowel or a neighboring sound.
30 /e/ and /i/ palatal/ front vowels. /o/ /u/ velar/ back vowels. /a/ central vowel
 1
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Phonetics
Tuesday, March 8, 2016
YOD-conditioned evolution

We have talked about the evolution of tonic vocalism from LC to LV when they evolve alone without
interference. Let's start talking about conditioning, that is, interference due to the presence of other sounds. The
first of these is a yod, on the vowels inflecting them, and on the consonants palatalizing them. These
conditionings are simultaneous.

How and when does a yod arise?

A yod is an allophone31 marginal of the phoneme /i/, it can be nuclear and we will say that it is a semivowel, it
can be marginal and we will say that it is a semiconsonant yod. These allophones arose in LV through different
processes (paragraph 40)32

In what context does the yod appear? It arises from the reduction of a Latinclassical hiatus to a Latinvulgar
diphthong, this was included in the appendix probi. The second is new: the yod will arise from the vocalization of
a velar consonant, only in the implosive position (it is a position of extreme weakness) will it relax and the result
will be a semivowel yod. Factu > faitu > feitu > fetu > h echo, lacte > lech e, the 'a' begins to be conditioned by
the yod and closes giving an 'e'. ai > ęi > ęẹ > e . It inflects the vowels and at the same time palatalizes the
consonants. Taksu (x is equivalent to ks) k is in implosive position > tejo. Third contour: loss therefore
syncopation. Ama v i > amé an evolution conditioned by yod produced by a syncopation. The 4th contour is by
changing a vowel to the previous syllable, metathesis. Carraria>carraira>career. In these 4 cases it is the
emergence of diphthongs, but in none of these cases can we speak of diphthongation (diphthongation is a process
of splitting a vowel into two). Diphthong is not the same as diphthongation.

What effects does it have on vowels? → inflection

We have seen how vowels evolve spontaneously, a gave us a. If an ę is open we know that it diphthongs into ié, if
it is a closed ẹ < ĭ or ē. We don't need the i and the u because they are the closest vowels and the inflection is a
closure.

What happens with inflection and what does it consist of?

It is the closing of a vowel in a degree, it is a process of assimilation. Since we have 3 degrees of opening, the i
and u can no longer be closed. (See diagram) the yod can be in the same syllable as the stressed vowel or in the
posterior one but never in the previous one, the yod or wau follow. The yod always exerts this influence? It
depends. The yod is studied depending on the consonant it goes with. R+yod, is a yod that always metatizes
(jumping, jumps back). Philologists have established an order. This classification of Pidal yodes is based on the
emergence of the yod and its survival (when it arises and how long it lasts).

The 1st palatalizes the consonant very early: if the yod is absorbed, it no longer exists, it stops exerting the
alleged pressure. It palatalizes very early and does not exert inflection, that is, the vowel will evolve
spontaneously.

We have said that inflection is the closure of the stressed vowel exerted by the influence of a yod, this yod can be
in the same syllable or in the following syllable; never in the previous syllable.

The first explanation is that of Pidal, the criteria on which it is based are chronological.

The 1st does not influence the vowels, it palatalizes very early.

The 2nd yod has to do with two lateral+yod or nasal+yod groups

31 Each of the variants that occur in the pronunciation of the same phoneme, according to its position in the word
or syllable, according to the character of the neighboring phonemes.
32 Transformation of a hiatus > diphthong | vocalization of a velar consonant (k, g, x) in implosive position |
syncopation | metathesis.
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Phonetics
Wednesday, March 9, 2016
The 3rd in some cases there is inflection and, in others, there is not. We have to identify it.

3rd the lipsticks+yod, generally reach the present day. /Vj/ has been palatalized

The 4th → in all the syncopations there has been an inflection

When the AI diphthong occurs, there is no way to stop assimilation. When there is AI, there is already total
reciprocal assimilation.

The yod prevents the voicing of the consonant.

[Link]
+de+penny&source=bl&ots=k_QatlzzbL&sig=E5wc8Gs4Rba_35gIR-
REvdVMRyA&hl=fr&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjivp_HvLnLAhVFfhoKHYwOBMYQ6AEIOD
AE#v=onepage&q=picture%20%20yod%20de%20penny&f=false

Fagea > hay, there is no inflection, sedere > sedeam > sediam > se(y)a > sea (it does not give us sieya)

Podiu > poyo with inflection and without diphthongation

Hodie > today and it doesn't give us huey

Video

Only the first environment that is equivalent to the 4th of Pidal…

 2
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Phonetics
Thursday, March 31, 2016

Activity 5: diphthongation (1)

1. The diphthongation affected the ĕ and ŏ, in LC and the ę and ǫ in LV. It generated increasing diphthongs
(ie and uo). What type of sounds constitute the first elements of the diphthong? Semiconsonant or
semivowel.
2. The current Castilian diphthongs are biphonematic, are they variants or allophones of….?
3. Diphthongization occurred in the central dialects, in Castilian, Leonese, Aragonese, and Riojan. There is
no diphthongization in either Portuguese or Galician, nor in Catalan.
Castilian diphthongization is characterized by its universality, diphthongization in any syllable, whether
4. locked or free, while French only diphthongization in free syllables and Italian…? And because it is
interrupted by the palatals (below the palatals there is always a yod).
; 2999
¿

5. In the case that the diphthongs [jé] and [wé] are in contact with /s/ (it is sporadic) and palatals, the
6. diphthong is reduced. Example: prĕssa> priessa> haste. Castilian diphthongized in the 10th-11th century
and expanded towards the 15th century.
The wau is a labiovelar fricative, the diphthong go [wé] is a diphthong whose first element is labiovelar:
7. flŏccu: ŏ> ǫ> wé> é. flŏccu > flwéko (this is the ué diphthong). There is a labial element /f/, another non-
labial /l/, another labial 'w', so for economy the weakest element, which in this case is 'w', is absorbed >
fléko.
Frŏnte > frwente (labial, f; non-labial, r; labial, w; non-labial, e), then by a process of economy when
faced with too many labials, it is reduced > front.
Vĕspa > reduction of e in i wasp
There is the /s/ that can be in implosive position, in intervocalic position or in initial position saecŭlu >
sieglo > century (saecŭlo should have given us sejo, the word century is a semi-cultism). Semi-cultisms
are words that have not evolved absolutely as a heritage word, but they have evolved somewhat. Century
in MS is not a hundred years, but society.
The inflection also occurs in the unstressed ones.
Cŏlŏbra, this word in LC was esdrújula and the strong tonic was the first, cŏlŏbra. In LV the limit of the
penultimate changes and the accent is dislocated, cŏlŏbra (the same thing happens with cathedra).
Cŏlŏbra > kolóbra > kolw33 ébra>kulebra
The diphthong is reduced when we have a palatal lateral Castiella > Castilla. Ĕ > ę > jé > í
Fŏnte > source: it is considered normal because the ŏ follows its normal evolution. Mŏnte does not
8. follow a normal process because the nasal interrupts diphthongation. The nasal closes, thus preventing
diphthongation.
9. In what phonetic contexts does vowel nasalization occur? in the event that it is between two nasals or at
the beginning of a word.

Activity 6: diphthongation (2)

Lĕnte-u (there is a hiatus) > lęntju > a yod arises → it may be inflected, which consonant does it go with? [tj]
There are types of yod, it does not go as a single consonant. It is the first of Pidal, for the vowels it has no
significance, it palatalizes the consonant, then it disappears and does not have time to exert inflection > canvas

Metaphony was divided into two types: constant umlaut and contact umlaut.

Metaphony for action at a distance and talking about inflection... inflection can be exercised in a stressed syllable,
but it can also be exercised in an unstressed syllable. The inflection is an anticipation of the closure (either in the
same syllable or in the previous syllable).

When there is inflection the ǫ is not diphthong, but closed, that is, it acts as if it were an ọ.

33 Inflection of u by wy by succession of labials the diphthong wé is reduced in é → o > uy wé > é

 21
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Monday, March 14, 2016
Penny: the first environment coming from metathesis is in the same syllable, when this occurs the /a/ is affected
→ it is equivalent to the 4th of Pidal. The palatal nasal (ñ) is the most versatile, it is not homogeneous (it is the
last, but it is conflictive)34 .

We had stopped at /o/ = ọ: cusculiu > kermes is a shrub.

Octōber, which normally had to give us an ọ, in Spanish gives us a /u/ > October; localem > place; jocare > play.
Because? Because of that tendency that Spanish has to close the o in u, but sometimes without justification. The
inflection of /o/ occurs a lot, it does occur with nj. The velar in implosive position, vocalizes (there is the yod,
example lacte > laite). There are some cases where this does not occur.

Sŏmnu there is no yod here, it has diphthongized and gives us swén˯o] > dream

Sŏmniu > sǫmnju (metatiza) > sói˰n˯o > sóen˯o > swén˯o]

In one case spontaneous evolution, in the other, conditioned: we have a case of homonymy a ŭ never diphthong, it
is yodes or wé that diphthong.

Cŏriu > kǫrju > kóiro > kóero > kwéro → we have the yod: it is going to metatize, decreasing diphthongs are
created, in Spanish they get along badly, so if they can adapt, how? By assimilation, the yod opens.

A(u)35 gŭriu > agọrju > agoiro > agóero > agwéro

Cicōnia > kīkọnja > ĉogoina > ŝigoi˰n˯a > ŝigóen˯a > ŝigwén˯a > θigwén˯a > stork

Vĕtŭlu36 (below the /t/ we have to see the /k/) > vec'lus > old → it is the only exception to the rule that the yod
does not interrupt the diphthongation, that is, there is no inflection (it is the 1st yod of Pidal, does not affect the
spontaneous evolution of vowels).

34 Q. 45 in Penny's /o/
35 A(u): in LV the u disappeared
36 LC: vetŭlus, diminutive of vetus, LV veclus.
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Tuesday, March 15, 2016
Inflection by wau

We are going to see another type of conditioning for vowels, it is the influence of wau [w,ṷ] (semiconsonantal
and semivocalic), it is an allophone 37 mechanical of the phoneme /u/. It is a group not as important as the yod, it is
limited to the inflection of the vowels. There are several types of wau:

- Primary Wau that comes from Latin:

The diphthong AU will undergo a total reciprocal assimilation, the result is a monophthongization: au > aṷ > ǫṷ >
ǫọ > o. In Romania there are some that have started the procedure, but have stayed in the middle like Portugal:
OU (ouro, touro, Douro). In Occitan (French, Catalan, etc.) it was preserved as /au/. The monophtongation
process is not a Latin-vulgar phenomenon, but was late.

Pacat > pays (sounds) vs Paucum > little (does not sound)

Totum > everything (sounds) vs cautum > preserve (does not sound)

We observe that the /t/ has not been voiced, because there is the wau → The wau prevents the voicing. The
monophthongization of the diphthong is subsequent to voicing (lenition), it is a phenomenon of relative
chronology. The wau was alive at the time when lenition occurred (it is a phonetic mutation process that consists
of the weakening of a consonant, for example, voicing, fricatization) that is why they have not been voiced,
because the wau prevents voicing.

autŭmnu > autumn (the wau has prevented the voicing)

In French the k + a > š 38

- Cantāre > chanter

- Campus > champ.
- Cause> cause/ thing, in French chose

The /a/ was alive during the palatalization process, that is, monophthongization in French is subsequent to the
palatalization of k+a.

Starting in the 11th century we already have our monophthongal diphthong.

Next to the primary wau, there is a secondary wau (which does not come from Latin, but has arisen).

- Secondary Wau that does not come from Latin

It can come from the vocalization of a velar in an implosive position or a labial, also due to syncopation or
metathesis.

Saltu > saṷto > soto

Alterum > aṷtero > autro > other

Falcem > faṷke > fouẑe39 > foẑe > sickle > oz

Sickle: 1 of lat. Falx, falcis | 2. From lat. Faux, faucis

What existed was an alophone of /l/ in an implosive position that has velarized, that seems to be what happened.
This will turn the /l/ into secondary wau , it will have time to catch the monophthongization train and follow the
same path. This monophthongization was later and was interpreted as rustic, so there is pressure to avoid it. It's a
change that hasn't affected all the words it should have affected. Example of calcea that should have given us
37 Each of the variants that occur in the pronunciation of the same phoneme...
38 š [‫ ]ش‬The spelling ch in Spanish is a spelling that we borrow from French writing
39 ẑ [dz]
 2
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Wednesday, March 16, 2016
“coz”, this process has not been completed and gives us “calzas”. There is coz < calcem

In the same way saltāre > jump, but next to it there was the evolved form sauto > soto. Salta (plural of saltus) >
sota, salt > jota, Saponem > soap

Calvu > bald >cobo

The wau can also come from syncopation. Av i ca > aṷka > oca: in this case it is a semiconsonant, we have to
look at the syncopation of the /i/. Amav i t > loved

What is written with v in LC is a wau

There is secondary wau due to metathesis

Habui > aṷbe > obe, vīdua > widow, sapui (the perfect of the verb know) > saṷpe > sope: obe and sope last until
the 12th or 13th centuries, then they suffer the analogy of could and tú; They are called perfect strong because the
accent falls on the root and not on the ending. From the 14th century onwards they became hube and supe. In the
Song of Mio Cid “Mio Çid Roy por Burgos entrave”.
 24
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We have seen two types of wau: the primary one that came from Latin and the secondary one, which does not
come from Latin and arises through different processes (vocalization, metathesis, syncopation).

In the case of primary wau, the maintenance of /au/ is a cultism (cauca 40 ), because we have seen that from the
11th century onwards /au/ monophthongized into /o/.
Caul e m (short for -e) > col 36 the wau prevents the sound -

Cauca > coca

Faucem > … foẑe > foẑ > hoẑ41 > óƟ] (comes from faux, faucis: throat). We have a case of homonymy with falx,
falcis.

The second wau: altu > alto, there was another that has given otero, otear. Albu > alba, there was an obo that has
given torroba, Cerralbo.

There is another wau that is neither primary nor second: “wau 3”. This wau arises from a syncopation that gives
rise to the+consonant (it is not the original one, but secondary because it arises from a syncopation).

Examples: cal ĭ ce (esdrújula42 ) > kál'ŝe43 > kaṷŝe > káṷϴe]. Calix, for example, meant a cup in Christianity, but
some Latin authors such as Frontinus began to use this term as a channel of water and from there it remains in
Spanish. Sal ĭ ce > sal'ŝe > sáṷŝe > sáṷϴe (it is a tree) → this diphthong /au/ could not be monophthongized.

We have talked about a+l+consonant, now we are going to talk about ŭ+l+consonant > ọ lt

What was happening with this “l”? (vocalized) > oṷt what is happening? The diphthong /ou/ is going to be solved
through a dissimilation (differentiation) in yod > óit (this yod acts in both directions, on the one hand it inflects
the vowel l, on the other it palatalizes the consonant o> u, t> ĉ 44 ) > uĉ. ŭ+l+consonant > ọlt > oṷt > óit > uĉ → it
is a wau that leads to a yod

Mŭltum > mọltu > moṷtu > moitu > a lot

Auscŭltat > listen why does that happen? The process must be explained:

Auscŭltat, in LV it is reduced to u scŭltat > askọlta > askóṷta > askóita > askúĉa > [eskúĉa]

Vŭltŭre > bọltọre (LV) > bóṷt(o)re 45 >bóit're > buit're. The evolution stops at “bui”, there is no palatalization (ch)
because /t/ is grouped together.

ĭmpŭlsat > empọlsa > empoṷsa > empoisa > empúisa46 > push > push]

The Latin-vulgar phase is essential. We are also going to talk about yod by vocalization. The wau is a labiovelar
semi-onsonant, a consonant can be vocalized in wau if it is velar or if it is labial . Furthermore, it is a reversible
phenomenon Paula > Pablo / Paul

Dēbĭta > debt; dēbĭta > debenta > deb(e)da > debt

Cŭbĭtu > kọbeto > kob(e)do > koṷdo > kódo]

Civĭta > city

40 Cabbage. Forage grass that is planted in fenced pastures, for food of beasts. | kind of large cookie made with
salt and butter.
41 /ẑ/ voiced dentoalveolar affricate ʣ
42 It is esdrújula, then syncopation occurs.
43 /ŝ/ voiceless dentoalveolar affricate ʦ
44 Che
45 the postonic /o/ falls due to syncopation
46 Once absorbed, the yod is absorbed into the palate.
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Wednesday, March 16, 2016
Rapĭdu > fast / swift; fast is a cultism, the /p/ is kept unvoiced and the esdrújula is kept.

Rapĭdu > rab(e)do >rabdo > raṷdo47 ]

We have talked about wau when it is semivowel, but there was a semiconsonant:

The suffix –ariu gives –ero, the yod metatizes: -airu > -ero

Ian(u)ariu > January

Febr(u)ariu > February

The semiconsonant wau disappears in LV, so d(u)ōdecim (duo + decem) disappeared in LV and left no trace.

Consuĕre was of the third conjugation. In Latin there were 4 conjugations, in Spanish 3 (we have lost the 3rd)
those of the 3rd either go to the 2nd or they go to our 3rd (in –ir)

consuĕre > cons u ere > consere > sew

battuĕre > batt u ere > battere > beat

legĕre > read

scribĕre > write

47 fast, violent, hasty. Even though cultism is 'fast', today it is the other way around; 'rapid' is used for everything
and 'raudo' is used in cultured contexts.
 2
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Thursday, March 31, 2016
Diminutives have the property of being lexicalized. Practice 9.

1. Lentĭcŭla > lentil. Lentilla is a loanword from French. Pellicula > film, is the cultured word, pelleja is the
patrimonial one.

The role of cognitive metaphors48 .

Heritage words are those that have evolved. Cultisms are words that are borrowed from other languages.

2. Fĭlĭctum > fern. Fĭlĭcaria: the /rj/ group metatizes, the intervocalic 'c' voices > fęlęgeira > felegera >
helegera > Helguera.
3. Consĭlĭum > advice. Consĭliarĭum> counselor. Counselor would be the cultured word and counselor
would be the patrimonial word.
The suffix -arĭum always gives us –ero in Spanish (of the trades), now it is fighting with -ista. Money <
denarĭum (it was a Roman currency).
4. Lĭmpĭdu gives us the heritage word clean and the cultured word límpido (you had to enter Colominas
Pascual). Lĭmpĭdu > lempedu (LV) > lempjo (Protorromance) > límpjo] √ Sŭccĭdu and tĕpĭdu: the words
have in common that they are esdrújules. The patrimonial solution is to become plain by eliminating one
syllable. Normally when there is a esdrújula word, the vowel that disappears is the postonic one
(except /a/). Lĭmpĭdu > cute. There is an -d- in intervocalic position that tends to syncopate. This is what
is going to happen in these three cases, a syncopation of the -d- is the key.
Sŭccĭdu > sokk'edu > sosjo > suөjo].
Tĕpĭdu > tępedu (LV) > tjébeo > tjébjo > tíbjo] (Pidal, yod for syncopation).

Protorromance: diphthongation and syncopation

5. Dĭctātum > paragon.

6. Concĭlĭum > council (cult) / council (patrimonial). /kj/ > /ө/
7. Beekeeping is the breeding of certain insects, etymologically it comes from apis. Apis/ ovis + diminutive
> apicŭla > bee // ovĭcula > sheep.
8. Cĭlĭa is the neuter plural of cĭlĭum > eyebrow: it is assimilated to the first declension, we have words in –
a that are feminine and others in –o from the masculine (these words come from the neuter in Latin).
The eyebrow is the set of cilia. Ciliates are those that have cilia. Superciliates < superciliary (located
above the eyebrows). The basket is bigger than the basket, they derive from this because those that end
with -a were collective.
9. Fācticĭum: cultism is factitious which is a technicality (factitious codices: they were volumes in the EM
composed of a conglomerate of several works) > spell √. Captiāre > hunt X.
10. Lavatōrĭum:
We know that the suffix –ārĭum > -ero (trades/professions). There is a homonymous -ero that does not
have that origin and that has to do with the suffix –ōrĭum. It is a suffix that creates verbal nouns not as
an agent, but as a locative noun. Metathesis > creation of a decreasing diphthong that does not suit us. –
ōrĭum > -ọrju > óiro > -óero > - wero > -ero] → It is a verbal suffix that in this case is attached to lavāre
> lavatōrĭum > lavatorio (it is a total cultism).

Be careful with this suffix –ero one as an agent and another as a locative.
Cŭpertōrĭa > cover (cover or lid).
Cŭrrĭtōrĭa > sliding
Bĭbĭtōrĭu > drinking fountain (said of water or another liquid: good to drink).
11. Vŭltŭrem > voṷtǫre > vóitore > buit or re > vulture
The 't' is with 'r' and cannot be palatalized into a consonant, so we have the testimony of the yod.

48 that is capable of knowing.

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Monday, April 4, 2016

The evolution of unstressed vocalism

Due to the changes in characteristics (from melodic accent to expiratory accent), consequently the stressed ones
are more perceptible, that is, the vowels in unstressed syllables are less perceptible.

There are several positions of unstressed syllables within words, we are going to have to differentiate initial, final
and intertonic unstressed vocalism that encompasses pretonic and posttonic.

1. Initial unstressed vocalism:

The initial vowels are the ones that usually have the most strength (secondary accent of insistence). After the tonic,
the first syllable is the one that has the most importance. If we have two /e/, one that is diphthongized and another
that is maintained, it will not be perceptible in first position.

Yo Yo and and to to either either or or

Yo Yo and and to ǫ either or or
Yo and to either or
Yo and to either or

Ī > ị > i: lịmitáre > border, rịpare > riverside, tịtíne > blight, cịvitáte > city, fịláre > hilar, hịbérnu > winter.

Ĭ > į > ẹ > e: cįrcáre > encircle, mįnútu > often, pįscáre > fish, plįcare > arrive.

Ē > ẹ > e: lēntĭcŭla > lẹntįc(u)la > lentil, sẹcúru > sure.

Ĕ > ę > e:

The diphthong AE is unstressed, not diphthong and is equated to an ę. Pręcóne (LC praecone) > pregón, cępúlla
(LC caepullam) > onion.

Ā / Ă > a: aránea > spider, caballu > horse, cantatóre > singer, matur(i)cáre > get up early, clamáre > call, laváre >
wash, paréte > wall, partíre > leave.

In unstressed initials there is no distinction between ǫ and ọ.

Ŏ > ǫ > or: (it is an ŏ, not diphthong) cǫmedére > eat, cǫróna > crown, cǫrtícea > cortex, sǫnáre > sound.

Ō > ọ > or: nọmináre > name, fọrmáceu > hormazo49 .

Ŭ > ų > ọ > or: Fŭrnu < fŭrnaceu > hornazo; lųcráre > achieve, sųperbia > arrogance, sųspécta > suspicion.

Au > or: autúmnu > autumn, pausere > pose.

An ū is kept. Ū > ụ > u: cụráre > heal, dụrítia > hardness, jụd(i)cáre > judge, nụb(i)láre > cloud, pụrítia > purity,
sụdáre > sweat.

The result is five vowels, but there is no diphthongization, much less the extreme closed ones and the central open
ones, we have a single result. This is spontaneous evolution.

There are conditionings in the unstressed syllable and more frequently than in the stressed syllable. When there is a
stressed syllable that diphthongizes, those consonants can influence the initial syllable.

What's going on? in:

49 Blow given by a last (mold) | pile of loose stones | earthen wall or wall
 28
Historical
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Mansiōnem > mansion (it is a cultism and in addition to high societies), the heritage word is inn.

Ma n siōne > masjọne > maison(e) > mezón (EM) [medzon] >||| inn] (Golden Age).

Lactūca50 > laktụ k a > laituga > lettuce

Factīciu > spell51 , factum > fact

Taxōnem > taksone > taison(e) > tešon [techon] >||| teχón]

Maxĕllam52 *** > cheek (inflection of a > e).

Altarium53 > altar (cult) / altarju > aṷtáiro > oṷtéiro (monophthongation) > otéro]

Unstressed vowels have another characteristic which is having a more imprecise timbre, so they are subject to
other phenomena that make them susceptible to vacillations in timbre (timbres unstable to influences of all kinds).

The A:

- A(u)scŭltare > ascochar > ascuchar > listen. The heritage word was listen (the prefix exerts an analogical
influence).
- A(b)scondere: groups of two locked consonants tend to be simplified. In MS we had the prefix ex- we
said exonder instead of absconder. The same as auscŭltare.
A(b)scondere > asconder > hide.
- Apothēca > abodega > (e)la) bodega > bodega: intervocalic position susceptible to lenition, that is,
phonetic change. There is a case of apheresis, the 'a' is interpreted as part of the article and today we say
winery.

The e:

The 'e' can come from an ē, ĕ, ĭ, or from the diphthong ae. We have an 'e' of multiple provenance. Let's see
conditioned evolutions:

- Reniōnem > renjọne > renone > ||| kidney].

- Semĕntem > semęnte > semjénte > simjente54 ] √
- Servĕntem > servant
- Fervĕntem > fervent. It is a semi-cultism, it has undergone an evolution but not total < fervere (boil).
Fervor is a cultism because there is an f-.

- Caemĕntum*** > k'emęntu > ŝemjénto55 > ŝimjento > ||| ϴimjento]
- Aequalem (Latin wau) > equal (inflection for wau).

We have cases of hesitation:

- Verrere > b a rrer

- Versūra (neutral plural of versurum, < verto) > pours // b to sura: change of timbre and hesitation between
'a' and 'e' that becomes firm from the 18th century onwards.
- Epis co pu > bishop (due to hesitation of timbre), in French it has given évêque.
- Bilantia > balance: lans, lantis was a bowl. By the process of assimilation we do not say
belanza.

50 It is a plant that when fractured emerges like milk

51 = doable that can be done, or is easy to do
52 Yod and the ĕ > ié > í
53 Below the /l/ in the implosive position is the wau, and the suffix –arium gives us -ero
54 Seed, semen
55 /ŝ/[ʦ] voiceless dentoalveolar affricate
 29
Historical
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Why do we have cases of hesitation? Because the timbre is unstable, this hesitation will last until the 18th century
(when the RAE publishes the Dictionary of Authorities). In Valdés' Dialogue of the Language, Marcio, the one
who knows, talks about hesitations.

Tuesday, April 5, 2016

Unstressed vocalism will not distinguish between intermediate, open and closed degrees. The difference with tonic
vocalism is that there is no diphthongization and we saw spontaneous evolution.

Let's do the same with the velar series (o, u):

- Cụráre > cure

- Lųcráre > achieve
- Nọmináre > name
- Cǫmedére > eat

Let's see the evolutions when they are conditioned.

The /o/ when it is conditioned by a yod and closes in /u/:

- Mŭliere (lj that is going to inflect the unstressed note) > mọljere > mužer >||| muxér] woman

- Mŭltu > mọltu > moṷto > moito > muito > muĉo]

- Cŭltĕllu (-ĕllu > -illo) > kọltęlu > koṷtjelu (LV) > koitjelo > kuĉílo] knife
- Co(g)itare ('g' syncopation, 't' voicing) > care √

There are many cases in which a ŏ 56 closes on /u/ without explanation: cóprire > cover, dŭbitare 57 > doubt, jocare58
> play, locale > place ('local' is not the heritage word, because we know that an intervocalic –k- voices, the
heritage word is 'place').

The timbre is quite unstable so that it is subject to assimilation, dissimilation, etc.

Formōsus (is an adjective that derives from form > last 59 ). –ōsus > –oso (it is a high register suffix) generally
designates abundance of content. Formōsus is abundance of beautiful form > beautiful, however we say beautiful.
Maybe there are many /o/ and by process of dissimilation we say beautiful (it is the patrimonial form). In the
center of the empire a less classic adjective arises which is bellum > beautiful (ita.). The lateral areas of the empire
are lexically more conservative than in the center of the empire (the center is from Rome to Lugdunum), bello in
Spanish is a loanword from Italian. What is traditional, what is traditional is the word beauty, the same thing
happens in Galician, Portuguese and Romanian. An unstressed /o/ gives us an /e/ probably due to a dissimilation
process.

Rotŭndu: ŭ > ọ, t > d: > rodọndo, but we say round. Rotundo (cultism) is probably another case of dissimilation
because there are many /o/.

2. Final unstressed vocalism:

Another type of unstressed vocalism that, after the initial vocalism, is the one that has a lower timbre stability. The
final vowels are quite opaque, the result is that the timbre is not perceived very well. In final position there will be
a drastic reduction: the palatal series gives us an /e/, the /a/ a /a/ and the velar series gives us an /o/.

Yo Yo and and to to either either or or

Yo Yo and and to ǫ either or or
Yo and and to ǫ either or

56 In unstressed vocalism it should give us an /o/

57 The ŭ should give an /o/
58 Consonant + r → voicing (patre, matre, etc.).
59 Mold with which something is made or formed, especially shoes and hats.
 30
Historical
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and to either
ī/ĭ/ē/ĕ > e

ā/ă > a

ŏ/ō/ŭ/ū > or

Within the Romance languages, Spanish has a middle position, we do not have as many as in French (fête), the
same happens in Catalan which is neither /a/ nor /e/, it is an /a/ in between. But we don't have 4 vowels like
Portuguese has.

What's happening?

Ámas > you love, améca > friend (we have an /a/ to differentiate from the masculine), cília > eyebrow, . The /a/ is
maintained not only because phonetically it is a firm phoneme, but also because it is a grammatical morpheme that
serves to differentiate amica from amico.

Hábui > hube, pósui > positioned, pótui > could: they are perfect strong (they have the tonic in the radical) they
ended in /i/ in Latin. In Spanish there is no patrimonial unstressed /i/. That final /i/ will exert an umlaut in the case
of véni > vine the /e/ closes a degree, once this is done (closed), the /i/ gives us the logical and expected /e/. Pótui
we have the same thing but also an inflection of /o/ in /u/, the same thing pótui > could. In hábui we have a
metathesis (from wau) and the diphthong is formed. Hobe operated until the 14th century (through Burgos
entrance, in El Cid). They are the perfect ones in -obe that then, due to the influence of tú and poder (two powerful
verbs), close.

What happens with the /e/?

It is a phoneme that grammatically does not perform any function like /a/. Then it will be lost by apocope behind a
series of consonants (six).

Behind what consonants? (you have to learn them by heart)

- /l/ cáule > col, fidéle > faithful, mále > mal, sále > sal, sóle > sol, vile > vile.
- /r/ flóre > flower, colóre > color, máre > sea, pastore > shepherd, potére > power, rumóre >
rumor, vendére > sell, vinore > come (it's because all infinitives end in /r/ in Spanish).
- /n/ cane > cane, páne > pan, pinnóne > piñon, precóne > pregón, ratióne > reason, titione > tizón.
- /s/ cortése > cortés, mése > mes, montése > montés, reversee > reverse, trasvése > traverse, tússe >
cough.
- what today is a /z/: críce > cruze > cruz, décé > tene > ten, fálce > foz > hoz, lúce > luze > luz.
- /d/ that does not come from a Latin /d/, is a romance /d/ coming from a voiced /t/ lenized: etáte > agee >
age, caritáte > charitye > charity, civ(i)táte > cibdade > city, líte > lide > lid (combat, fight), paréte >
parede > wall, réte > rede > red, salúte > greet > health.

L, r, s, z, d, n are the final consonants in Spanish

Wednesday, April 6, 2016 What alterations occur in the final vocalism?

Particularities of final vowels:

The result is three vowels, /o/ and /a/ are very firm vowels because in addition to being phonemes they are
morphemes. Philologists have studied why the –ey is lost. What characteristics do these six consonants have that
cause the –e behind them to be lost?

The -e will be maintained until the 11th century, the apocope coincides with the syncopation of the intertonics.

These consonants (l, r, s, z, d, n) do not have to be grouped, otherwise in this case the apocope is not produced →
if the consonants are grouped, it is not produced.
 31
Historical
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Committee > konde]

Aerem (if the /r/ is grouped, in this case the hiatus is diphthong and a semiconsonant yod arises [ay]) > ái˰re

Salicem > saṷɵe] (willow: it is a tree)

The second is that the consonants are not voiceless (if they are voiceless, the apocope of –e is not produced).

Tŭrrem > tower

They cannot be pure stops either: lūcem > lūce > luk'e > luẑ(e) > luө]

Furthermore, the articulation area is dentoalveolar, so there is no apocope behind the velars, palatals or…

The A/:

Remember the possessives mĕu, mea, meum. Normally there are usually distinctive possessives between feminine
and masculine, such as in French for example 'mon' and 'ma', in MS there was a differentiation that later
disappeared. A progressive assimilation causes the /a/ to close to /i/ (this is what happens in MS). The feminine
form will disappear from the 13th century onwards.

Mĕu > mjeo > mine > mjó

Mea > mine > mine > my

In Latin there were no articles, they are a creation of the Romance languages from the demonstratives ĭlle, ĭlla,
ĭllud.

ĭlle > ela

she > the

ĭllud > elo

 32
Historical
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In the case of ela, apocope or perhaps apheresis (e)la will occur, this form will undergo a double evolution: ela →
{la}60

→ {the}

'La' and 'el' are allomorphs, that is, two ways to indicate the feminine gender. In principle with any word that began
with a vowel, then with words that begin with /a/ from the Golden Age onwards. Currently any word that begins
with unstressed /a/ (it could have been cut by syncopation or apheresis).

As far as the final /o/ is concerned, in some cases it was transformed into /e/:

- Dŭpl u s > (duplo, cult. vs double, patr.) duplo > double > double
- Cŭpru > (copper, cult.) > copper
- Col ap(h )u > colpo > golpo > coup
- Tītŭlu > (title, cult.) > tilde (patr.) by metathesis.

Sometimes this /o/ can be apocoped depending on the accent:

Dŏm i nu > domnu (there is a Latin-vulgar syncopation) > owner. If the /o/ disappears and since we cannot say
palatals then we say don.

Múlt u > a lot. We can't say much but we say very

In the case of /e/ it is maintained or shortened, in some cases the final –e closes in /i/ When? When in hiatus

If the final –e is in hiatus, it closes on /i/

- Rege > re(y)e61 > ree62 > rei > king (plural 'kings')63
- Lege > law
- Hŏdie > ǫdje > o(y)e64 > óe > ói
- Bŏve65 > bǫᵬe > bwée > bwéi]

Hiatus are resolved in two ways: diphthongizing or fusing the two vowels.

Verb forms:

- Amatis66 > ama d es (medieval form) > amaes (15th century) > You love in almost
all of Latin America

Amás prevails in the Río de la

Plata
- Tenetis > tene d es: it is a problem of an unstressed /e/ that is in a hiatus that is resolved by merging or
diphthongizing

Until the 16th century, the normal forms were amades and tenedes, the esdrújulos of -ais were from the 17th
century.

3. Unstressed intertonic vocalism:

Intertonic vocalism is the weakest of all unstressed vocalisms, it is very weak. The rule is both pretonic and

60 Because they are allomorphic, that is, variants.

the classroom, 'the' IS NOT A MASCULINE ARTICLE, it is an allomorph. It only applies to 'him', we say this
classroom and not this classroom.
61 a palatal (y) that is going to disappear
62 ree hiatus > ree this second 'e' becomes 'i'
63 In the Middle Ages there were re, res, kings.
64 ŏ > ǫ cannot be diphthongized, the syncopation of the palatal fricative 'y' comes
65 the diphthong ŏ
66 second person present, amatis of the imperfect
 33
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posttonic. Both one and the other are going to be lost due to syncopation.

The trend of syncopation has already been traced back to Vulgar Latin, the most abundant syncopation was
between muta+liquid or liquid+muta.

- Vĭr ĭ de > vĭr'de > green

- Pŏsĭtu > position: there is diphthongization, but there is no voicing for reasons of relative chronology.
The syncopation is so early (latinovulgar) that in this case it is before the voicing.
- Dŏminu
- Calĭdu
- ŏculus > oc'lu

It is necessary to distinguish between a Latin-vulgar syncopation and a Romance syncopation (what Romance
syncopation does is advance this tendency detected in LV, therefore it is different and if it is different the results
are different). The syncopation with the exception of the firm central vowel which is maintained without any
problem.

- Amarĕllu > yellow (< bitter)

- Para d isu (lenition) > paradise
- Asparr a gu > asparagus (the prefix ex- makes words starting with AS- > E).
- ŏrphanu > orphan

What is the problem of syncopation?

The problem with syncopation is that it brings together two consonants that were previously separated, that is, it
creates groups of consonants.

There are rules of combinatorial phonology, not all phonemes can be combined. In Spanish we have groups that
come from Latin. If syncopation brings consonants into contact that could be joined together, that is, it reproduces
groups of pre-existing consonants, then there is no problem. In this case, it reproduces primary groups and what it
does is increase the frequency of these groups.

The problem is when syncopation brings into contact groups whose combination is not allowed, these groups are
secondary groups and the system has to solve them. We are going to have several solutions. We should not be
surprised that Teresa of Jesús says ponré, tenré, etc.

Thursday, April 7, 2016

Practice 10:

1. Taurum < bull, maurum > moor. Derived cult terms: bullfighting, bullfighting, “Mauritania”. Their
common behavior is the assimilation of the diphthong 'au' and its resolution. Austrum > 'austro' south
wind vs 'cierzo' north wind → non-monophthong.
2. Cause > thing; cauda > tail (the heritage word is tail, then we have derived cults caudal). They are solved
by assimilating the diphthong 'au' and resolving it. Its cult derivatives are: causa and cauda. Caulem > col
(apocope after –l).
3. aurum > gold vs auram > aura (soft and gentle wind). Paucam > poco, the wau is primary vs av i cam >
oca, the wau is secondary due to syncopation of the /i/. With syncopation, a labial is left in an implosive
position. Both the primary and secondary wau have prevented voicing.
4. Cautum > preserve, there is no sound system because there is the wau that prevents it. Cŭbĭtum > elbow.
5. They are two cultisms that intermingle in history: auctorem > author, actorem > actor.
6. Auscŭltat > listen, pŭltes > puches (pǫltes > poṷtes > poites > puĉes 67 ]. Impŭlsat > empoṷsa > empoiša >
push (heritage word) vs push (cultism). One is a cultism and the other is the heritage word. Those words

67 porridge: flour cooked in water and salt

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have in common ŭ+l+consonant.
7. Quōmŏdo
Quattuor
Quadrum
What
Duōdĕcĭm
8. Absĕntem > absent (patr.) vs absente (cult.)
Absĕntĭa > absence (patr.) vs absence (cult.)
9. Albus > alba (there was also 'obo'. Altus > alto (there was also 'oto', that's where otero comes from).
Album is a cultism. Albumin comes from albumen 'egg white'.
whitewash < LV exalbĭcāre (whiten)
10. Altīare > raise
Hillock68 ǂ otero69
Altozano < antiŭstianu > ŭstiu > uŝo “uço” → “uços without ravines”70
ostiu (door)
Ex-altiāre > exalt (magnify)
People relate words that are phonically similar (popular etymology). Altozano derives from antu ustianu
11. Chalice < calix: it is a cultism, it means cup. When we say it comes from, it means that it has had a
normal evolution. The patrimonial word is channel, first the syncopation (it is more or less contemporary
with the apocope). When syncopation comes, the time for monophthongization had already passed .
Channel and chalice are etymological brothers. In the T. It means both a cup and a conduit of water,
which is why it adopted this meaning. Coz < calcem (secondary). For syncopation to occur, the
consonants have to be voiced.
12. They are alter's relatives, so they are cultisms.
13. Recaudo comes from recapitāre (to collect), capio, re-capitu. First voicing, then vocalization.
Recapitu: vocalization of the labials. Pretonic and postonic all fall except /a/. Syncopation is
contemporary with apocope. Flow has nothing to do with capital. Flow comes from capital in the sense of
important. Capital < caput, city > civĭtas. Capitalem > kapetale > kabedale > kab'dal > kaṷdal Recapitu >
ṝekab(e)do > ṝekab'do > ṝekaṷdo]
Capitĕllum ** * > kapetello > kabedjélo > kab'djélo > kaṷdílo]
-ĕllum > -illo. The consonants give voice. There are many vowels, so there will be syncopations .
capitia > head
caput < cape

68 low hill or mount on high ground.

69 isolated hill overlooking a plain
70 (they have nothing to do with the reeds) intertonic vocalism. They were some doors that were in front of the
churches, it has to do with doors.
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Monday, April 11, 2016

We have talked about initial and final unstressed vocalism.

Pretonic and postonic syncopations

We said that there is a rhythm in Spanish that is trochaic (flat), in Spanish there will be a syncopation of the
vowels except for /a/.

- Anate > adds

- Pĕlagu > pélago

In the case of pretonic vowels, it is possible that there are two or more unstressed vowels. If there are 2 or more
pretonic syllables, only one will disappear but which one? The rule is that it is the syllable that immediately
precedes the stressed syllable that disappears.

- Caballĭcāre > ride

- Humīlĭtāte > humility
- Recover > recover is a cult *** > recover
- Matūr i cāre (1st lenition, 2nd syncopation, 3rd metathesis) > get up early

Generally, lenition (Visigothic period) is prior to syncopation (this is concomitant to apocope).

When syncopation brings consonants into contact that can form groups, there is no problem. The problem is when
you group consonants that cannot be joined together.

The group muta+liquida is normal in Latin, what syncopation does is increase its frequency.

- Mŏb(i)le (the 'e' can no longer be apocoped because the consonant is grouped) > furniture
- Blĭtu > pigweed
- Nĕbŭla > fog

Muta + R:

- Hĕdera > ivy

The first element is l, s, n (no problem), when there is M there is already a problem:

When there is an /S/ there is no problem, because they are consonants that can appear in word-final position, that
means that it is normal for them to appear in syllable-final position.

/S/:

When we see an esdrújula we have to think about cultism, because generally the Spanish will try to adapt them.

- Sŏlĭdu > salary

/N/:

- Asĭnu > ass

- Manĭ c a > manga

- Alĭquod > something (The wau when it is semiconsonant disappears)

The issue can get complicated when we have /M/

- Sēmĭta > path

- Semĭtariu > trail
- Comĭtatu > county
 36
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The nasals in the implosive position adapt very easily to the point of articulation of the following segment.
Depending on the consonant that follows, the nasal in an implosive syllable will reproduce one allophone or
another.

The /R/:

- Veritāte > truth

When there is an /r/ but with muta + liquid there will be a lenition (as in patrem or matre > father, mother), then a
syncopation. If the secondary group reproduces the primary group, nothing happens, what it does is increase its
frequency.

P'R:

- Recover > recover

- Aprīlem > April
- Lĕpŏre > hare
- Pŏpŭlu > town

The problem arises when groups are not well accepted.

If we have an /m/ in an implosive position, some readjustment of the phonological system may occur. What
happen?

Hŭmĕru > (humerus is cultured) m'r that is not assimilable, then the system will readjust it through epenthesis 71 of
a consonant that participates in the consonants that precede and follow (one is nasal and the other is liquid) >
shoulder, a supporting consonant is introduced, therefore it has to have similarity with the consonants. The 'b' is an
epenthetic (supporting) consonant.

What happens when the sequence is m'n? First a dissimilation of nasals and then comes the epenthesis of the
voiced labial.

- Nōmĭne > nom'ne > nóm're > nom

- Fēmĭna > fem'na > fem'ra > fembra > female
- Fāmĭnē > hunger
- Sēmināre > sow

It happens that the primary group 'mn' exists as autŭmnu > autumn, that is, the primary 'mn' will give the palatal
nasal in Spanish, but the dates are very different, one comes from the LV and another group is secondary (When
syncopation occurs? We say that it is concomitant with the apocope, that is, 11th century). When syncopation
occurs, the palatalization stage has already passed, therefore a palatalizing solution is impossible. Then there will
be

71 Addition of some sound in a word, especially in internal position

 37
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consonant dissimilation, and from there in hŭmĕru the epenthesis of the labial consonant 'b' occurs.

The same will happen with /n/ that appears with another consonant that is not compatible:

N'R:

- Vĕnĕris72 > bęnęris (LV) > bjen'res > friday]

- Tĕnĕru > tender
The solution is the metathesis (n'r > r'n), but it is not always like that so let's see another
1st
type of solution.
- Hon(o)rāre > hon'rare73 ***> honor

The 2nd solution is the reduplication of the vibrating.

We have a 3rd solution that will be the epenthesis of the /d/

- ĭngen(e)rāre > engender

The future Latinos succumbed, the Spaniards are going to create new paradigms to imitate the future and they do
so through a periphrasis amar-(h)e (as I must love). It will happen that in some conjugations the pretonic
disappears: tener-he, what happens to the pretonic? has to syncopate > ten'ré. Salir- sal'ré, come > ven'ré some of
the irregulars have to do with syncopation. There are several solutions throughout the MS, one of them and the one
that has prevailed is the epenthesis of the 'd'. Another was the metathesis terné, verné, ponré (put), it is the
preferred solution of Teresa of Jesús (16th century), in the EM the reduplication terré, porré, verré was also very
common.

What happens when there are n'm

- anĭma > an'ma, then there is a dissimilation and instead of anma we say soul
- Mĭnĭmāre (confluence of nasals) > men'mar > mermar
- Sangu(ĭ)ne (metathesis of wau, this is semiconsonant so it disappears) > sang'nue
> sang'ne > blood
- īnguĭne > ingu'ne > ing'n(u)e > ingre (desus.) = ingle

Tuesday, April 12, 2016

It is essential to relate vocalism and consonantism

When talking about the apocope we have talked about the consonants that can appear at the end of words.

When talking about syncopation we are talking about groups of consonants, we have to differentiate between
groups of Romance or secondary consonants that are the result of syncopation and groups of Latin-vulgar or
primary consonants, therefore their evolution cannot be the same.

B'L, secondary, arises from syncopation and in both cases the evolution is the same.

- Blĭtu > pigweed

- Nĕbŭla > neb'la > fog

Primary MN:

- Auntŭmnu > nn > n] > autumn → total regressive assimilation, then palatalization.
- Damnu > damage

Secondary M'N:

72 It was the day of Venus, so they put it in the genitive

73 n'r impossible group, reduplication
 38
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- Dŏmĭnu > dǫm'nu74 > dwenno > dwéno] → we can speak of a Latin-vulgar syncopation, it is so early that
m'n > nn is assimilated

Syncopation is already romance, therefore when (syncopation) occurs, palatization had already passed.

- Stamĭne > stamene > estam'ne > estam're > stamen75

- Fēmĭna > fem'na > fem'ra > female

→ The result will be a dissimilation and then an epenthesis

With the N'R group there are three possible solutions:

1. metathesis > RN (tĕneru < tender)

2. reduplication > RR (honorāre > honor)
3. epenthesis > NDR (ĭngenerāre > engender)

A conditional is a future of the past, neither the future nor the conditional come from Latin, both come from verbal
periphrases. They were established on the basis of the infinitive and the present. As soon as futures are
amalgamated, they become lexicalized. The grammatical vowel is not –e (it moves to 'hé' and makes the previous
vowel disappear).

- Tener he > ten(e)r hé > ten'ré

- Put > I'll have
- Come > come'ré

The one that has triumphed is the solution with the epenthesis 'I will have', 'I will put', 'I will come'. In the case of
the conditional it is the same.

Tener-hia > would have > would have > would have

The same can happen with L'R:

val(e)r he > val'ré > solutions: reduplicate or the epenthesis of a consonant > valdré

Let's see when syncopation brings three consonants into contact:

NG'N

- Sanguĭne > sang'ne > dissimilation of nasals → saƞgre]

- īngu(ĭ)ne > ing'ne > íƞgle]

If there are many nasals, the substitutes come, which are the liquid ones.

When there is a lipstick as the first element:

What happens when the first element is a lipstick? the vocalization of the labials in an implosive position:

- Civĭtatem > k'iᵬetate > ŝiᵬ(e)dad(e) > ŝibdad * >||| Ɵjuda]

- Capitālem > kapetale > keb(e)dal(e)76 > kabdal > ||| kaṷdal]

There is a suffix that is the verbal suffix –īfĭcāre that has to do with causative values:

–īfĭcāre > -iᵬ(e)gar(e) >-ib'gar > iṷgar (metatiza) > -gwár]

It is a suffix that adapts to lexemes such as sanct–īfĭcāre > sanctify (cult.), but the popular one is sanctify. Verify >
find out

74 latinovulgar syncopation group

75 part of wool fleece that is made up of long strands
76 syncopation and apocope at the same time
 39
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Phonetics
When there is a dental as the first element:

- Catenatu (<catena > chain) > katenatu > kadenádo > kad'nado > kandado] (1) Metathesis // kannado >
kanádo] (2) total reciprocal assimilation (in the Mio Cid it appears “He saw open doors and uços without
glens”)
- Rĕtĭna *** > retina > rętena (LV) > rjed(e)na (syncopation in the postonic) > rjed'na (metatiza) > ṝjéṋda]

We have another noun suffix: –ātĭcu. We have the –t in the implosive position and we don't like the dentals, so it
will be assimilated.

–ātĭcu > -ád(e)go > -ad'go > -aẑgo >||| áẓgo77

When three consonants come together:

- Computāre > komp'tar(e) > koṋtar]

Generally syncopation occurs after voicing, but this is very early.

- Epīs c opu > obis'po → there are three voiceless consonants, the middle one is the one that falls.
- Mas t (i)cāre > más'cara (chewing is a cult.)
- Sept(i)māna > week. There was sedman

The trend is towards simplification.

The evolution of the consonant system

The consonant system of Latin was a system of three orders (labial, dentoalveolar and velar) and six series
(voiceless stops, voiced stops, voiceless fricatives, nasals, laterals and vibrants). This system is multiplied by two
for the geminate consonants. The /f/ was rarely germinated and /b/, /d/, /g/ were not germinated except in loans.

What happens in the proto-Romance era? The Romance languages are going to greatly complicate this very simple
Latin system. They are going to create a new order, the palatal. This is going to cause a lot of problems for scribes
when faced with phonemes/sounds that did not exist in Latin. Let's learn medieval spellings. The dentoalveolar
order is also increased with the insertion of two new affricate phonemes: /ts/ and /dz/, and a new series will appear:
voiced fricatives.

Summary:

- Creation of the palatal order

- Emergence of new afflicted phonemes /ts/ and /dz/
- Appearance of voiced fricatives

(p. 94) we are going to contrast the system of Latin and medieval Spanish:

- The first series includes stops and voiceless affricates: /p/, /t/, /ʦ/ ŝ//, /ʧ/ /ĉ/ 78 , /k/
- Plosive: in medieval Spanish there are stops (b, d, g) and at the same time we have the voiced
dentoalveolar affricate /dz/ /ẑ/
- Voiceless fricatives that existed in Latin and that we have expanded: /f/, /s/, the voiceless prepalatal
fricative /š/ /ʃ/ which is equivalent to French /ch/ and then this aspirated /h/
- A series of voiced fricatives: /ʙ/ /ᵬ/, /z/, /ʒ/ /ž/, /ǰ/ /y/
- Nasal: /m/, /n/, /ɲ/ /n/
- Laterals: /l/, /λ/ /l/
- Multiple vibrant /r/
- simple vibrant /r/

77 the dot below the z means it is voiced

78 we have a new palatal, the French ch, the result is our [tché]
 40
Historical
Phonetics
Wednesday, April 13, 2016

Yesterday we talked about the main creations of the Romance languages that consist of the creation of the palatal
order and the creation of voiceless and voiced fricatives.

Let's see the organization of the palatalization processes:

1. Yo
2. T.Y., K.Y.
a) consonant + yod
3. DY, GY
Yo 4. SY, RY
It begins in the 2nd, 3rd century AD. c 5. PY, MY, BY
1. K'L, G'L, T'L
b) yod + consonant 2. KT, ŬLT
3. K.S., G.N.

II K e, i
V century G e, i

III L.L., N.N., M.N.

K.L., P.L., F.L.

IV LY romance

The group79 First it is characterized by being palatalized with iod. The first block (a) has the characteristic that the
yod follows the consonant, while in group (b) the yod precedes → yod + consonant.

Palatalization has to be done with something that palatalizes, first of all it can be the yod, but it can also be the
same consonants that palatalize. In the case of palatal consonants (II) they begin in the 5th century and this will
end in medieval times.

Then we have the geminates (III).

Then, the palatalization of a /l/ that was a palatal allophone and then palatalizes (IV).

We are going to follow this scheme that at the same time is chronological

YO. Emergence of the palatal order and emergence of voiced fricatives:

Where do palatal consonants come from?

A/ CONSONANT + YOD

1. 'I'80

Let's start with the yod itself. The yod in LC was a semiconsonant, that is, an allophone of the phoneme /i/ in
syllable attack position. In LV, it begins to consonantize, this appears as an assimilated sound that sometimes
appears as a 'z'.

The evolution of this yod that will consonantize will depend on the... that accompany it and generally on...

79 Groups are groups of consonants that are articulated in the same way.
80 'i' → long i vs 'j' → short i
 41
Historical
Phonetics
Examples :

First series:

- Iam > ya
- Iacet > lies (lie)
- Iūgu > yoke81

In the first three cases, in front of a stressed vowel, the result will be a voiced midpalatal fricative [y].

Second series:

When the consonant is in interior position, it will give us the same > yy > y]. ***This sound [y] is weak in
Spanish: if it is preceded or followed by a palatal vowel (e, i), this sound is absorbed and disappears. Absences in a
phonological system are important, and this is what will happen → in unstressed initial position, it disappears:

- Iaiunu > fasting

- Major > major
- Maiu > May
- P ei ore > peyyore > pe(y)or(e) > worst
- Iactare > jaktare > yaitare > (y)eitare > eĉar] → disappears because it precedes an /e/. In French he has
given jeter.
- Ien(u)ary > January → an initial palatal that disappears (inject cult. < iactare in).

We have the other solutions, in principle they are all tonic so what is expected is that it will be maintained. It will
become a voiced prepalatal fricative /ž/. Rethreading 82 , which is an additional vibration (horse in the Río de la
Plata).

- Iūstu > just (EM) [žusto]

- Iŏvis > Thursday
- Iuncta > joint > joint (EM) > joint
- Iŏcu > game / iuego > game > game

/ž/ voiced prepalatal fricative [‫]ج‬ This sound lasts throughout the Middle Ages, in the 16th century a
current of northern deafening occurs >||| /š/ [‫]ش‬, this causes
differentiation problems.

Ž (EM) [‫ |||> ]ج‬š (XVI) [‫ > ]ش‬χ (XVII83 ) [‫ > ]خ‬the RAE, the 18th, eliminates the 'x' and imposes the 'j'.

Spellings: The voiced prepalatal fricative /ž/ could be represented with an 'i' or a 'j'. Example: fiīo, fixed. In MS the
'i' will alternate with the 'j' and the 'y', and the 'u' with the 'v'.

2. TY, KY > Ɵ]

Let's see the primary yod of Pidal that will give our zeta. The results of TY and KY are identical in Spanish, but in
Italian they are different.

A palatalization process will occur because the yod attracts the surrounding consonants to its point of articulation;
the result will be a voiceless and assimilated dentoalveolar affricate. It is a very early process, this means that this
sound will be subject to the lenition tty or kky or this sound preceded by a consonant (it is produced ...

81 Wooden instrument to which, forming a team, the mules are yoked by the neck..., and to which the spear or
pole of the cart is attached.
82 Characteristic friction that occurs in the articulation area when making some voiced fricative consonants, such
as the yo consonant in the River Plate area.
83 It is delayed and becomes a velar voiceless fricative
 42
Historical
Phonetics
Lenition comes from lenis which is opposed to fortis. We speak of fortis position when this sound is preceded by a
consonant, and we speak of lenis when it is in a position between vowels (the consonant sound will suffer a
weakening).

Palatalizing process with assimilation that gives us a voiceless dentoalveolar affricate. This, depending on the
context, may be maintained or suffered a lenition, the result will be the same sound but sonorous.

Pidal's primary yod > θ]

2nd and 3rd centuries Graphics Golden age Century XVI XVII century

T.Y. Voiceless dentoalveolar C e, i He becomes Voiceless dentalized

θ
K.Y. affricate /ŝ/ [ʦ] Ç a, o, u disaffected fricative
Ş

TTY Voiced dentoalveolar He becomes

“z” in front of all θ
KKY affricate /ẑ/ [ʣ] disaffected Voiced dentalized
fricative ȥ > ş

We have 'TY' and 'KY' that undergo a palatalization process and the result is a voiceless dentoalveolar affricate /ŝ/
[ts], if it is preceded by a consonant > it remains as such, if it is between vowels > lenition.

In the Middle Ages we have two sounds, one voiceless and the other voiced, which were represented with different
spellings (plaça). If it was voiced, it is a voiced affricate and is represented by the “z”, and if it was deaf, it is
represented by the “c” or “ç”. In the 15th century a very strong current came that gave way to contemporary
Spanish, and with which those sounds became de-African.

Thursday, April 14, 2016

Reading: The apocope of the vowel in old Spanish. Attempt at historical explanation. Rafael Lapesa (1951)

The question of the concept of normal apocope and the concept of extreme apocope with their corresponding dates
and their disappearance is raised.

The extreme apocope is when the apocope has to do with non-tolerated consonants. Those tolerated are six.

Lipsticks prevent apocopa.

In the Alfonso era the apocope will decline and in the 14th century there are residues in literature.

Clitics are pronouns, in MS there were many clitics, they were very weak and needed to rely on other words
(dixome).

Apocope of –e behind impossible consonants, behind groups and nouns, but in groups of clitics that will make the
apocope last until the 14th century.

Alfonso VI conquers Toledo in 1086 because it was the symbol of the Visigothic monarchy. Toledo Mozarabs,
Jews, Arabs and Christians: multicultural coexistence. Also, Alfonso VI is the king of El Cid. He is going to
introduce the Cluniac reform: a religious reform (of a Catholic type), because it opens up to Europe. Another
introduction is the carolina letter (carolos magno, that is, Charlemagne), we are in the 11th century, the first
Hispanic Renaissance. A purification of Latin, what is spoken is something else and then we have to write in other
languages, and the first Romance languages will appear.

The normal apocope is a late phenomenon, that is, in the evolution of a word it must be placed at the end. In the
10th century the final –e still appeared.
 43
Historical
Phonetics
Romance: all the modalities of the north of the peninsula (except Catalonia and Ribagorza).

11th century: date of the normal apocope.

The paragogic –e to maintain the rhyme. We were in that era when the –e could be added and removed.

In the 11th century, pretonic and posttonic vowels had not yet been removed.

Multicultural society with a multiplicity of languages and dialects. Mozarabic is the heir of proto-Romance (what
the Visigoths spoke when the Arabs arrived), they had Latin. The Arabs spoke an Andalusian dialect and also
spoke classical Arabic, the Jews spoke a dialect and the language of Torah. In the north we had Leonese, Galician,
Cantabrian, etc. There was a flow of emigration of the Mozarabs towards the north. These were very apocopatic
due to the influence of Arabic, which has many word endings in consonants. –ĕllu > -illo the Mozarabs
transformed it into –jel / -el

Arabisms became paragogic and words of Romi origin became apocopated (p. 172).

In the 10th century we see palatalization phenomena.

p. 174 comes the cultural explanation:

The complex society of the 11th century: the French influence along the Camino de Santiago (when they began to
repopulate some areas). Cities begin to emerge, for coexistence in these cities, charters are created to organize
them. Spain opens to Europe on two levels: secular politics (through marriages) and those came with a court, it is
the model of good speech. The second is religious: Cluny. They want to replace the Mozarabic with the Cluniac, so
bishops, abbots, etc. come. Franks.

The repopulation of the Duero: nafarros > navarros > narros (they are Navarrese).

1212 Las Navas de Tolosa opens the entrance to western Andalusia. Kings have to command, govern a lot, so they
need documents (fueros). 12th century they want the French, model. The 13th century no longer loves each other
so much, Alfonso has sovereign intentions.

Book of the Eighth Waits: 1276 the apocope decays in the texts of Alfonso

From the 15th century onwards there were no enclitics or anything.

 44
Historical
Phonetics
Tuesday, April 19, 2016
TY Ŝ ŝ >||| ç > ɵ c e, i , ç a, o, u ”
K.Y. -ẑ- >||| -ȥ- > -ş- > ɵ z”

- Erīciu > erikju > eriŝo > eriẑo >||| eriȥo > erişo > eriθo]

- Aciāriu > akjariu > aŝariu > aẑario >||| aȥario > aşario > aşairo > aθero] > steel. Throughout the Middle
Ages “steel” will be written with zeta → azero.
- Fŏrtia > fǫrtja > fwérŝa > ||| fwérşa > fwérθa]

- Plateŏla > platjwéla > plaŝwéla > plaẑwéla … > plaθwéla] square

The productive suffix –ĭtia that alternates with –ĭtie gives us –ez, in Spanish it gives us –eza. Once palatalized, the
iod is absorbed. If we see the yod it is that it is a cultism (justice)

- Mal–ĭtia > weed (malicia is a cult.)

- Pĭgiris > pigr–ĭtia > laziness (= pigricia is a cult.)

- Trist–ĭtia > sadness

- Just–ĭtia > justice (justice is a cult.)

-itis will survive the apocope

A suffix used to create abstract adjectives –antia/ -entia > -anza/ -enza.

- Bon-antia > bonanza

- And-antia > andanza

Platea (plaça) and coratione (coraçone) should have given the voiced one, they have given the deaf one. Things are
not always squared.

The suffix –tionem > ra-tione, oratione is a suffix that is attached to verbs, they are verbal nouns. Cultisms are
going to maintain the yod –ation.

Normally cultisms are more abstract and heritage cults are more tangible, but sometimes it is the other way around.
Whenever it is in the lenis position, it is written with zeta. Ratione > reason (patr.) and ration (cult.).

A particular case is SKY- (in Spanish the result is generally the same) > θ:

- Asciata > ascetic the /s/ is embedded in the palatal > hoe84

- Asciŏla > aθwéla > adze85

- ūstiu > uθo > uzo86

3. DY, GY > YY > Y

DY inflects. 'Y' disappears when preceded by palatal vowels (e, i).

84 a tool
85 carpenter tool
86 door. « uços without canyons » in El Cid
 45
Historical
Phonetics
- Adiutāre > help
- Podium > podium87

- Arrŭgiu > stream

- Fagea > beech (the tree)
- Sĕdeam > se(y)a > sea
- Fastīdiu > boredom88 (hastiar is patr.)
- Desĭdiu > desire (des idia re –ear)
- Pulegiu > pole(y)o < poleo
- Corrĭgia > run(y)a > strap

Consonant + DY > consonant + ŝ:

- Vir (i)dia > collard greens
- Orde ŏlu > ordiol89 (LV) > stye90 (-ŏlu > -uel)
- Verecŭndia > vergonŝa > vergona > verguena > 1 → vergoña || 2 → shame

4. SY, RY (metatizes, does not palatalize)

Generally they do not palatalize, they simply metatize (there are some exceptions):

- Basiāre > kiss

5. PY, MY, BY = VY > Y

BY is usually maintained:

- Superpia > arrogance

But, in some cases, BY palatalizes, they are minority cases and when it does, the result is the same as DY and GY,
that is, Y

- Habeam > beech

- Rŭbeu > blond, but there was royo (= blond) that means that the present subjunctive is 'haya'

Matches VY:

- Fŏvea *** fovja > hoya (the ŏ is not diphthongized by the yod) FOBIA

LY > lateral + yod > palatalize LY > l > ž >||| š > χ]

Filia > fille in French, in Spanish this phase was brief (-ll-), then the palatal lateral will be centralized and will be
pronounced as a voiced prepalatal fricative that after the Golden Age becomes devoiced and gives us the prepalatal
fricative voiceless that comes into conflict with other sibilants, and to avoid problems it delays and gives us the
jota.

Wednesday, April 20, 2016

B/ YOD + CONSONANT

1. K'L, G'L, T'L> χ]

LY = YL

87 Bench made of stone or other material placed against the walls, usually at the door of houses in rural areas.
88 disgust to food | disgust, annoyance
89 It's a cereal
90 Inflammation and infection of a hair follicle that produces a small bump on the edge of the eyelid.
 46
Historical
Phonetics

L.Y.91
l˯ > ž >|| š > χ “i, j”
K'L92 G'L T'L

YL → in most Romance languages the result is the palatalization of /l/, but in Spanish the delateralization or
centralization of the sound has occurred. Many philologists think that this occurred when the palatalization of the
geminate 'll' occurred and so that they would not be confused, it became delateralized. Throughout the Middle
Ages we will have this /ž/ sound. The spellings to represent this sound are the short i “j” and the long i “i”, it is
also possible “g e,i ”93 . From the Golden Age we have deafening, but as at this time there are a series of very close
sibilants, so in order not to confuse them this is delayed. These are the patrimonial results, in the case of cultured
words the yod is maintained.
- Cĭlia > eyebrow
- Shovel > straw
- Taleare > tajar (carve, semi-cultism). The semi-cultisms, therefore, have the palatal side.
- Mirabilia > marvel (it is a semi-cultism of LY)

LY =YL

The K'L G'L T'L groups have a Latin-vulgar syncopation, the result will be the palatal lateral and they follow the
same route.

K'L
- Ŏc(u)lu > eye “oios”
- Aurĭc(u)la > ear
- Parĭc(u)la > couple

G'L

- Teg(u)la > tile (patr.)

- Reg(u)la > reja. Rule is semi-cultism. Why? There is a syncopation, it experiences some changes but not
all of the corresponding ones. The cultisms maintain the vowel without syncopating it: regular.
- Coag(u)lum > rennet (curdle) vs coagulo, coagulate (cultisms).

- Vĕtulu > vec'lu (this word presents the only exception of diphthongization, apart from that the yod
usually prevents said diphthongization) > old → suffix –ŭlus
- Ovĭcŭla > sheep
- Saeculum > should have given us six > century, it is a semi-cultism
- Miraculum > miraglo > miracle (by metathesis). In French it remains “miracle”.
- Periculum > periglo > danger (semi-cultism)

→ Century, miracle, danger are religious semi-cultisms.

T'L

- Spatŭla, another semi-cultism. It is a diminutive of spata, we have the spatula cultism. He should have
given us spaja > > espadola > espad'la > back.

91 lj
92 jl
93 In this case the spelling "ge", for example, serves to represent the sound, that is, the two letters together
represent a single sound.
 47
Historical
Phonetics
The DL or TL groups are impossible in Spanish. Heritage words give us jota, semi-cultisms do what they can,
cultisms keep the vowel. It is an evolution that makes us unique throughout Romania.

The emergence of the palatal nasal Ñ :

NY > NJ > N˯]

The yod palatalizes the consonant and is embedded. The problem with the palatal nasal is not the sound, but the
representation of the sound, scribes begin to try to reproduce this sound. Each desk will have its own tradition. The
Catalans have NY, the French have GN, the Provençal and Portuguese spelling is NH.

Where do we get it from?

From the third wave of palatalizations, from the geminate -NN-. Annum > year. Spanish writing will prefer the
geminate spelling “nn”. Throughout the Middle Ages it was written with the geminate. It happens that the scribes
got tired and began to use abbreviations, so they were going to simplify the geminate with the “n” and on top of it
a little tilde ̃ → ñ

- Pin > pineapple

- Aranea > spider
- Hispania > Spain
- Cicōnia > stork is special because normally the yod palatalizes the nasal and disappears. The yod is not
imbibed, but it also metastasizes. Also risōneu > laughing ( palatalization + metathesis of the yod ).

Cultisms maintain, above all, the GN group: lignite94 , magnificent. French too: Espagne.

GN > I˰N˯ > N˯

- Lĭgna > lẹgna > leina > lena] firewood

- Stagnu > tin95
- Tan magnu > size (was an adjective. From the size of something a… noun is made)

2. KT, ŬLT > Ĉ]

KT > I˰T > IŠ > Š = Ĉ]

The 'k' in the implosive position is relaxed, it is pronounced as an aspirate that is completed in a semivowel, in
yod: kt > it (it is a feature that differentiates Eastern Romania from Western Romania).

Features that differentiate Western Romania from Eastern Romania:

- The /K/ in implosive position relaxes KT > I˰T > IŠ > Š = Ĉ]

- Eastern Romania does not voice intervocalic stops, Western Romania does.
- The plurals are in –es, in the oriental they are in -i

The features have been attributed to the influence of the Celtic substrate. “Milk”, in French “lait”, in Portuguese
“lleite”, in Catalan “llet”. Romance languages maintain the 't' in the spelling, we have palatalized it and it has
become /ĉ/. The yod is palatalized and then imbibed.

Cultisms maintain the KT group (strict, lactating). This 'k' is pronounced relaxed like a [ga]

- Lacte > milk

- Strĭctu > narrow
- Tecto > roof
- Profectu > profit

94 fossil coal
95 Metallic chemical element | water lagoon
 48
Historical
Phonetics
In some cases simplifications have occurred:

- Frīctu > fried and not fricho vs dictu > said

With this group (KT) the oppositions between open e and closed e are neutralized.
 49
Historical
Phonetics
Thursday, April 21, 2016

ŬLT > ỌṶT > ILO > UIĈ > UĈ /ĉ/ “ch”

- Mŭltum > a lot

The spelling of the voiceless prepalatal is a spelling that has lasted until today, it has been imported from France,
in the Middle Ages there was hesitation.

When this process is combined with syncopation, then the process does not complete. We have it in the case of:

- Vŭltŭrem > bọltore > boṷtore > boit(o)re > vulture > bwítre]

3. KS > χ]

KS > I˰S > I˰Š > Š >||| Š > χ] /χ/ “x”

In the case of KS, the 'k' vocalizes in yod, and this palatalizes the consonant > š. The voiceless prepalatal
fricative /š/ is delayed and becomes a voiceless velar fricative /χ/. The spelling used was “x”.

- Ax > akse > aise > eiše > eše96 >||| eχe] > axis (patr.) / axial (cult.)
- Maxĕlla *** > maksęlla > maisjela > m eišjela > mešjéla > meši la > ||| meχíla] >
cheek (patr.) / maxilla (cult.)

What happens when syncopation occurs?

- Fraxĭnu > fraksęnu > frai˰seno > frei s (e)no > frésno**] > fresno97

Syncopation occurs and then it can no longer palatalize. Syncopation interrupts evolution.

II. Palatalization processes of a consonant followed by a palatal vowel

1. The evolution of K + E/I > Ɵ]

ŝ >||| ş > Ɵ] “c ” e, i
K' e, i ĉ>ŝ
/K/ -ŝ- > -ẑ- >||| ȥ > ş > Ɵ] “z ” e, i
K a, o, u K “ç”

Palatal vowels can palatalize the consonant that precedes them (in French the /a/ palatalizes the consonant chanter,
champ).

In Latin the phoneme /k/ had two allophones, one palatal and one velar .

- Cappa > cape

- Cūppa > cup

- Cupa > Cuba

In front of 'e, i' the realization was somewhat wet, there is no syncopation, the comma after the k' means that it is
wet, that is, a somewhat palatal affricate. The /k/ could assimilate the point of articulation of the velars. This is
what is going to happen throughout Romania. The first result of this evolution will be the voiceless prepalatal
affricate /ĉ/, here the Eastern Romania will stop. Ceaucescu [Chawchesco]. In Western Romania this prepalatal
affricate advances the point of articulation (this begins in the 5th century AD. C) and remains in the voiceless

96 « exe » [eche] like the French 'ch'.

97 A tree
 50
Historical
Phonetics
dentoalveolar affricate /ŝ/, therefore this sound can participate in lenition processes. In fortis position, it remains as
such; in lenis position, voice > /ẑ/. A variant is going to be split into two different phonemes.

The results of K + e/i are to be merged with KY and TY > Ɵ] (confluence). There will be a process of
phonologization of these variants, what is a variant will become a phoneme. The process of phonologization is
subject to lenition, it is phonologized and split (divided) into two.

Phonologization in the Middle Ages and dephonologization in modern times. In the Middle Ages there was a deaf
one, and another a voice one. From the 16th century onwards they will become deaf. As a consequence, they will
disappear, that is, the sound phonemes will become dephonologized.

- Vicīnu > vezino > neighbor

The fortis position is double: word-initial position, interior position preceded by a consonant:

- Cĭrca > k'ẹrka > ĉerka > ŝerka >||| şerka > Ɵerka]

- Pa sce re >

- Na sce re > “born” / “nascer” [ts] in the Middle Ages

- Ad mane sce re > dawn

- Pĭ sce > fish (the apocope was very late)

Lenis position, it is intervocalic: (after lenition > apocope)

- Fa c ere > fak'ere > faĉere > faŝere > faẑere >||| haȥer > haşer > aƟér]

- Pa c e

- Lu c e

Pace: for the apocope to occur, the phoneme must be voiced. If we find the verb to do with 'c', we are already in
the 2nd half of the 16th century, before that date it was written with 'z', hazer. In final position the spelling was
always “z”.

There is a coalescence of TY, KY that causes both variants to be phonological.

The velar is subject to the lenition processes. In fortis position it will give us the voiceless velar plosive. For it to
be phonological it has to come before /e/ and /i/.

Quĭ, quem → the semiconsonant wau disappears > que, who. We have a voiceless velar stop in front of /e, i/ →
phonologization process

With /a, o, u/ it continues, with /e, i/ it disappears (the wau is lost) Quĭ > que

- The wau with stressed /a/ is maintained

Aequalem > equal
Qualem > which

- When q+ wau precedes another vowel, then it disappears. Quomodo > how
Quis > qui > who > what

From one Latin-vulgar phoneme, 4 have emerged in Spanish

 51
Historical
Phonetics
Monday, April 25, 2016

Palatalizations of velars with palatal vowels

and-
G e, i
y- > Ø
-y- > Ø

c 94
ǥ-98
G a, o, u

g
-g-
EITHER

The voiced velar coincides with the voiceless one in that the /e/ and the /i/ attract their point of articulation, and the

result will be a palatal. We have two variants and they are going to be phonologized, but it is more masked because

there are disappearances.

G + i coincides with the palatalization of yod. Iaiunu could be written with “g” as well. The 'y' is a very weak sound

that may disappear more often.

When these vowels (the /e/ or the /i/) are stressed, the midpalatal fricative 99 it keeps. The spelling can be “hi”: (→

the g preceding stressed vowels)

- Gĕneru > son-in-law (going to palatalize, then syncopation, then metathesis). Gender is a cultism.

- Gĕmma > yolk

- Gypsu > gypsum (PS group assimilation).

- Gélu > ice

The cultisms maintain the spelling “g” with /e/ or /i/, naturally the esdrújulas tend to be cultured or semi-cultured.

This is an explanation, but it happens that if these vowels are unstressed in initial position, they palatalize then

disappear (→ the g preceding unstressed vowels):

- Germānu > brother, German (cult.)

- Gĕlāre > freeze

- Genŭcŭlu > (y)enǫc'lo > enolˬo > enožo > enošo > fennel (=knee)

98 G with dash means it is fricative

99 It is a phoneme that is represented by the letter “y” between two vowels in words like “may”, and by the letters
“hi” at the beginning of words like “grass”.
 52
Historical
Phonetics
In lenis position, palatalization will occur but before /e, i/ disappears:

- Regīna > reyína > queen > queen

- Magĭstru > magestro > ma(y)estro (magisterium is cult.)

- Sagĭtta > saeta

- Vĭgīnti *** > a final -i always gives us an e > the palatalization ve(y)ínte > twenty

- Trĭgīnta > treginta > tre(y)ínta > thirty (with accentual dislocation)

- Dĭgĭtu > deyedo > deedo > (fusion of homorganic vowels 96 ) > finger, (digital is cult.)

- Rŭgītu > gnawed > gnawed (the hiatus resolves into a diphthong with a closure) > noise, (roar is cult.)

- Sĭgĭllum > sęgęllu > se(y)el˯o > seel˯o > sel˯o]

Palatalization in intervocalic position, there is nothing but there was******

The g in front of /a, o, u/ is going to be kept in fortis position or it is going to be lost (it coincides with the palatal

that almost always disappears).

- Taste > taste

- Gŭtta > gout

- Hen > hen

In lenis position it can be maintained or it can disappear, that is, it will become a fricative then disappear. With /a,

o, u/ we have maintenance, frication or loss.

- August > August

- Līgāre > li(y)ar > liar

III. Palatalization of geminates:

R- -RR- -R-
L- -LL- -L-
Cat. LL- -LL- -L-
Port. L- -L- -EITHER-
96
two sounds are homoorganic if they use the same parts of the tongue or other articulatory organs
Esp. L- -LL- -L-
N- -NN- -N-
Port. N- -N- -EITHER-
Esp. N- -N- -N-

The geminates: these are solutions that have to do with a systematic solution of paradigmatic examples...

We have fortis position (initial or interior) and lenis position.

The fortis coincides with the initial and the geminate (rose, dog). In the first moments the scribes write the initials
 53
Historical
Phonetics
with “rr”. This is what would have to happen in all cases and is what happens with l- and n- in other languages, but

not in Spanish.

In Catalan to distinguish fortis from lenis, they palatalize (palatalize the initial l) → palatalize the fortis.

The Portuguese have opted for another solution (they do not palatalize the fortis), they suppress the lenis (to say tail

they will say coa) → they do not palatalize the smear and they suppress the lenis.

In the case of Spanish, we are not coherent, we have not palatalized the initial fortis (we have equated it to a lenis

position). Horse the geminate palatalizes to differentiate itself from the lenis, however, in the initial fortis it does

not palatalize.

Something similar happens with the nasal:

In Portuguese it does not palatalize the fortis and suppresses the lenis. In Spanish there is no equation, it happens

like with /l/. The geminate palatalizes in the palatal nasal, but does not palatalize in the fortis.

- Pīnna > pineapple - Annum > year

The palatalizations of the groups KL, PL, FL

When we talk about wau we have talked about the /l/ that had a velar pronunciation >… a velarized /l/. This /l/

when grouped with /k, p, f/ had a palatal realization in much of Romania. The Italians have transformed it into yod

(plus > piu), the French say “plus”.

It seems that a palatal realization occurred in areas of Hispania. It is a solution that is maintained in an eastern area

of Aragon, in Ribagorza. In this area this pronunciation is maintained, it is not a yod but it is not a strong /l/ either.

This solution to the ribagorzana is the one that seems to have predominated in Spanish, then we are left with the

palatal lateral.

KL > KLˬ > Lˬ

- Clamāre > clamor > call

- Key > key (cult. key)

PL > PLˬ > Lˬ

- Plŭvia > rain (palatalization and inflection)

- Flat > flat

- Plĭcare > arrive (folding is a semi-cultism). The concept of arrival of a trip and destination generally had

to do with water, with river arrival. In French it is called arriver, it comes from ripa > riba. In Spanish
 54
Historical
Phonetics
there is arrival which means the arrival of the ships. Plĭcare in Latin meant to fold. Duplicate. How did the

concept of doubling come about? When the sails arrived, the sails were folded. By semantic shift it

happens to that.

In some cases PL does not palatalize:

- Plagiarism > beach

- stall > plaza

In other cases, what has happened is that a palatalization has occurred (Catalan maintains the groups; palatalizes in

Leonese, Spanish, Portuguese, Galician). In Galician the palatal is voiceless, the result is the voiceless prepalatal

affricate /ĉ/ and this has happened in Spanish:

- Plattu > xatu > flat100

> Plŭttea*** > hut

- Plōppu > poplar

100 Plat(e)
 55
Historical
Phonetics
FL >

- Flamma > flame

- Florem > flower
- Flŏccu > flueco > fringe
- Flacĭdu > skinny

SUMMARY:

Pl, fl, kl > → l ˯

→ It is maintained
→ /ĉ/
FL > L
 56
Historical
Phonetics
Wednesday, April 27, 2016

This palatalization did not occur throughout the peninsula, it did not occur in Aragonese; It began to occur in the

center (the palatalization of KL, PL, FL occurs in Leonese). The east of the peninsula preserves the groups (KL,

PL, FL) without palatalization, except for Ribagorza. Whenever there is /f/ there is a problem. Cultisms maintain

groups.

FL in initial fortis position:

- Flamma > flame (cult. flame)

- Flore > flower

- Flŏccu > flueco > fringe

- Flacĭdu > skinny

The simplification of the group FL > L without palatalization.

These groups can appear in interior fortis position and the result is the voiceless prepalatal /ĉ/

- Wide > wide

- Concŭla > konkǫla > shell

- Ma(n)cŭla > stain (Immaculata, cult.)

- Mascŭlu > male

- Ĭmplĕre > fill

- Īnflāre > inflate

There are primary and secondary groups, but the result is the same.

The two verbs have been fighting in MS, ĭmplĕre and īnflāre. According to what we are seeing īnflāre > inflate,

an inflation is a swelling, to inflate (fill with air). Ĭmplĕre (it is from the 3rd, or goes to the 2nd or the 4th) >

henchir (fill with whatever). All EM is used to fill instead of to fill (it began to be used from the Renaissance

onwards).

There are some cases that involve these cases but with the sound:

- (G)lattire > beat

- Globĕllu > globęllo > (g)loƀjélˬo > loƀilˬo > oƀilˬo 101 (In several words the 1st consonant is interpreted

as belonging to the article, this is what has happened with /l/). Globo is a cult.

101 Obo = jobo: a tree

 57
Historical
Phonetics
There is no palatalization, what there is is simplification.

IV. Palatalization of LY romance

This palatalization is the result of a yod that comes from the diphthongization of an /e/, this ĕ is short. The result

will be a lˬ. Lievo is going to palatalize, the morphological analogy acts and it was either to remove the

palatalization or to homogenize, and the result will be that it is going to be palatalized (carried away). From the

16th century onwards, lĕvar will appear with the form seguir (a consequence of the yod coming from the

diphthongization of a short ĕ).

LY romance suffers generalized palatalization as soon as there is diphthongization lĕ > ljé > lˬ].

The behavior of initial, medial and final consonantism

The lenition

The consonantization of wau in Latin both in initial position and in intervocalic position is prior to lenition.

In LC these words are pronounced with wau, that is, a semiconsonantal wau (lavāre). From the 1st/2nd century

onwards, this wau became consonant. Phonetically it is a labiovelar sound because the soft palate and lips

intervene. In the case of the Latin wau what happens is that it becomes a labial fricative. We have some very

important loans from German because they are going to displace the Latin ones. When these loans are

assimilated, the wau will become a velar fricative.

- Werra > war

- Wisa > guise (manner/mode)

To stew in MS is to prepare anything, but then it summarizes the semantic field to stay at stew, so it is a special

way of stewing food.

- Wadi > (meant river in Arabic) Guadalquivir. The wow could have remained more or less, we have the

'g' is inevitable.

- Wardon > save

When a wau is consonantized, it can choose a labial or velar consonant sound. In Spanish the option was a

lipstick (vita > uida > life, lavāre > wash).

- Vita > ƀida]

- Lavāre > wash

- Caballu > horse

- Habēre > haber

 58
Historical
Phonetics
From the 3rd century onwards, the second lenition phenomena occurred. The /b/ in lenis position (the ****b, dg

stops in Latin are not in Spanish) begins to become a fricative, that is, in LV the consonantization of wau will be

equated with the labial stop, and as They are pronounced the same, the graphic confusions begin. EM: /b/ plosive

vs /ƀ/ fricative.

Sibi = sivi (pronoun) is what will explain why the spelling “v” is adopted in MS, because they are

pronounced the same.

The entire EM “haber” is written with “v” or “u” and without “h” → aver, in French it is avoir (when we see the

verb haber with “h” and with “b” that means that we are in the Renaissance).

We are talking about the lenition of the voiced lipstick.

The lenition is responsible for the series of voiced fricatives

What are the lenition positions? Lenis positions: when the consonants are in intervocalic position. Articulatingly

the consonant relaxes. Lenition is a series of changes that have in common the articulatory weakening of the

consonant in lenis position.

The lenis position is the intervocalic (interior), but the lenition will also affect, in the case of the voiced labial,

when it is in the initial position but preceded by a word that ends with a vowel. Ex. Taking dice, that dice/a

glass/a kiss is a plosive, but if I say that glass or that kiss it is in the lenis position. Betacism stalks us and is the

contagion of what happens in the absolute initial position of what happens in the internal lenis position.

Consonant sounds tend to relax, this affects all the consonants that are in this situation so that there is a gradation

from more articulatory tension to less.

> The double or sprouted ones are more tense102 than the simple

> The simple voiceless ones are more tense than the voiced ones

> Plosives more than affricates

> Affricates more than fricatives

> Fricatives more than sonants

> The sonants more than the liquid ones

> Behind the liquids are the consonants, the semiconsonants and nothing.

These lenition phenomena occur in western Romania, they do not occur in eastern Romania, which is why there

is a theory that relates them to the Celtic substratum. These changes do not affect an isolated consonant, but are

chain changes that affect the entire system, and it has to be adjusted.

102 Articulates more strongly

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Pp > p (the original)

Pt > p these are going to converge with the original, so one has to sound

In the first contour the sprouts are simplified and push the simple…. The fricative either remains or disappears.

Push or pull are systematic changes that affect the entire system.

The 2nd contour would be when the consonants are grouped with liquids (role), because liquids are consonants

that have vowel features, so there are languages where /r/ can be a syllabic nucleus (like Czech: prst means

finger). For this reason, lenition affects both the intervocalic position and the grouped position patre, dŭplare >

double (previously it meant multiplying by two).

What types of consonants does lenition affect? It affects plosive consonants (p, t, k), (b, d, g), also germinated,

simple fricatives (f, s), it affects groups that by assimilation will give /s/ such as ps, rs, ns , affects dentoalveolar

ᶨ
affricates and then the groups that will give us the voiced midpalatal fricative / / “mayo”.
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Tuesday, May 3, 2016

Lenition is a series of articulatory weakening processes that occurs in western Romania and in the lenis position.

The lenis position is an intervocalic position, but also a consonant followed by a liquid consonant (patre). It

affects stops, fricatives, affricates and voiceless and voiced consonants. Let's see how this process, which is a

systematic process, works? It can be a push or pull string, the changes affecting a series of sounds. There are 4

changes, the succession process is important.

1 -pp- -bb- -ff- -tt- -kk- -H.H- -rs- -ps- -tts-

2 -p- -F- -t- -k- -s- -ns- -ts-
3 -b- -d- -g-
4 ƀ EITH EITH EITHE
ER ER R
IT IS IMPORTANT TO INDICATE THE STEPS THAT FOLLOW

We will start with the plosives, we can say that process 1 is what we call degermination or simplification of the

germinates. It is simultaneous with the rest, this process ends in itself because the others are following. The

voiced ones are very minority, they are simply simplified:

- Abbate > abbot

If the -pp- is simplified, it coincides with the simple /p/, to avoid this the simple Latin voiced (p> b), then it

coincides with the voiced one. The voiced becomes a fricative (b > ƀ), then it coincides with the fricative, this

becomes an affricate, then it coincides with the affricates. This either remains or disappears. It is the same

whether it is push or pull, the important thing is that it is chained.

- Cĭppu > stocks103

- Stŭppa > stopa > tow
- Scoffīna > rasp104
- Sagĭtta > sa(y)eta > saeta (disappearing palatalization)
- Mĭttere > meter
- Sĭccu > dry
- Peccare > sin (simplification)

The first step stops in itself, let's see what happens in the remaining steps.

Process 2 the voiceless become voiced. This phenomenon occurs in the Visigothic era (6th and 7th centuries). It

can end in itself, but it can also end in 3 or 4, and it can be a disappearance of sound.

The lipsticks

103 An instrument
104 File-like tool, with thick and triangular teeth, widely used for roughing
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- Sapere > know. The /b/ in EM was a voiced labial plosive and was represented with the same “b”.

- Capitia > Cabeŝa > Cabeẑa > Cabeȥa > Cabeşa > CabeƟa] “cabeça” > head

- Aprīcu > coat (not only intervocalic, but grouped with liquid)

- Capra > goat

- Dŭplare > fold

- Cĭpu > bait

What happens if the /p/ is not strictly in intervocalic position? Apparently they are in intervocalic position, we

have yod and wau which are not strictly vowels.

- Sapiam (subj., the metatized yod) > saipa > seipa > sepa (this yod prevents voicing)

- Sapui (perfect, the metatized form) > saupi > sope. From the 14th century onwards, due to the influence

of Pu, it closed in supe, in any case without sound.

- Capio (capīre)/ capiam quepa quepo, the thing is that with the labials preceded by wau they do not sound

The simple /f/ in intervocalic position (it is a voiceless labial fricative), then it will be voiced. It can be voiced in a

plosive /b/ or a fricative /ƀ/. In MS we have two voiced labials (we had a fricative v with phoneme range). /B/ “b”

vs /ƀ/ “u, v” → two different phonemes and different spellings.

The voicing of /f/ in intervocalic position is not very abundant because in Latin /f/ had a defective distribution,

that is, it appeared mainly at the beginning of words. The cases we have of /f/ in intervocalic position are loans or

cases of prefixation, but they are very rare. In cases where it exists, the result is twofold:

- can be voiced as a plosive → /b/

- or as a fricative → /ƀ/

According to the graphs we have both results:

- Stephano > Esteban

- Afrĭcu (it is a wind that comes from the south) > abrego (which means it was a plosive)

- Cŏfĭnu > cuévano105 “cuuano”

- Trĭ-fīnium > Treviño (a municipality in the province of Burgos)

Summary:

In the MS of the lenition process of /f/ we have:

- a voiced plosive /b/ “b”

- and a /ƀ/ “v, u”

105 Large and deep basket

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In dental order (things change):

- Pratu > meadow (the /d/ was plosive)

2
The /t/ is voiced, then from the 13th century it is considered that this /d/ becomes a fricative and will be a /đ /

superscript fricative two, and only when this /d/ becomes a fricative, two will end in 3 or in 4.

The /t/ becomes plosive (1 phase: /t/ > /d/)

From the XIII it becomes a fricative (/d/ > /đ 2 /)…

When you come across an intervocalic /t/, do the steps (it becomes voiced and becomes a fricative), two ends in

three .

- Patre (grouped with liquid)

- mushroom > silk

- Rete > network

- pariete > wall

- Sĭte > sete > is going to sound and apócope > sed is produced. That /d/ is not only a voiced fricative, but

also a relaxed one (the one that appears at a higher angle and with a circle below)

In absolute final position there is a certain deafening: network, wall and thirst

- Paucum > little

- Cautu > preserve

- Autŭmnu > autumn

A semivowel prevents voicing: we have: preserve, autumn and little.

From XIII we have a /đ 2 / fricative two, but it can even appear in process 4 (the disappearance). Throughout the

MS we have amades and amades, but from the 15th century we have amaes. At the end of the 15th century the

hiatus is resolved with the disappearance or appearance of the diphthong.

A /t/ can end in zero:

- Nothing < res nata

A special case is the suffix –ātĭcu the… in the implosive position it relaxes and can be equated to phonemes… in

the MS > -azgo is a voiced relaxed fricative devoiced and that has coincided with the affricate –ātĭcu was

confused with -azgo

In Leonese they have solved it by changing that /d/ with a /l/

In the velar order sounds:

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In an analogous way, /k/ does not only give voice. That voiced velar (/g/) will not only be plosive, but from a

certain time onwards it will disappear.

- Formīca > ant (one /ǥ 2 / fricative superscript two, from the 12th century and later with what will happen

to…

- Fŏcu > fire (EM) > fire

- Sŏcra > mother-in-law

- Sacratum > sacred vs sacrist

- Lŭcrare > achieve vs profit

A semivowel prevents voicing:

- Av i ca > oca, paucu > poco

Wednesday, May 4, 2016

1 -pp- -ff- -tt- -kk-
2 -p- -F- -t- -k-
3 -b- -d- -g-
4 ƀ EITHE EITH EIT
R ER HER

Process 3 stops become fricatives, they can also disappear.

Voiced stops b, d, g***

What happens with the Latin voiced labial stop : -b- > -ƀ- “u, v” The /b/ stop does not come from /b/, it comes

from /p/.

From the 3rd century onwards it is known that the stop in LV became a fricative and was confused with the

voiced labial fricative of the consonantization of wau. A word like scribere in all MS is going to be written with

“v” → “scrivere”. In MS there were two labial phonemes, one plosive (comes from the lenition of /p/), and

another fricative that comes from the consonantization of wau/ the lenition of /f/. EM “aver”, “cavallo”, “dever”,

“gobernar”, “provar”.

- Scribere > write

- Habere > haber

- Caballu > horse

- I should > duty

- I will try > try

- Gŭbernare > govern (gouverner)

- Tibi > you

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- Sibi

- Ŭbi > o > where (où?)

We have an evolution of three that ends in zero tibi > ti; ubi > o (where), où. We see how three can end in four in

the sense of disappearance.

Three ends:

- in three → in fricative

- in four → disappearance (ubi).

Starting in the 3rd century, the heir to the stop that becomes a fricative is confused with the original fricative.

The plosive /d/:

We are in number three, the voiced stops that become fricatives will complement the processes of disappearance

(the one that disappears the most is the dental order, then the /b/, then the velar order).

Disappearance behind the postonic:

Disyllabic words and different vowels:

• Gradu > degree

• Nidu > nest

• Crūdu > crude

• Fĭde > fe d e > fee > fe

• Pĕde > piede > pied > pie

Esdrújulos words and with the pretonic /d/, then this /d/ will fall: (the /d/ almost always disappears)

• Credere > believe (no fusion of homorganic vowels has occurred)

• Sedēre > seer > ser (overseer, dismissed)

• Cadere > fall

• Vĭdere > see > see

• Fidele > faithful

What /d/ is maintained?

When /t/ is voiced, /d/106 it is pushed and becomes fricative (đ 1 ).

106 Voiced stops cannot be voiced because they are already voiced, so they become fricatives.
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Catena > string (đ 2 ) do not come together at all because the results of /d/ are usually the disappearance.

It will also disappear in the case of esdrújulos:

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- Lĭmpĭdu > clean107 . The unstressed /i/ becomes a yod, then it will be inflected (yod for syncopation, the

4th of Pidal)

- Tŭrbĭdu > cloudy

- Flaccidu > straight108 (flaccid109 It's a cult.

We arrive at another context of lenition which is when they exist. the /d/ is grouped together. TL and DL not
There is dr (more liquid mutates), it either becomes fricative or disappears.

- quadru > painting

- quadragĭnta > forty > forty

- cathedra (vocalization of an /d/ in implosive position) cadei ˰ ra> hip

Lampada and mentīda are cases of rhoticism (it is the conversion into rhotic of a consonant that was not vibrating

and becomes vibrant). The fricative /đ/ becomes a vibrating /r/:

- lie > lie

We can say that as a general rule the plosive /d/ that becomes a fricative ends up disappearing in almost all cases,

the rest are either transmuted or disappear.

The /g /que of the three is the strongest:

The plosive /g/ will become a fricative /ǥ/ that will be maintained in almost all cases:

-ǥ 1 -
-g- >
-ǥ 1 - > Ø

- August > August

- Augŭriu > omen

- Legūmine > legume (cultivated legume)

- Punish > punish

- Fŭstigare > harass (fustigar cult.)

- I will pray > beg

107 Lĭmpĭdu gives us the heritage word clean and the cultured word limpid. Lĭmpĭdu > lempedu (LV) > lempjo
(Protorromance) > límpjo] √
108 Withered, weak, weak
109 Skinny, lazy, without consistency
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- Fumĭgare > smoke (cult. fumigate)

- Rumigare > ruminate

- Litigare > deal (litigate cult.)

- Legale > loyal (legal cult.)

A clustered /g/ can be vocalized (as cathedra) the existence of a boundary between /g/ and /r/:

- Integru > inteiro > integer (it is not disappearance, it is vocalization)

- Pĭgrĭtia > peiretja > peireŝa > peireẑa > peireȥa > pereşa > pereθa] laziness

Process 4:

The Latin fricative: from the 1st century AD. c. The semiconsonant wau in Latin is consonantized (it is made into

a labial fricative, in the case of the Germans it is made into a velar fricative). In most of Romania it was a

labiodental fricative110 , here it is bilabial. It remains as a fricative in some cases:

- wash > wash

- Levare > carry

- Nŏvu > new

- Ship > ship

- Vivu > alive

The ending –ivo, -iva can cause problems because it can disappear

- Rivu > river

- Aestivu > summer (cultural summer)

- Vacīvu > (“vazio” EM) > vacuum

- Lĭxīva > lye (vocalization, then disappearance)

The spellings of -b- (3) and –ƀ-

The heir of the lenition of /p/ sapere > know

The heir of Lavare > Lava

110like the "v" sound in French
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There has been a change here to writing govern since the 18th century, the Academy becomes etymological,

maintaining 2 and 4, but in the case of 3 it takes a turn. In the representation of sound phonemes, the only one that

has changed is 3.

An example of the opposition between the plosive and the voiced labial fricative:

ŎPUS || ŎVOS

Ŏ PUS (MEANS WORK AND, IN SOME EXPRESSIONS, I NEED) ACCORDING TO THIS, ŎPUS IN MS HAS GIVEN US EGGS

IN EL CID “HUEBOS ME SERÍE” NEED/// ŎVOS IN MS HAS GIVEN US EGGS

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Monday, May 9, 2016

1 -ff- -H.H- -rs- -ps- -tts- -rr- -ll- -nn-

Regressive assimilation > -ss this follows the
2 -F- -ns- same route as - -ts- ss- -r- -l- -n-
-s- 108

We have two processes.

We start with the fricatives (1): we have the geminates and the fortis (rs and ps)

The /f/ is a **** fricative. The fortis is simplified and looks like this:

-ff- > -f-

- S coffīna > rasp111 112

The geminate /s/ will be simplified and the result will be a voiceless alveolar fricative:

-ss- > -s- “ss”

- P ASSUM > “PASSO” > PASO

- G RASSU > “GRASSO” > FATTY
- G RŎSSU > “GRUESSO” > THICK
- Ŏ SSUM > “HUESSO” > BONE
In MS we had two alveolar fricative sounds (voiced /s/ and voiced /z/), in the interior lenis position, the voiceless
one was represented with “ss” and the voiced one with “s”. The /s/ that we have now, in the MS in the interior
position, had to be written geminate. There is graphic conservatism.

We have the rs and ps groups, they give us a twin that will follow the same path:

-RS-/ -PS- > -SS- > -S-

- Ŭ rsum > “osso” EM > “oso”
- Ĭ PSE > ESSE > THAT

Fricatives (2):

In the case of simple -f-, as it has to be differentiated from fortis, it will undergo lenition, the result will be a
voiced one. Since we have two voiced sounds, the result can be a voiced plosive “b” or a fricative “v, u”. -f- > /b/
“b”|| /ƀ/ “v, u”

- T RĬFOLIU > TREFOIL (/B/ LABIAL VOICED PLOSIVE)

- T RIFINIU > TREVIÑO (/ƀ/ LABIAL VOICED FRICATIVE)

There are disparate results of the lenition of /f/ → defense > dehesa, the 'h' arises from the lenition of 'f'. What
happens here is the starting point of Carmen Pensado's hypothesis, this is going to be extended to the initial fortis
position. The 'f' that is aspirated to, from there, say flour. The 'f' due to defective distribution appears in Latin in
initial position, that is why there is aspiration... the presence of a wau prevented aspiration, which means that
aspiration has to be subsequent to diphthongation (diphthongation is simultaneous with lenition ).

Alveolar fricatives /s/ ~ /z/: we have a simple alveolar fricative, this one that is voiceless will become voiced -s- >
-z-. In MS we had two voiceless and voiced sibilant alveolar fricatives, they are a consequence of lenition, the
voiceless one comes from the geminate and the voiced one comes from lenition. We have an opposition /s/ ~ /z/:

111 Assimilation into LV

112 From lat. Vulg. Scoffīna, and this from lat. Scobīna. File-like tool, with thick, triangular teeth, widely used for
roughing.
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- TO USE > DARE (WITH A LOUD “S”)
- - OSUM > -OSO / -OSA
- PAUSE > POSE
/s/ ~ /z/
“osso” < ŬRSUM “bear” < AUSARE

The group -NS- was assimilated into LV, that is, it is like a simple “s”. The result will be a loud “s”: -NS- > -S- >
-Z-

- M ensa > “table” > table

- S ponsa > “spouse” > wife
- A nsa > “asa” > asa
→ All with a loud “s”, that is, like the French “z”.

The voiced alveolar fricative derives from a lenis position of simple -s- and the group -ns- that was assimilated
from the LV.

What happened to liquids and nasals ?

We have vibrant and liquid, fortis and lenis. Lenition processes have to do with what happens.

The vibrant ones:

-rr- we have the equality of initial and medial fortis 113 : R- = -RR-, that also happens with /s/ (if it is in initial
position it is written with “s” sapere, but it is voiceless and should be written with “ss”). The initial is not coherent
with the interior.

-rr- > ṝ → R OTA > wheel, ca RR U > cart

-r- > r → caru > expensive

This did not happen with liquids and nasals (the solution has been palatalization) → the fortis palatalizes and the
lenis remains as such. /ll/ and /nn/ were simplified and palatalized.

The laterals L- ≠ -LL-:

The voiced midpalatal fricative /ʝ/ from GY or DY that remains or disappears R egina > reyína > reína > queen

The nasals N- ≠ -NN-:

- the geminate palatalizes: pinna > pineapple

- the fortis maintains the alveolar nasal: natam > nothing. Although cloudy and cloudy have existed in the
MS (there was an equality in isolated words).

The affricates: k e,i or TY, KY→ phonologization of the allophones that gave us the dentoalveolar affricates that
can be voiceless or voiced /ŝ/ ~ /ẑ/.

“C+ e, i” || “ç+ a, o, u” for voiceless “Z” for voiced

We have the affricates -tts- (consonant + ŝ) pla TTE A > the result of this word will always be the voiceless
“plaça” > plaza.
- B RA CCI U > “BRAÇO”
- F LORE SCE RE > BLOOM
- PA SCE RE > PACER (THEY WILL BE WRITTEN WITH “C”) THE FORTIS POSITION IS IN LATIN (NASCERE

113 The fortis is reduplicated

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FORTIS NO, TO BE BORN)
- T ORQUĒRE > TORKERE > TWIST
- ASCIATA > is written with “ç” fortis position

/ŝ/-ts- comes from ty, ky, consonant + dy, k e, i

The group –ts- in lenis position sounds and gives us -dz- and was represented with “z” in front of all vowels.
“fiziesse” “fize” “faze”
- F ACERE > FAŜERE > FAẐER >|| HAȤER > HAŞER > AƟER] “HAZER” EM | "DO"
- ACIARIU > AKJARJU > AŜEIRO > AẐERO >|| AȤERO > AŞERO > AƟERO] “AZERO” EM | "STEEL"
- VĬCĪNU > “VEZINO”| “NEIGHBOR” (THERE IS ZETA IN FRONT OF E, I THROUGHOUT THE MS UNTIL THE OS
CRISIS)
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Tuesday, May 10, 2016

p- = -pp-
t- = -tt-
k- = -kk-
5- =-H.H-
-mm-
-m-

With labial nasals the labial geminate is simplified /-mm-/ > /m/, but the simple one remains simple, that is, the
differences between /m/ < /-mm-/ and /m/ are erased:

- F LAMMA > FLAME

- C LAMARE > CALL What happens to consonants in initial position ? They are generally kept
In the case of plosives :

The p- in fortis position coincides P- = -PP-:

- P ĔTRA > stone

- C Ŭ PP A > CUP
The t- matches -tt-:
- TŬRREM > tower
- G Ŭ TT A > DROP

In the case of velars : K- coincides with -KK-

- C ŬPPA > cup
- F LŎ CC U > FLUECO > FRINGE

There are some cases of voicing of the initial stop, they are isolated cases:
- C OLAPHU > hit
- C ATTU > cat
- C RYPTA > crypt 1 (cult.) | grotto 2 (it is a natural or artificial cavern)114

A special case occurs with the initial s- (coincides with the lenis position). In a few words, a strange evolution has
occurred, that is, palatalization, it will give us a voiceless prepalatal fricative /š/ that will continue its course until
leading to the current jota.

s- x š “x”> χ]

From the 17th century onwards, the voiceless prepalatal fricative /š/ (as in the case of ks) is delayed in the
voiceless velar fricative /χ/.

In Italian there is no lenition saponem > sapone. In French there is lenition saponem > savon, in Spanish also:

114 The Greek ipsilon “y” is between the i and the u, it is like the French /u/
 73
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- Š ABONE >|| ŠABON > ΧABON] “XABON” EM | "SOAP"
- SŪCU > FR. SUCRE > ESP. JUICE
- S ĒPIA > “xibia” | “cuttlefish”

It is known as sibilant bartering. 115 . They occur in the initial position, but there are some in the implosive
“moxca” position. Examples proliferate in certain toponyms in which a pronunciation influenced by the
Aljamiada pronunciation has been postulated.

The f- is a consonant that generally appears in initial position.

What about the initial f-

The situation in the Latin system: a phoneme /p/, a plosive /b/. The loudness ratio was not met. In languages
where lenition and evolution of /b/ gave the voiced labiodental fricative (v), the system would be completed. In
languages where this phoneme exists, the phoneme /f/ has been preserved as is. In languages where it has not
occurred, the phoneme / f/ remains isolated.
[F]
/F/
[φ]
The phoneme /f/ had two variants in Latin: a labiodental allophone and another fricative but bilabial. This bilabial
phoneme is essential to explain the case of aspiration.

Distribution: its distribution was defective, that is, it cannot appear in any position of the word. It appeared in
initial position, if it appeared in interior position it was usually in loans or in words with a prefix. There are few
words where it exists in an interior position.

In the case of Spanish, this f- in initial position has had this evolution:

f- > h- > Ø] “f” > “h” > “h”

The f- suffers an aspiration. The aspirated h- is a sound that is defined with the dot... there is silent h and aspirated
h.

It is a voiceless laryngeal/glottal fricative sound, later this sound disappeared and left us with a spelling that is “h”
which is actually an orthographic archaism.

The /f/ is a voiceless labiodental fricative, so the step to the aspirated /h/ is a step that assumes that they are both
fricatives and voiceless, this represents an evolution. According to Pidal's theory of the Basque substrate, it is an
acoustic substitution.

This does not always happen, it happens when /f/ is followed by a vowel, not when it is followed by /r/ and not by
wau.
- F RIGIDU > cold
- F RAXĬNU > ash
- F RŎNTI > FRONT
- F ŎRTE > STRONG
- FŎCU > FIRE
Ash, cold, front, etc. The /f/ was never lost, the educated words maintain the “f” folia > leaf and folio.

The /f/ is kept in front of the diphthong /ué/, this means that the wau prevented aspiration and we know that the
wau appeared in the Visigothic era. This constitutes an obstacle for the theory of the Basque substrate. Aspiration
is after diphthongation (VI-VIII).

115 The pronunciation of initial palatals.

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Geological theory (southern Cantabria, northern Burgos, western Rioja) is an area where the water has a lot of
lime, so their teeth fell out, so they did not pronounce the /f/.

The aspiration arises in this area that corresponds to the area of Castile of origins (10th centuries). We have
testimonies of aspiration in the spellings, this aspiration arises in the eastern part of the kingdom of León. The
Galician, the Leonese, the Riojan, the Navarrese, the Aragonese, the Catalan maintain the f-. This aspiration was
considered by the people of León as rusticism. That is why this explanation does not permeate the writing. There
is a centuries-old struggle between maintenance and aspiration. This rustic pronunciation occurs in the poorly
romanized area → rusticism and dialectalism. Over time this trend becomes widespread until it reaches the upper
classes. The people of León considered that the Castilians spoke badly. This dialectal trend enjoyed a historical
privilege that changed this contemptuous view towards what is traditional, the people of Castile are those of the
Reconquista, it will be Castile that holds power.

In the first unification he was King of León and Castile, then he was the kingdom of Castile and León from the
13th century onwards. It has begun to generate literature in Spanish, that is, political and cultural power. First the
Burgos norm, then from the 13th, with Fernando III the Saint who conquered León , Córdoba, Seville, Jaén,
Huelva, Cádiz, etc. They conquer everything, except the kingdom of Granada. The Castilian Foreign Ministry has
begun to draft documentation in Spanish….. The first evidence of aspiration dates back to the 10th century.

What was a rustic trait, due to the effects of cultural and political prestige, begins to be accepted (the second
phase, aspiration). The archpriest of Hita maintains the f- (14th century), but when he wants to characterize a
“serranota” he says that she is a mountain “heda” < foeda to characterize vulgar traits. In the 15th century the
aspiration spread. The spellings continue to maintain the f- (1st ed. From the Celestina the f- is maintained, from
the 2nd ed. h- 1501 appears).

When an Andalusian, Elio Antonio de Nebrija, who comes from Seville to Salamanca and makes a dictionary,
what he does is say how to pronounce each letter, when he reaches the “h”, Nebrija says that “this ache is made
by wounding the throat” , it is not like the Latin hache (silent), it is like the pronunciation that the Moors make.
The queen no longer aspired to man = female = hunger because the queen was an old Castilian. From the northern
area this aspiration begins to disappear, while Nebrija defends the aspiration, in the north they were in phase 3: Ø
(Rioja, Álava). Ignatius of Loyola and Saint Teresa of Jesus did not pronounce the “h”, this is known because
they write the words without “h”.

Wednesday, May 11, 2016

It is a process that characterizes the Spanish of the Romance languages, in addition to other dialects such as
Sardinian. The evolution of /f/ on the other hand that of LJ.

F ILIA ALL ROMANIA MAINTAINS THE /F/ AND THE PALATAL LATERAL, SPANISH IS CHARACTERIZED BY THE
PALATALIZATION OF LJ > Χ] AND AN ABSENCE:

FILIA > rum. fie, ita. figlia, port. filha, prov. filha, fr. And cat. fille, esp. daughter.

Maintenance contexts give /f/ without aspiration:

- Cultisms: infĕrnu > inferno

- When grouped with /r/: FRUNGERE > frown, ŏ RF ANO > orphan, FRAXINU > ash, FR IGIDU > cold
- In front of the diphthong ué: fŏra > out, fŏcum > fire, fŏrtem > strong

It is an /f/ in pos fortis, therefore aspiration has not occurred, in the same way it does not occur when it is
followed by wau.

The origin is in an area whose limits are the Finca (Asturias) and the Sella (Aragón) rivers. It is considered to
have a rustic feature in a poorly Romanized area. It has to do with the political and cultural hegemony of Castilian
expansion to the south, but also to the east and west. In his advance towards the south he absorbed Mozarabic
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speech. From Ferdinand III the Saint (13th century) only the kingdom of Granada would remain. At the end of the
15th century something happens: the northern area is in the third phase, that is, the disappearance of aspiration.
Ignatius of Loyola writes the verb “do” without the word “azer”, if there are no spelling rules it cannot be said
that it is a spelling mistake.

The emblem of the union of Isabella and Ferdinand was the plant “fennel” < fenucŭlum (in cat. Fenol) in Spanish
this /f/ was aspirated, then /h/ stopped being pronounced and gave “inojo” to represent the “I” of Isabel. Nebrija
in the dictionary aspired.

The heirs of Isabel and Ferdinand (Charles V) know that in Toledo they aspired, Garcilaso de la Vega aspired.
The ax prevented the sinalefa. Garcilaso, Toledo, the south aspires; the north stops aspiring. Philip II was born in
Valladolid and surrounded himself with courtiers who did not aspire; he had aspirations to move the Court to
Madrid and El Escorial. It gets there, all courtiers do not aspire, if the king and the court do not aspire, this
becomes the norm. From there the non-aspiration is transferred to others.

Those from the kingdom of Toledo regret this aspiration, Covarrubias was from Toledo “this ache is aspired” and
criticizes that those who are thin chested do not aspire. He laments the heyday of aspiration. The aspirated phase
is maintained in areas where aspiration arose, in the west of Cantabria and in the Extremadura area. “Higo, hache,
higuera” in the Extremadura area is pronounced like jota [jigo, jache, jigüera]. In western Andalusia the aspiration
of the hache is mixed with a jota.

What is most disputed is the interpretation of the root causes of aspiration. Pidal interpreted it as a Basque
substratum, the substratum theory means that there is a substitution and not an evolution. Carmen Pensado
postulates an evolution that would have to do with lenition . Generally speaking of the initial axe, think that you
have to start with what happened in the interior position (the -f- in the interior position) and relate it to what
happened in the initial position.

Reading by Carmen Pensado:

He comments on how the passage of f>h presupposes the bilabial variant [φ] ‫[ ه‬heu], but from there it cannot be
said that this variant was Latin-vulgar. Try to reconstruct the aspiration conditions. D efense may be constituted
by de|fendo, it will not be taken into account.

Voicing in plosive and fricative. The geminate becomes aspirated, something that does not happen with what we
have seen.

p. 152: “the examination of the data…” articulatory weakening. This aspiration process is not exclusive to
Spanish, but will occur in other territories.

In Gascon there are aspirated forms with /r/.

Collect examples of aspiration in some Italian dialects. The Castilian hegemony makes a variant without prestige
and rustic become widespread.

Sandhí when a word that begins with /f/ is preceded by one that ends with a vowel, from there it will generalize to
all contexts.
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Monday, May 16, 2016

What happens to the final consonants ? (p. 83)

Spanish final consonants inherit some of the set of Latin final consonants116 , you have to know the consonants
that remain in final position by apocope of –e

The /l/:

- MEL > HONEY

The /s/: is maintained, it is a plural morpheme

- MINUS> LESS
- MOUNTAINS > MOUNTAINS
- YOU HAVE > YOU HAVE

The Latin /n/ remains or disappears:

- IN > IN
- NON > NON / NOT

The Latin /r/ metatizes and is embedded in the body of the word:

- FOREVER> ALWAYS
- QUATTUŌR > QUATRO > FOUR

The Latin /t/ and /d/ disappear***:

- SALĪVIT > SALIOT117 , -D > EXITED

- POT ( S ) T > CANT > CAN
- AD > A
- ALIQUOD > SOMETHING

The /m/ (the -m in the accusatives disappeared in the 1st century BC), also in the adv.:

- IAM > YA
- SUM > SO > AM
→ ibi with lenition > ii > i, so i (I am there) > I am.
There are some monosyllables in which it is kept as /n/ by the load:
- SO > SO
- CUM > WITH

The /k/ disappeared:

- ILLĪC> THERE
- DĪC> DI
- NEC > NOR

To all of these we must add some consonants that remain final due to apocope contexts:

We would have some cases left: the apocope always happens with the voiced one, never with the voiceless /n/:

PĀNE > PAN SINE > WITHOUT

/l/:

116 Not all Latin consonants could appear in word-final position

117 It remains as a 3rd person singular mark of verbs until the 12th century and disappears thereafter.
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- FIDĒLE > FAITHFUL. IN MS THERE WAS A HOMONYMY.
- MALE > BAD /R/:

MARE > MAR SENTĪRE > FEEL

/s/:

- ME NS E > MONTH > MEZ(E) > MONTH

- KNOW > KNOW
- SAPORE > FLAVOR /T/:

- LIBERTATE > LIBETAD(E) > LIBERTY /Z/:

- luz > luke > luĉe > luŝe > luẑ(e) “ luz ”>|| luȥ > luş > luƟ] “light”

Only 6 consonants can appear in final position, on the one hand because they come from Latin, on the other
because they suffer apocope.
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The phonological revolution of the Golden Age

It is a set of changes that affects the Spanish system (alfonsí), extending to the 15th date on which it enters into
crisis. From the 16th century onwards there will be two norms: the Madrid norm and another Andalusian one that
goes to the Canary Islands and America.

It is a combination of change and maintenance. This is a phenomenon that affects the consonants, although some
vowel hesitations that have been present since MS will be reaffirmed.

Example: ie / i → haste / haste, from XVII it will close in “i” → haste.

The timbres will be adjusted, especially in unstressed vocalism. In the Dialogue of the Language, Valdés talks
about these hesitations and establishes preferences that have to do with the timbre of the vowels.

The closure of non-etymological /i/ is established. In MS we had “reçevir”, from the SO it closes in /i/ and we
would say “receive”. scribĕre > escrevir > write

The same thing happens with the closure of /o/ in /u/:

- COPERIRE > COVER > COVER

Some vowel variation is detected in cultisms or semi-cultisms:

- LESSONE > LESSON / LESSON

- In Don Quixote cirimonia appears instead of ceremony.

Where the biggest change occurs is in the consonant system:

- The culmination of the /f/ process in the Madrid system.

- Articulatory softening that affects the plosive /b/ from the lenition of /p/ and intervocalic /f/ sa P ERE >
know
A F RICUM > ABREGO
- Readjustment and simplification of the sibilant subsystem that corresponds to three phases:
- 1st articulatory softening of affricates
- 2° a deafening characterized by northern sounds that neutralizes the voicing of sibilants →
loss of opposition.
- 3° the change of articulation: one that advances until the zeta and another that delays until the
jot.

Culmination of the /f/ process (already seen)

Articulatory softening of the plosive /b/:

In the medieval phonological system, regarding voiced labials, we had: /b/~/ƀ/ which depends on the position

In lenis position we had one plosive and one fricative /-b-/ [b] voiced bilabial stop “b”
[ƀ] voiced bilabial fricative “v”

In the initial position we had an occlusive one.

What happens with the b- in initial position? The “b” and “v” were pronounced the same, so there was Betacism
due to the Sandhi phenomenon.

We had a /b/ that was a plosive and a bilabial fricative /ƀ/ that corresponds to the vocalization of wau:

- debene > “deuer” > XVIII “duty”

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- habere > “auer” > “haber”
- lavare > “wash” > “wash”
- cavare > “cauar” > “dig”

The spellings generally show great correctness, but there are cases of cacographies that involve the confusion of
both phonemes, that is, their neutralization (of the stop and the fricative).

- If a word ends with a nasal then it is a plosive, basiu and vasum. In principle, behind any consonant
there was a stop.
BĔNE > WELL
BŬCCA > MOUTH
VĪTA > LIFE
- If we say that kiss, that /b/ that was initially a plosive, becomes a fricative through Sandhi.

Most philologists consider that in the initial position it had been neutralized and is no longer either a stop or a
fricative, but rather one or the other depending on the context.

- VŌTA > WEDDING, APPEARS IN THE EMILIAN GLOSSES

- VIRĬDIA> CABBAGE
- VERRĔRE > SWEEP
- VOCEM > VOICE, IN DON QUIXOTE “BOZ” “BOLBER” IN THE EM AND IN THE RENAISSANCE WERE
WRITTEN WITH “B”
- VOLBERE > “BOLBER” > “RETURN”
- VERSURA > TRASH
- VERMĬCŬLU118 > RUSSET

Betacism is that /v/ is pronounced like /b/. In lenis position, the effects of lenition remained and the results of a /p/
and an /f/ that gave a plosive /b/ compared to a fricative /ƀ/ coming from the consonantization of wau/ were
differentiated.

In the Golden Age there will be a softening of the plosive /b/ that will relax and become fricative. This had
occurred in the dental and velar order (the /t/ is voiced first in a stop and then in a fricative from the XIII, the /g/
coming from the lenition of a /k/, first voiced and then becomes fricative in the XIII). In the case of /b/ the same
thing happens, but it fricatizes from the XVII. The spelling is quite conservative so the Academy has respected
everything. Current /b, d, g/ are neither plosives nor fricatives but rather depending on the context.

Spellings were a mess on the OS. The Habsburgs did nothing. Thanks to the printers, the orthographic order was
somewhat maintained until the Bourbons. Until the 18th century, the Academy was going to give rules and
maintain them quite a bit. What was written with intervocalic “v” is maintained. It is maintained in the initial
position except in some cases. ****In the case of the /b/ coming from lenition it is still maintained, the only thing
that has changed is the case of the lenition of the intervocalic /b/ which in the EM was written as the fricative
(aver, govern, etc.). Starting in the 18th century, the Academy imposed etymology.

Initial remains, intervocalic “v” remains. Where there was “b” or “f” a “b” is maintained, the only thing that
changes is the lenition of the intervocalic /-b-/

118 Syncopation vermek'lo > vocalization of ky emergence of yod vermei˰lo > palatalization vermel˯o > voiced
prepalatal fricative vermežo >|| vermešo deafening > delays the point of articulation and gives us the jota χ]
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Tuesday, May 17, 2016
Realignment of the sibilant subsystem***:
dentoalveolar affricates Apicoalveolar fricatives Prepalatal fricatives
EM /ŝ/ ~ /ẑ/ /s/ ~ /z/ /š/ ~ /ž/
1116 /ş/ ~ /ȥ/ /s/ ~ /z/ /š/ ~ /ž/
2117 /ş/ /s/ /š/
3118
/Ɵ/ /χ/
The voiceless prepalatal affricate /ĉ/ [tché) that continues to this day is missing.
We have three couples:

- Voiceless and voiced dentoalveolar affricates AD

- Voiceless and voiced apicoalveolar fricatives FA
- Voiceless and voiced prepalatal fricatives FP

Oppositions were few because there was a distribution scheme.

Which ones could appear in the initial position?

The voiceless one could only appear in some borrowings.

In the dentoalveolar affricates /ŝ/ ~ /ẑ/ the voiceless appeared, in the apic oalveolar fricatives /s/~/z/ the voiceless
appeared, in the prepalatal fricatives /š/ ~ /ž/ the voiced appeared

In final position, a neutralization of voiceless and voiced words was produced, that is, by sandhi, if the following
word began with a vowel they became voiced, if it began with a consonant, they became voiceless (what is called
liaison -link- in French): nous avons vs nous savons. The same thing happens in Catalan.

What were the spellings like?

In final position, in dentoalveolar affricates the spelling was always zeta. For the apicoalveolar ones it was the
simple “s”. In the prepalatal fricatives, the one that appeared was the voiceless “x”: “relox”.

The voiceless oppositions were not very profitable in the system, which is why they are going to be readjusted.
From the second half of the 15th century we witness the 1st transformation, which is the articulatory softening, the
affricates becoming deaffricated. In Spanish the result will be the dentalized fricative /ŝ/ > /ş/, /ẑ/ > /ȥ/, this phase is
not exclusive to Spanish, it had previously happened in Catalan, French and Portuguese (in these languages they are
de-affricated and They merge in the alveolars, this is what is called the Catalan seseo. Ex.: civitatem > ciutat / cité /
cidade) the “c” is pronounced like “s” (sans / cent), they do not differentiate the two orders.

The second of the transformations is the northern deafening. The voiceless/voiced opposition is neutralized because
everything is going to be pronounced as voiceless, but it is not exclusive to Spanish either. It is given in Galician,
Leonese, Aragonese and Apitxat (central Valencian dialect). Deafening occurs in the northern strip, this means that
there is no voiceless/voiced distinction. This is what we have in the Spanish sibilant system at the end of the 16th
century “deçir”, “caça”.

116
Articulatory softening
117
northern deafening
118
Articulatory change (one advances and the other delays the point of articulation) The six phonemes are reduced
to three. The safety margins of these phonemes are permeable, they are very unstable. The spellings of the voiceless
and the voiced ones are mixed and we begin to see cacographies of the following type: “sirios” (church candle
“cirios”), “çatán” (the devil), “ciglo” instead of “century” in Ignacio de Loyola, which is very cultured. French,
Catalan and Portuguese merge the two orders into one (the alveolar one wins). The Andalusian says /ş/.
In Old Castile they tried to maintain the three orders. To avoid this confusion that existed because they were very
close, the fricative advances its position to the interdental one. This occurs in Galician, Aragonese and Leonese (la
 81
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Phonetics
zeta). This takes place at the end of the 16th century and beginning of the 17th century, we know it from the
testimonies of grammarians and lexicologists.

As for the delayed one, we are going to be exclusive. Velarization of this prepalatal realization. This is replaced by
this, there is a moment in which the two forms converge, they overlap then they disappear. It is the old Castilian
norm that with Philip II was installed in Madrid.

Seville was much larger and nobler than Madrid (“Seville in front of Madrid” by Pidal). The American conquest
had a very important influence, people from different origins arrived in Seville and a lingua franca appeared there
and a different way of speaking was forged. The problem is the same, there are no firm borders so they merge.
Instead of being the apicoalveolar, the one that will take precedence is the dentalized fricative, it is a voiceless
predorsal fricative. In Andalusia neither their /s/ are our s's nor their z's are ours because we do not start from the
same sibilants119 . First it would be a hissing tone, then a lisping tone. The current seseo derives from the
dentoalveolar affricates, it is a converted predorsal /s/, it is the one that was brought to the Canary Islands and Latin
America.

When later it is the lisping variant, the ceceo (Cádiz) arises. This Andalusian pronunciation has to do with the
conquest of Seville (Alfonso X). Granada was conquered from Jaén and Seville. From Jaén the eastern area is
conquered, Granada and part of Málaga were conquered from Seville, they are lisping/seseantes veri. This
culminates in the 17th century. The Andalusians pronounce our jota as an aspiration of the axe.

The result of this is going to be total spelling chaos, we are going to see exchanges of sibilants.

Until the 15th century it was not Castile.

14th century verbs in u, before they were in /o/ tove, entrove, etc.

Wednesday, May 18, 2016

DICTER [Link]

In the Renaissance the first scientific texts began to appear in Spanish instead of Latin, before there were some by
Alfonso X but they focused on Astronomy and some other sciences. In the Renaissance, scientific texts on
mathematics, engineering, nautical, etc. began to appear. In the 16th century in Spanish there was science written in
Spanish.

Base

Empty

Balance

Low: “low” EM. If it appears with “j” and “v” it means that the oppositions have disappeared

Geometry

People: in MS it had to be written with “g”, if you see it with “x” it means that northern deafening has already
occurred

Oil

Do (“make” a case of Andalusian seseo)

Henchir < implere (palatalization) (henchir/ inflate the hesitation of the timbre)

Add (great hesitation in the timbre of unstressed vowels)

119 The Castilian esses come from the apicoalveolar fricatives and the zeta from the dentoalveolar affricates, while
in Andalusia their esses come from the dentoalveolar fricatives (when they are deaffricated > /ş/)
 82
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Hundred

Carry

Orthography

Snail

Angle

The spellings (variants) of the Renaissance appear, that means that there was a lot of hesitation.

The exchange of sibilants that has to do with that hesitation.

The exchanges always occur from /s/ to other orders. The Moorish influence has been alluded to, but this is not
valid. Normally the fortis give fortis and the lenis give lenis. In some cases the evolution is the opposite (from the
prepalatal fricative it passes to the apicoalveolar fricative). Teresa of Jesús talks about religion at school

In medial fortis position vessica > bladder, passaru > bird. The explanations are that generally the prepalatal
fricative … the orders.

s- > š: SAPONEM >soap; SŪCU > juice. There are other exchanges from /s/ to other phonemes (they are always
from /s/ to others, therefore unidirectional).

S > ŝ] voiceless dentoalveolar affricate > θ]. Examples: SYMPHONIA > zampoña (tuning is a cultism that does not
derive from this word); serare > close .
S- > s/ĉ]. Examples: SIFILARE > whistle / whistle; SORĪCEU > chorizo; SYMPHONIA > chanfaina garseas >
García; bis - cŏctu > sponge cake (in MS it was a type of bread that was baked twice). The prefix bis- has resulted
in the prefix bis-, as in great-grandfather, and biz-, as in great-grandson. subbullire > dive; subputar > botch;
subsŭprare > capsize , subridere > smile, etc. (the prefix sub- has given many results: zo-, za-, cha-, sa-, son-, zam-,
so...)
Some voiced -z- > -ž-: tiseras > tigeras in MS, then suffered northern devoicing and evolved to /χ/; ecclesia >
egrezia; to resist was to “resist.” This occurs because:
- It is unidirectional.
- Deafness is respected (from voiceless to voiceless)
- Moorish influence.
- Acoustic equivalence.
- The phoneme /s/ is very strong. It can appear in any position, which is why it appears a lot while other
phonemes have a defective distribution (such as /ĉ/, which can only appear internally as -KT-). It seems
that to compensate for deficiencies /s/ scratches the position of other phonemes, a kind of readjustment of
a defective distribution. The most abundant are in the prepalatal fricative in initial position (syringa <
syringa, cuttlefish)

When /s/ was liquid in Latin, a prothetic vowel is added in Spanish. We need a vowel that is the nucleus of the
syllable. The chosen one is /e/, possibly because there are many prefixes that begin with this vowel. Examples:
schŏla > school; sponsu > husband; scrĭbere > write (previously it had given “write”, but the unstressed vowel is
assimilated to the tonic one); stare > be; strictu > narrow.
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Thursday, May 19, 2016

We cultured groups have a tendency towards simplification, but on the other hand they continue to appear in
cultisms: kt act. In the 16th century there is a tendency to simplify simple groups: concept/conceto. There are
words where use takes precedence instead of etymology: fructo / fruit (fructify)

Kt > ĉ

Valdés in the Dialogue of Language says that if I pronounce sinify why am I going to write mean.

The inflection of unstressed vowels is stronger than that of tonic vowels.

21 → 3 is about:

The s- can give us several things, the important thing is that deaf go with deaf. They are exchanges of phonemes
that belong to different orders. Chorizo and chanfaina

There are palatalizations of k + di cimice in Mozarabic has given chinche. In some cases it remains in the Italian
result /ĉ/

S IRICARIU > GOLDFINCH

S ARTAGINE THERE ARE TWO PHENOMENA, PALATALIZATION GI IS A PALATAL G IN FRONT OF I, THEREFORE IT

DISAPPEARS, SARTAYENE REMAINS > SARTA(Y)ENE (SYNCOPATION IS ALMOST SIMULTANEOUS) SARTAI˰NE
(CHRONOLOGY, VERY EARLY SYNCOPATION)

Olfactu smell / the abstract is quite modern touch

Sight, taste, hearing, the normal thing would be to say the ear.

R IVI ANGULUM

This is the secondary ngn group (due to syncopation), it is a place name of a town that is on the banks of the river

Singulu

Ungula

Qu or the d grouped with r suffer lenition: what with an unstressed a is maintained, with an unstressed a it is
always maintained with other vowels... the wau depending on the vowel either disappears or is maintained.

Dr can be maintained or the lenition... can reach phase 4 and disappear.

Cupiditia kob(e)dicia kob'di koudicia kodicia

36
Garden plant