Name: BHUNJUN Dharotamsingh

Course: Teacher Diploma Secondary

Physical Education – (Part -Time)

(2011 – 2014)

1) Schmidt & Wrisberg discusses how three aspects of past experiences might aid in transfer
of learning. Discuss each of these three elements together with a practical example for
each.

During the teaching of a new skill, the teacher should emphasise in the similarities between the
present new skill and the past skills already learned. In other words, to adopt the Thorndike’s
Theory - Law of Effect. The Law of Effect describes that responses to a situation can be
strengthened. Thus learning can take place easily and more efficiently assuming the pattern of
the previous skill is more or less similar to the new one taught.

The three aspects of past experiences might aid in transfer of learning are:

a) Movement Patterns - Physical patterns of movement.

For example, dribbling in Handball and dribbling in Basketball. The dribbling teaching points for
both activities are the same only the size of the ball which differs.

b) Perceptual Elements - Stimuli which people have to be able to recognise.

For example, during the chest pass in Basketball and Ringball (Newly Played in Mauritius). Both
passes have the same pattern properties and students would be able to recognise easily.
Moreover, a player who is good in basketball would learn ringball more easily.

c) Conceptual Elements

Assuming the two activities: Football and Handball. The same rule applies when taking a fault
committed by an opponent. That is, if a fault is committed at a specific place, the player has to
take the fault at the same place except inside the 9m line for Handball. Furthermore, concerning
the strategies and concept of the two above-mentioned games, they are both played on a passing,
defending and attacking basis. Both teams have to score goal in order to win.
2) Define each of the three stages of learning. For each, give an explanation of what the
learner is doing, observable behaviours and instructional support which could be given.

The three stages of learning are:

a) The cognitive stage

b) The associative stage
c) The autonomous stage

a) Cognitive Stage

It is a phase during which the development of basic movement pattern occurs. It is also the
mental stage of learning that is figuring out the skill.

Doing

 During an underhand serve in volleyball

 Instructions should be simple, short, specific and clear. Demonstrations would be of great
help to the student.

Observable behaviours

 Tossing of ball is too high.

 Ball contact is not at the required specific position.

Instructional support

 Give feedback to students.

 In this stage, learners are not aware what they did wrong and how to correct the errors.
 For tossing of the ball, a height of one ruler, 30 cm of toss of the ball is recommended.
 With a pen mark on their hand, the right place for ball contact.
 Further, demonstrations can be done and even video clips can be viewed.
b) Associative Stage

In this stage, there is refinement of movement pattern. The learner understands the fundamentals
of the skill and is in the process of refining the skill. Performances are becoming more consistent
and learners are able to detect cause of errors. Hence, they are able to develop appropriate error
correction strategies.

Doing

 During an underhand serve in volleyball. Instructions are mainly based on refinement of

the skill.

Observable behaviours

 During service, balls sometimes stuck in the net.

Instructional support

 Give the students precise feedback.

 The ball contact should be at an angle of 45°.
 Give students more time for practice.

c) Autonomous Stage

At this stage, the skill is well-learned. The student performs the skill automatically without
having to focus on execution. In this phase, there are few errors and the learner can detect and
know how to correct them. In this stage, performances become consistent. The skills are stored in
the long-term memory.

Doing

 Performing an underhand serve during a volleyball game situation.

Observable behaviours

 Sometimes, the set do not achieve in the targeted zone (Zone 1 and Zone 5).

Instructional Support

 The students have to constantly practice to reinforce the skill whereby as a result success
of objective targeted should be of a high probability.
 Feedback also can be given by the teacher to reinforce motor programmes.
3) When attempting to assess a learner's progress, Schmidt & Wrisberg discuss two
general indicators of skill. Define each of these, together with two examples each of how
each indicator could be measured. Use evidence-based information (i.e. research
information) to support your examples.

The two general indicators of skill are:

a) Outcome Measures
b) Process Measures

Outcome measures are dealt with the results of movement. In this indicator, measurement could
be done for elapsed time to perform the movement, the distance done, the accuracy of target
achieved and the consistency of the movement.

 For example, the Cooper’s Test - Test for physical fitness within 12 minutes

This test could be used as an indicator to monitor the development of the athlete aerobic
endurance after ten minutes of warming up. Cooper’s Test can be used to have a better
perspective of the students’ physical fitness - endurance. Henceforth, the students can be
classifying respective to their fitness for a proper training guidelines. Moreover, physical fitness
is of prior significance for any training programme.

12 Minute Run Fitness Test Results –Cooper’s Test

Above Below
Age Excellent Average Poor
Average Average
2200-
Male 20-29 >2800m 2400-2800m 1600-2199m <1600m
2399m
Females 20- 1800-
>2700m 2200-2700m 1500-1799m <1500m
29 2199m
1900-
Males 30-39 >2700m 2300-2700m 1500-1999m <1500m
2299m
Females 30- 1700-
>2500m 2000-2500m 1400-1699m <1400m
39 1999m
1700-
Males 40-49 >2500m 2100-2500m 1400-1699m <1400m
2099m
Females 40- 1500-
>2300m 1900-2300m 1200-1499m <1200m
49 1899m
1600-
Males 50 >2400m 2000-2400m 1300-1599m <1300m
1999m
1400-
Females 50 >2200m 1700-2200m 1100-1399m <1100m
1699m
 Strength And Muscular Endurance

Muscle strength testing measures the maximum amount of force a muscle group can exert at one
time. Muscular endurance testing measures the length of time a muscle group can contact before
fatigue.

Push Up Fitness Test Results

Men Age: 20-29 Age: 30-39 Age: 40-49 Age: 50-59 Age: 60+
Excellent 54 or more 44 or more 39 or more 34 or more 29 or more
Good 45-54 35-44 30-39 25-34 20-29
Average 35-44 24-34 20-29 15-24 10-19
Poor 20-34 15-24 12-19 8-14 5-9
Very Poor 20 or fewer 15 or fewer 12 or fewer 8 or fewer 5 or fewer
Women Age: 20-29 Age: 30-39 Age: 40-49 Age: 50-59 Age: 60+
Excellent 48 or more 39 or more 34 or more 29 or more 19 or more
Good 34-48 25-39 20-34 15-29 5-19
Average 17-33 12-24 8-19 6-14 3-4
Poor 6-16 4-11 3-7 2-5 1-2
Very Poor 6 or fewer 4 or fewer 3 or fewer 2 or fewer 1 or fewer

Muscle strength testing is one of the means to identify students’ strength. After, doing Push-Up,
analysis could be brought from the above chart and hence, students can be guided in certain
respective discipline in athletics like throwing events which require mainly muscular strength.

Process Measures - Attempt to measure quality of movement.

 Electromyography (EMG)

Electromyography (EMG) measures the electrical impulses of muscles at rest and during
contraction. It also provides information about the quality of the muscle to respond to nerve
stimuli resulting in the action potential. For the Electromyography Test., it will help to identify
the students’ contraction which will derive in the action potential. As a result, the latter will give
a description for an attempt of quality of movement of any specific skill.

 %1 – RM Test - To estimate muscle fibre composition.

It is also used to estimate the predominant muscle fibre. From this test, it will give clear
indication of what the learner will have greater success. If the learner acquire greater percentage
of slow twitch fibre. This will help the student to decide in which event he can perform better.
4) Schmidt & wrisberg presents six observational products of learning. Discuss each of
these.

a) Knowledge of Concepts

The learner has knowledge of rules, strategies and teaching points of a specific game. By
acquiring knowledge of concepts of a specific game, this will help the learner to develop a rapid
decision-making in game situation and also will minimize in errors occurrence.

b) Control and Coordination

The movement pattern of a specific skill will be in an aesthetic approach. The action will be
smooth and rightly done. With practice, the skill will be of great perfection. For example, in a set
pass in volleyball, all the teaching points are followed accordingly.

c) Muscles Used

A learner with good regular practice will eventually use the correct muscle groups in order to
perform a specific movement. For example, in Weight Training, when doing a Triceps Extension,
a learner would be able to use the correct sequential contraction of his agonists and antagonists
muscle.

d) Movement Efficiency

With practice, the learner will perform better movement. As a result, this leads to more efficient
energy usage. Furthermore, with movement efficiency, the student will be able to train for
extended periods as less fatigue will be accumulated. Moreover, the movement efficiency adds
on lower perception of exertion as there is correct muscle used, good control and coordination
can be observed.

e) Attention

With automatic processing, result in better motor programs. Hence, the learner can sustain
attention for longer periods. Also, the learner has the potential to adapt to new development
during game and react rapidly to new changing circumstances.

f) Error Detection and Correction

A learner achieves in an autonomous stage of learning have the ability to better detect errors and
bring correction. The learner knows if ever he has done an incorrect selection of movements’ of
a poor execution of movement of a specific skill. With practice, the learner has the potentiality to
bring solutions and is more attentive to feedback information for his betterment.