Chapter 5

Earth Quake and Seismic

Design
Earthquake
An earthquake is shaking or vibration of the
Earth.
 produced by the sudden release of energy stored
in the Earth's crust that creates seismic waves.
When large elastic strain energy released
spreads out through seismic waves that travel
through the body and along the surface of the Earth.
This energy radiates in all directions from its
sources called focus in the form of waves .
Under this condition the rocks are bending and
storing elastic energy much like a wooden stick
would if bent.
Eventually the fractional resistance holding the
rocks together is over come and it occurs as the rock
elastically snaps back to its original shape .
Earthquake measurement scale
The strengths of earthquakes may be expressed in
terms of magnitude and intensity
1. Magnitude (m): of an Earthquake is the actual
amount of energy released from earthquakes.
 It is measured using the Richter Scale given by
numbers ranging from 1 to 10 which represent
almost negligible to very high vibration,
respectively.
 m= log (a/T)+B
Where
m=Magnitude,
a=Amplitude (maximum ground motion),
T=Duration of one oscillation or period of the seismic
wave (in seconds),
B=Attenuation factor (a factor which determines the
amount of weakening of seismic waves with
increasing distance from the earthquake
 The Richter magnitude scale
Scale Effect
1.0-3.4 Not felt but recorded
3.5-4.2 Felt by some
4.3-4.8 Felt by many
4.9-5.4 Felt by all
5.5-6.1 Slight damage to buildings
6.2-6.9 Considerable damage to buildings
7.0-7.3 Serious damage
> Or = 8.0 Nearly total damage
2) Intensity (I): of an earthquake refers to the
amount of surface damage or the degree of
hazard due to the earthquake.
It is given by Mercalli scale of numbers ranging
from I to XII which represent almost no damage to
total damage, respectively
• It is not strictly dependent on magnitude but
also depends on the nature and type of
construction, population density,
1.The magnitude
2.Distance from the epicenter
3.Nature of the Geology and the design of Engineering
buildings
 Every earthquake is described in terms of its;
Focus: the point in the earth crust from which an
earthquake disturbance (release of energy) emanates.

Epicenter: the point on the surface of the earth

immediately above the point of origin of the
disturbance

Epicentral distance: the distance from the

epicenter to the recording station.

 imaginary line: which joins the center (focus) and

the epicenter, is called the seismic vertical.
Focus and Epicenter

Seismic
vertical
 Determination of an Epicentral Distance and
Locating Epicenters
 Primary and secondary waves arrive at seismograph
stations at varying velocities, where the interval between the
P and S wave are first determined and then plotted versus the
travel time. The interval is given by the “delay time” (td) of
the S wave from the P waves

 td= ts-tp for the paths of the waves are identical

 t=Ed/v where Ed is the Epicentral distance
 td= (Ed/Vs)-(Ed/Vp)= Ed(Vp-Vs)/VsVp
 Ed= td VpVs/ (Vp-Vs) = (ts-tp) VpVs/(Vp-Vs)
 The epicenter can accurately be located if there are at least
three seismograph stations at geographically different
locations, at different distances from the epicenter.
 The distances calculated in the respective seismograph stations
are taken as radius of a circle, each epicenter being the
center of each circle. The intersection point of the center of
the disturbance (location of the epicenter)
Epicenter determination
 The depth of the focus can be determined from the
Epicentral distance and the time of travel and velocity of P-
wave. The depth of earthquake can vary from shallow
(<50km) to deep (>300 km)
Epicenter Ed station

H dp

Focus

H2+Ed2=dp2 therefore, dp2-Ed2=H

Vp= dp/td
dp=Vp* tp
where, Ed is epicenter distance
dp is distance travel by primary wave
H is depth to the focus
 Seismology is the study of earthquakes and seismic waves that move
through and around the earth.
 A seismologist is a scientist who studies earthquakes and seismic
waves.
 Seismicity refers to the geographic and historical distribution of
earthquakes.
What Are Seismic Waves?
 Seismic waves are the waves of energy caused by the
sudden breaking of rock within the earth or an explosion.
 They are the energy that travels through the earth and is
recorded on seismographs.

Types of Seismic Waves

 There are several different kinds of seismic waves, and they
all move in different ways.
 The two main types of waves are body waves and surface
waves.
 1. Body waves
 Body waves can travel through the earth's inner
layers, but
surface waves can only move along the surface of
the planet like ripples on water.
Traveling through the interior of the earth, body
waves arrive before the surface waves emitted by
an earthquake.
These waves are of a lower frequency than surface
waves.
Earthquakes radiate seismic energy as both body and
surface waves.
 1.1 P Waves (Primary Waves)
• This is the fastest kind of seismic wave, and, consequently,
the first to 'arrive' at a seismograph station.
• The P wave can move through solid rock and fluids, like
water or the liquid layers of the earth. P waves are also known
as compressional waves, because of the pushing and pulling
they do.

Particles move in the same direction that the wave is moving

in, which is the direction that the energy is traveling in, and is
sometimes called the 'direction of wave propagation.
 1.2 S Waves (secondary wave)
• An S wave is slower than a P wave and can only move through solid
rock, not through any fluid medium.

• It is this property of S waves that led seismologists to conclude that

the Earth's outer core is a liquid.
• S waves move rock particles up and down, or side-to-side--
perpendicular to the direction that the wave is traveling in (the
direction of wave propagation).
 Seismic wave velocity
The velocities of P and S waves, in terms of the elastic
constants (elastic coefficients of a material) are expressed
as follow :
VP = = [ {k + (4/3)μ} /  ]1/2 ,K-bulk modulus and
VS = (μ/)1/2  - being density; μ-rigidty modulus
K and μ are always positive

The equations show that, in the same medium VS < VP.

Moreover, it is evident that VS = 0 for a fluid since the
rigidity modulus μ = 0, i.e., S-waves can not propagate
through fluids.
As a result of this, VS is less affected than VP by a variation
in moisture content.
 2 Surface Waves
• Travelling only on the surface of the earth
• surface waves are of a high frequency than body waves,
and are easily distinguished on a seismogram as a result.

• Though they arrive after body waves, it is surface waves

that are almost entirely responsible for the damage and
destruction associated with earthquakes.

• This damage and the strength of the surface waves are

reduced in deeper earthquakes.
 2.1 Love Waves
• It's the fastest surface wave and moves the ground
from side-to-side.
• Confined to the surface of the crust, Love waves
produce entirely horizontal motion.

• Particle motion is horizontal and perpendicular to the

direction of propagation (transverse). To aid in seeing
that the particle motion is purely horizontal, focus on
the Y axis (red line) as the wave propagates through it.
 2.2 Rayleigh Waves
• A Rayleigh wave rolls along the
ground just like a wave rolls across
a lake or an ocean.
• Because it rolls, it moves the ground
up and down, and side-to-side in
the same direction that the wave is
moving.
• Most of the shaking felt from an
earthquake is due to the Rayleigh
wave, which can be much larger
than the other waves.
• Particle motion consists of
elliptical motions (generally
retrograde elliptical) in the vertical
plane and parallel to the direction of
propagation.
 Characteristics of Seismic Waves
Transverse horizontal VL ~ 2.0 - 4.5 Love waves exist because of the
L, motion, perpendicular km/s in the Earth’s surface. They are largest at
to the direction of Earth the surface and decrease in
Love, propagation and depending on amplitude with depth. Love waves
Surface generally parallel to the frequency of are dispersive, that is, the wave
Earth’s surface the propagating velocity is dependent on frequency,
waves, Long wave with low frequencies normally
waves propagating at higher
velocity. Depth of penetration of the
Love waves is also dependent on
frequency, with lower frequencies
penetrating to greater depth.

Motion is both in the VR ~ 2.0 - 4.5 Rayleigh waves are also dispersive
R, direction of km/s in the and the amplitudes generally
propagation and Earth decrease with depth in the
Rayleigh, perpendicular (in a depending on Earth. Appearance and particle
Surface vertical plane), frequency of motion are similar to water waves.
and “phased” so that the propagating
waves, Long the motion is generally wave
waves, elliptical – either
prograde or retrograde
Ground roll
 Characteristics of Seismic Waves
Table 2: Seismic Waves
Type (and names) Particle Motion Typical Other Characteristics
Velocity
Alternating VP ~ 5 – 7 P motion travels fastest in
P, compressions km/s in materials, so the P-wave is the
(“pushes”) and typical Earth’s first-arriving energy on a
Compressional
dilations (“pulls”) crust; seismogram. Generally smaller
Primary, which are directed in >~ 8 km/s and higher frequency than the S
Longitudinal the same direction as in Earth’s and Surface-waves. P waves in a
the wave is mantle and liquid or gas are pressure waves,
propagating (along the core; including sound waves.
ray path); and 1.5 km/s in
therefore, water; 0.3
perpendicular to the km/s in air
wave front
Alternating transverse VS ~ 3 – 4 S-waves do not travel through
S, motions (perpendicular km/s in fluids, so do not exist in Earth’s
to the direction of typical Earth’s outer core (inferred to be primarily
Shear, propagation, and the crust; liquid iron) or in air or water or
Secondary, raypath); commonly >~ 4.5 km/s molten rock (magma). S waves
polarized such that in Earth’s travel slower than P waves in a
Transverse particle motion is in mantle; ~ 2.5 solid and, therefore, arrive after the
vertical or horizontal -3.0 km/s in P wave.
planes (solid) inner
core
Earth’s internal divisions
Rays in homogeneous sphere Ray Paths in the Earth
 P-and S-wave phases
refraction & reflection
Ray Paths in the Earth
Seismic velocity variation within Earth
 Where Do Earthquakes Happen?
 MOR (Mid-oceanic ridges
 Along Plate Edges
• Most earthquakes occur along the edge of the oceanic and
continental plates.
• The earth's crust (the outer layer of the planet) is made up of several
pieces, called plates.
• The plates under the oceans are called oceanic plates and the rest
are continental plates.
• These plates are always bumping into each other, pulling away
from each other, or past each other
 Along Faults
• Faults are cracks in the earth where sections of a plate (or two
plates) are moving in different directions.
• Faults are caused by all that bumping and sliding the plates do.
They are more common near the edges of the plates.
Types of Faults
 Types of earthquakes
There are three different types of earthquakes:
• tectonic,
• volcanic, and
• explosion.
 The type of earthquake depends on the region where it occurs
and the geological make-up of that region.
 The most common are tectonic earthquakes. These occur
when rocks in the Earth's crust break due to geological forces
created by movement of tectonic plates.
 Volcanic earthquakes occur in conjunction with volcanic
activity.
 Collapse earthquakes are small earthquakes in underground
caverns and mines, and
 Explosion earthquakes result from the explosion of nuclear
and chemical devices.
 Why Do Earthquakes Happen?
• Earthquakes are usually caused when rock
underground suddenly breaks along a fault. This
sudden release of energy causes the seismic waves
that make the ground shake.
• Earthquake-like seismic waves can also be caused
by explosions underground. The explosions,
however, don't cause very strong seismic waves.
 How Are Earthquakes Studied?
• Seismologists study earthquakes by going out and looking at the
damage caused by the earthquakes and by using seismographs.
• A seismograph is an instrument that records the shaking of the
earth's surface caused by seismic waves. The term seismometer
is also used to refer to the same device, and the two terms are
often used interchangeably.
• The record made by the seismograph is called a seismogram.
• By studying the seismogram, the seismologist can tell how far
away the earthquake was and how strong it was.
• This record doesn't tell the seismologist exactly where the
epicenter was
• Aspects of motion are described by the peak velocity (how fast
the ground is moving), peak acceleration (how quickly the
speed of the ground is changed)
 Classifications and causes of earthquakes
• Earthquake can be classified based on
1) the depth of the focus
2) the causes responsible for their occurrence.
 Classification of earthquake based on depth of focus
• Based on the depth of their origin earth quakes can be
classified into 3 groups. These are:
(a) Shallow earthquakes are earthquakes with a depth of
focus less than 60 km.
(b) Intermediate earthquakes are earthquakes with a depth
of focus between 60km and 300 km.
(c) Deep earthquakes are earthquakes with a depth of focus
greater than 300 km. These are rare in occurrence.
 Classification of earthquake based on the causes
responsible for their occurrence
Based on this earthquakes are described as:
a) tectonic
b) non-tectonic

(a) Tectonic earthquakes

Tectonic earthquakes are exclusively due to internal
causes, i.e., due to disturbances of geological
formations taking place in the earth’s interior.
Generally they are less frequent, but more intensive
and hence more destructive in nature.
Non-tectonic earthquakes : are generally due to external
or surficial causes. This type of earthquake is very
frequent, but minor in intensity and hence generally not
destructive in nature.
Such earth quakes occur due to a variety of reasons, some
of which are as follows:
-Due to huge water falls
-Due to avalanches (falling of ice)
-Due to meteorites
-Due to the occurrence of sudden and major landslides.
-Due to tsunamis
-Due to man made explosions
-Due to collapse of caves, tunnels etc.
-Due to dams
Seismometer (seismograph)
The Records in Seismograph station
 Seismic risk versus seismic hazard
• Seismic Hazard is the probability of occurrence of a
specified level of ground shaking in a specified period of
time.
Includes surface faulting, ground shaking, landslides,
liquefaction, tectonic deformation, and tsunamis.
• Vulnerability is the degree of damage caused by various
levels of loading.
• Seismic Risk is expressed in terms of economic costs, loss
of lives or environmental damage per unit of time.
• It is the job of the geophysicists to provide hazard
assessments (- but not risk assessments.)
 Secondary effects of earthquakes
 landslides,
 tsunami,
 fires and
 Fatalities etc.
• A major hazard associated with large earthquakes in
mountainous areas is the activation of landslides, which
can cause destruction far from the epicenter.
 Effects Earthquake
•Earthquake effects can be categorized in to two
groups as primary effects and secondary effects
Primary effect
 It is resulted from the ground vibration and
fractures, such as collapse of large building,
bridges, dams, tunnels and other rigid
structures
Secondary effect
 Such as fires, toxic gasses, landslide, floods,
regional subsidence, uplift of land mass and
etc
 When a large earthquake occurs under the ocean, it can
activate a seismic sea wave known as a tsunami.
 A tsunami propagates throughout an ocean basin as a
wave with period T of around 15–30 min.
 The entire water column participates in the motion.
 As a result, the velocity of the wave, v, is dependent on
the water depth, d, and the acceleration due to gravity,
g, and is given by:

 Over an ocean basin with water depth greater than 4km,

the tsunami velocity is higher than 200 m s-1 and the
wavelength (equal to the product VT).
TSUNAMI - water wave generated by earthquake
IN DEEP OCEAN tsunami has long wavelength, travels
fast, small amplitude - doesn’t affect ships
AS IT APPROACHES SHORE, it slows. Since energy
is conserved, amplitude builds up - very damaging.
Tsunami speed in deep water of depth d, C=(gd)1/2,
Tsunami generated along, where sea floor displaced,
and spreads outward
 Where do the largest earthquakes occur?
The shallowest earthquakes occur on faults.
• But, the location of some major faults is unknown.
• It is known from both historical and modern data
that the largest quakes strike in S. America, Alaska
and throughout Asia.
Indeed, the three largest ones in the past century are:
1. Chile, 1969, Mw9.5
2. Alaska, 1964, Mw9.2
3. Sumatra-Andaman, 2004, Mw9.1
 8. Factors that Affect Damage
Earthquakes cause many different kinds of damage
depending on:
- the strength of the quake,
- distance,
- type of underlying rock or soil and
- the building construction.
A given Richter reading will produce vastly different
amounts of damage in different parts of the world. Even
the same quake can have very different effects in
neighboring areas.
The combination of uncompacted soil with a lot of water in
it led to a phenomenon called liquefaction.
Liquefaction: occurs when the ground loses its
cohesion and behaves like a liquid. When this happens
during an earthquake it can result in increased intensity of
the shaking, or landslides. It can also cause collapse of
buildings.
Another factor that has a major effect on the damage is the
building method and materials used.
Unreinforced masonry has the worst record since it has
little ability to flex or move without collapsing.
Wood frame buildings, or reinforced buildings, on the
other hand, can hold together under quite severe
shaking.
Liquefaction: strong ground motion during an
earthquake can cause water saturated
,unconsolidated soil to act more like a dense fluid
than a solid .This process is called Liquefaction .
Liquefaction occurs when a material of solid
consistency is transformed with increased water
pressure, in to a liquefied state.
 Effects of Earthquake and
Precautionary measurement
An Earthquake may entirely damage the natural and built
environments as well as the atmosphere as a whole.
Therefor knowing more about the effect of ruptures along fault
Earthquakes helps us to understand the mitigation steps that must
be taken to protect a community from a seismic event .
The wave vibrations produce several different effects on natural
environment that also can cause tremendous damage to the built
environment (buildings, transportation lines, structures,
communication lines , & utilities).
Researching potential problems, knowing as site
investigation is a good first step in reducing damage to
the built environment due to Earthquakes .
Land Slides : Ground motion also can trigger
landslides. Careful consideration should be made
before developers a building in a location that could
be affected by a land slide .
Tsunamis: It is caused by an earthquake , landslides
or volcanic eruption on the sea floor. During an
earthquake, seismic waves can produce powerful
ocean waves.
Seiche : It refers to the oscillation (sloshing back &
forth) of water in a closed space such as a lake,
reservoir, or swimming pool.
This oscillation ca cause over topping of dams and
damage to structures near to the water.
Fire, hazardous material spills, water main breaks, can
cause extensive damage and loss of life
1. Poisonous gas
2. Medical materials at clinic and laboratories
3. Sewage
4. radioactive materials

Mitigation Planes should consider such lifelines as

 water and sewage systems,
 Electric power systems,
 oil and natural gas systems,
 Communication systems,
 Transportation systems


Hazard zonation map: to avoid areas of potential
Earthquakes
Engineering design : special type (good quality) of
engineering designs and construction materials are used for
buildings and other structures in Earthquake active zones.

Land use planning: large structures should not be

constructed on or near active faults or on sensitive earth
materials such as landfills, unconsolidated and water
saturated soils.

Framing materials used in buildings such as wood and steel

bend and sway during an earthquake but resist failure.
However brick, stone, concrete, adobe (dried mud), and
other masonry products are brittle and likely to fail during
an earthquake
 Earthquake hazard mitigation
 Hazard zonation map to avoid areas of
potential earthquake
 Good quality engineering design which resist
the earthquake hazards
 Land use Planning
 Insurance and relief measures
 Social measures (Awareness, public
information)
 Early warning
Be Smart About

Earthquake Safety