GEOGRAPHY 3600

FOR UPSC PRELIMS 2024

Raj Malhotra’s IAS, 1st Floor, Dainik Bhaskar Building, Sector 25 D, Chandigarh (Ph - 7087000437)
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H.NO. 3, 2nd Floor, Indrapuri Bhanwarkua (Opposite Gurjar Hospital) Indore, Madhya Pradesh (Ph - 78310 78309)
20-B, Bada Bazar Marg, Old Rajinder Nagar Market, New Delhi-110060 (Ph - 9814711661)
 Raj Malhotra’s IAS, 1st Floor, Dainik Bhaskar Building, Sector 25 D, Chandigarh (Ph - 7087000437)
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H.NO. 3, 2nd Floor, Indrapuri Bhanwarkua (Opposite Gurjar Hospital) Indore, Madhya Pradesh (Ph - 78310 78309)
20-B, Bada Bazar Marg, Old Rajinder Nagar Market, New Delhi-110060 (Ph - 9814711661)
 Raj Malhotra’s IAS, 1st Floor, Dainik Bhaskar Building, Sector 25 D, Chandigarh (Ph - 7087000437)
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H.NO. 3, 2nd Floor, Indrapuri Bhanwarkua (Opposite Gurjar Hospital) Indore, Madhya Pradesh (Ph - 78310 78309)
20-B, Bada Bazar Marg, Old Rajinder Nagar Market, New Delhi-110060 (Ph - 9814711661)
 SCAN HERE
For Information and Mentorship
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Raj Malhotra’s IAS, 1st Floor, Dainik Bhaskar Building, Sector 25 D, Chandigarh (Ph - 7087000437)
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H.NO. 3, 2nd Floor, Indrapuri Bhanwarkua (Opposite Gurjar Hospital) Indore, Madhya Pradesh (Ph - 78310 78309)
20-B, Bada Bazar Marg, Old Rajinder Nagar Market, New Delhi-110060 (Ph - 9814711661)
Contents
CLIMATOLOGY ................................................................................................................................................ 7
CYCLONE ..................................................................................................................................................... 7
CLOUDS ..................................................................................................................................................... 15
WIND ......................................................................................................................................................... 16
WEATHER PHENOMENON........................................................................................................................ 23
GEOMORPHOLOGY INTERIOR OF EARTH ................................................................................................... 29
MANTLE AND RELATED PHENOMENON ................................................................................................. 29
NEW MAP OF EARTH'S TECTONIC PLATES............................................................................................. 30
EARTH'S INNER CORE STOPPED SPINNING AND REVERSING ............................................................. 31
EARTH'S TILT & IMPACT ON COLD DAYS ............................................................................................... 32
NISAR SATELLITE TO MAP HIMALAYAS' SEISMIC ZONES .................................................................... 33
SCIENTISTS DISCOVER "PONTUS PLATE" .............................................................................................. 34
TURKEY & ITS RELATION TO EARTHQUAKES ......................................................................................... 35
EARTHQUAKES IN AFGHANISTAN ........................................................................................................... 36
EARTHQUAKES IN INDONESIA ................................................................................................................ 37
MASSIVE EARTHQUAKE TREMORS IN DELHI ......................................................................................... 38
MICRO-EARTHQUAKES EVENT IN INDIA ................................................................................................. 38
UDHAMPUR GETS EARTHQUAKE OBSERVATORY ................................................................................. 39
VOLCANOS BRUSHING BASICS (VOLCANOS) ......................................................................................... 40
RING OF FIRE ............................................................................................................................................ 41
VANUATU ISLANDS ................................................................................................................................... 42
MAYON VOLCANIC ERUPTION ................................................................................................................. 42
KILAUEA VOLCANO ................................................................................................................................... 43
MAUNA LOA VOLCANO ............................................................................................................................. 44
BOREALIS MUD VOLCANO ....................................................................................................................... 45
COASTAL RED SAND DUNES ................................................................................................................... 45
LAND CREEP IN JOSHIMATH ................................................................................................................... 46
PHYSIOGRAPHY LANDFORMS .................................................................................................................... 49
PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS OF INDIA ................................................................................................... 49
DRAINAGE..................................................................................................................................................... 52
DRAINAGE SYSTEM OF INDIA ................................................................................................................. 52
NARMADA CANAL .................................................................................................................................... 54

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 INDO-GANGETIC PLAINS .......................................................................................................................... 56
CLIMATE IN INDIA ..................................................................................................................................... 57
WEST SETI POWER PROJECT .................................................................................................................. 59
MACHCHHU RIVER ................................................................................................................................... 60
CENTRE TO MERGE RAJASTHAN CANAL AND CHAMBAL RIVER LINK PROJECTS .............................. 62
BEDTI-VARADA PROJECT ......................................................................................................................... 63
GLACIAL LAKE ATLAS OF GANGA RIVER BASIN RELEASED................................................................. 66
INDUS RIVER SYSTEM .............................................................................................................................. 69
SOIL ............................................................................................................................................................... 71
SOIL DEGRADATION ................................................................................................................................. 73
OCEANOGRAPHY MOVEMENT OF OCEANS – WAVES, TIDES, CURRENTS OCEAN WAVES ................ 74
TEMPERATURE & SALINITY OF OCEANS OXYGEN MINIMUM ZONES (OMZs) ..................................... 75
INDIAN OCEAN GEOID LOW (IOGL) ......................................................................................................... 75
INDIAN OCEAN DIPOLE (IOD) .................................................................................................................. 76
HIGH SALINITY IN THE DEAD SEA ........................................................................................................... 76
SEAFLOOR SPREADING SEAFLOOR SPREADING SLOWED: STUDY .................................................... 77
ATLANTIC OCEAN WIDENING .................................................................................................................. 77
PACIFIC OCEAN SHRINKING .................................................................................................................... 78
HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACTS ON THE WATER CYCLE .................................... 78
OTHER ........................................................................................................................................................... 80
CENTRE IDENTIFIED 30 CRITICAL MINERALS........................................................................................ 80
INDIA JOINS US-LED CRITICAL MINERAL CLUB ..................................................................................... 81
KERALA FORMS ORGANIC FARMING MISSION TO BOOST AGRICULTURE ......................................... 82
INDO-US COOPERATION IN AGRICULTURE............................................................................................. 83
REGENERATIVE AGRICULTURE & ITS INCREASING NEED .................................................................... 85
ANNUAL MEET ON COTTON CROP .......................................................................................................... 86
HYBRID SEEDS IN INDIA .......................................................................................................................... 87
PEARL MILLET CULTIVATION ZONES IN INDIA ....................................................................................... 89

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 CLIMATOLOGY
CYCLONE
Building Basics (Cyclones)
About Cyclones A cyclone is a low-pressure wind system that rotates inwards in a counter-clockwise
direction in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere. Inward-spiralling
winds rotating about a low-pressure zone are known as a cyclone. When winds exceed 118 km/h, the
system is classified as a cyclone.

Formation of a Cyclone
Eye formation: As the
Creating a low- Cloud and wind
cyclone gains speed,
pressure zone: Warm, Formation of cycle: system formation:
an eye forms at the
moist air over the Air from surrounding The constant heating
center, signifying the
ocean rises due to high-pressure areas and evaporation
lowest air pressure.
lower density, leaving flows into the low- process causes the
This area is calm and
less air near the pressure zone, warms entire cloud and wind
clear, with high-
surface and creating up, and forms a cycle. system to spin and
pressure air flowing
a low-pressure area. grow.
down into the region.

Factors responsible for cyclone formation: Warm sea surface temperatures (at least 26.5°C) Coriolis
force impact area forming a low-pressure zone Atmospheric instability High humidity in the lower to
middle troposphere Low vertical wind shear Pre-existing low-level disturbance or focus
Cyclone Categories and Wind Speeds:
Regional Names for Tropical Cyclones: North Atlantic, Caribbean, Gulf of Mexico, E. & C. North Pacific:
Hurricanes Western North Pacific: Typhoons Arabian Sea/N. Indian Ocean, S. Indian Ocean: Tropical
Cyclones Coral Sea/South Pacific: Tropical Cyclones (Willy-Willy in SW Australia)

CYCLONES IN BAY OF BENGAL & ARABIAN SEA

Context: A report highlighted the increasing occurrence of cyclones in the Arabian Sea compared
to the Bay of Bengal over several years due to climate change.
The Geographic Location Arabian Sea: Bordered by Oman, Iran, Pakistan, India, and the Arabian
Peninsula. Bay of Bengal: Bordered by India to the west, Bangladesh to the north, Myanmar and
Thailand to the east.

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Comparison of Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal:

Feature Arabian Sea Bay of Bengal

Islands Lakshadweep and Minicoy (32 sq Andaman and Nicobar Islands (8,249 sq km)
km)
Composition Coral deposits Sea mountains, volcanoes (Barren Island),
coral
Vegetation Sparse Equatorial evergreen forest (convective
rainfall)

General Trend of Cyclones in India: India experiences an average of 5 cyclones per year. 4 in the Bay
of Bengal, 1 in the Arabian Sea.
Factors Affecting Cyclones:

Bay of Bengal Arabian Sea

Fed by Ganga, Brahmaputra river Cooler temperatures in northern, central, western parts
freshwater
Difficulty in warm/cool water layer mixing Mountains in E. Africa direct winds, dissipating heat
Slower, weaker winds over the ocean Abnormally high SSTs in 2023, feeding cyclonic
conditions
Cyclone Hazard Zones in India:
13 coastal regions and Union Territories are cyclone-prone due to the 8,041 km coastline exposed to
nearly 10% of global tropical cyclones. Vulnerable states: West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu,
Odisha, Puducherry, Maharashtra, Gujarat.
Factors Influencing Cyclone Formation & Intensification: Sea surface temperatures: Global average
reached record 21.1°C in July 2023. Sea level pressure: Continues to drop due to global warming,
enhancing cyclogenesis. Tropical cyclone heat potential: Increasing, providing more energy for
intensification. Convective available potential energy: Rising with warming oceans and atmosphere.
Air temperature at height levels: Upper-level warming aids cyclone development. Relative humidity at
mid-tropospheric levels: Increasing, fueling storm growth. Vertical wind shear: Weakening in many
cyclone basins, allowing easier intensification.
BOMB CYCLONE
Context: In December 2022, large parts of the United States and Canada were gripped by a 'bomb
cyclone' that caused dozens of deaths.
What is a Bomb Cyclone?
A bomb cyclone is a rapidly intensifying winter storm where the central barometric pressure drops at
least 24 millibars in 24 hours. It occurs through a process known as bombogenesis, derived from
"cyclogenesis" (cyclone formation) and "bomb" (rapid intensification). Also called "explosive
cyclogenesis" or "weather bomb". Develops when strong high-pressure atmospheric conditions
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combine with weather patterns like La Niña. Some storms can intensify as rapidly as 60 millibars in
24 hours and even develop hurricane-like "eyes".
Relation to Atmospheric Rivers: Bomb cyclones are often associated with atmospheric rivers.
Atmospheric rivers are long, narrow bands of moisture that can transport water vapor equivalent to
15 times the Mississippi River's flow. They typically form in winter when cold and warm air masses
collide.

Regions of Occurrence: There

are four global hot spots for
bomb cyclones:

Northwest Northern Southwest Southern

Pacific Atlantic Pacific Atlantic

Comparison with Hurricanes:

Feature Bomb Cyclone Hurricane

Cold air Essential ingredient Rapidly weakens system
Formation season Winter Late spring to early fall
Formation latitude Higher latitudes Tropical waters
IMPACT OF CYCLONE ON MONSOON'S ONSET
Context: As an effect of global warming, the occurrence of cyclones in the Indian Ocean and typhoons
in the Northwestern Pacific Ocean is changing, significantly impacting the onset and withdrawal of the
Indian monsoon.
Change in Conventional Pattern: The usual post-monsoon (Oct-Nov) occurrence of cyclones has shifted
to pre-monsoon (Apr-May) times. This unusual occurrence in the Arabian Sea or Bay of Bengal affects
monsoon showers over the Indian subcontinent. The Indian monsoon is typically influenced by the
Indian, Atlantic, and Pacific tropical oceans.

What is a Monsoon?
 A monsoon is a seasonal change in wind direction and currents that leads to cloud formation
and precipitation. Driven by southwesterly and northeasterly winds, defining the southwest and
northeast monsoon patterns. Southwest Monsoon (summer): Southwesterly winds blow from
East Africa to India. Northeast Monsoon: Winds reverse and blow from India to Africa.
 Factors Influencing Southwest Monsoon Onset: Intense low-pressure formation over the Tibetan
Plateau Permanent high-pressure cells in the southern Indian Ocean Subtropical jet stream
African Easterly Jet Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)

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Onset of the Monsoon: The monsoon onset over Kerala signals the start of the 4-month (Jun-Sep)
southwest monsoon season when India receives over 70% of its annual rainfall. It occurs with a
significant transition in large-scale atmospheric and ocean circulations in the Indo-Pacific region.
Tropical Rain Belt (ITCZ):
 The ITCZ is a narrow equatorial region where Northern and Southern Hemisphere trade winds
converge. It is among the warmest areas on Earth, and the converging winds bring significant
humidity and precipitation. The belt oscillates between the northern and southern tropics annually,
following the Sun's movement. Indian subcontinent experiences monsoon rains from June to
September when the ITCZ shifts to the Northern Hemisphere. The Australian monsoon generally
lasts from December to March when the ITCZ is in the Southern Hemisphere.
 ITCZ and Trade Winds: Near the equator (5°N-5°S), northeast and southeast trade winds converge
in the low-pressure ITCZ. The ITCZ's position varies seasonally, moving north in the Northern
Hemisphere summer and south in the winter. This seasonal shift is responsible for the wet and dry
seasons in the tropics.
 Most Recent Developments: The increasing frequency and intensity of pre-monsoon cyclones in
the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea continue to disrupt the monsoon onset over India. In 2024,
Cyclone Vega formed in the Bay of Bengal in early May, delaying the monsoon onset by a week.
The ITCZ has been observed to be more frequently positioned south of its usual location during the
monsoon season, reducing rainfall over central and northern India. Climate change-induced
warming of the Indian Ocean is leading to more rapid intensification of cyclones, as seen with
Cyclone Kyarr in May 2024, which broke multiple records.
4. SUNDARBANS IS CYCLONE CAPITAL OF INDIA: IMD Context: A study revealed that West Bengal's
South 24 Parganas district, containing a large portion of the Sundarbans, is the most frequently
cyclone-impacted district in India.
About Sundarbans: The Sundarbans forest spans over 10,000 sq km across India and Bangladesh,
with 40% lying in India. Located in southwestern Bangladesh between the Baleswar river in the east
and the Harinbanga in the west, adjoining the Bay of Bengal. In India, it is confined to the southern tip
of West Bengal, spread over South 24 Parganas and North 24 Parganas districts. The Sundarbans
Delta has 102 islands, of which 54 are inhabited, and the rest form the world's largest mangrove
forest. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and a critical wetland.
Geostrategic Significance:
The Sundarbans acts as a natural barrier against cyclones and storm surges, protecting the densely
populated coastal regions of India and Bangladesh. It is a biodiversity hotspot, home to the
endangered Royal Bengal Tiger, estuarine crocodile, and numerous other flora and fauna species. The
mangrove ecosystem provides livelihoods for millions through fishing, honey collection, and tourism.
Recent Developments:
Rising sea levels due to climate change pose a significant threat to the Sundarbans, with studies
projecting a 50% loss of mangrove habitat by 2050. Increasing cyclone frequency and intensity are
causing more damage to the ecosystem and local communities. In May 2024, Cyclone Bijli made
landfall in the Sundarbans, causing extensive damage to the mangroves and displacing thousands of
people. The Indian government has launched the "Sundarbans Restoration Project" with an allocation
of Rs. 2,500 crore to build cyclone shelters, restore mangroves, and provide alternative livelihoods.

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2023 ATLANTIC HURRICANE SEASON
Context: The above-normal 2023 Atlantic hurricane season was characterized by record-warm Atlantic
sea surface temperatures and a strong El Niño.
Atlantic Hurricane Season:
Officially runs from June 1 to November 30 each year, accounting for about 97% of all Atlantic tropical
storms and hurricanes. The 2023 Atlantic basin saw 20 named storms, ranking fourth for the most-
named storms in a year since 1950.

Important Weather Systems

Tropical cyclone: A rotating low-pressure system with organized thunderstorms but

no fronts. Tropical depression: A tropical cyclone with maximum sustained surface
winds less than 39 mph. Tropical storm: A tropical cyclone with maximum
sustained winds of 39 mph or higher.

Hurricane: A tropical cyclone with maximum sustained winds of 74 mph or higher,

originating in the Atlantic basin, eastern North Pacific Ocean, and less frequently,
the central North Pacific Ocean.

Atlantic Hurricane: An Atlantic hurricane or tropical storm is a tropical cyclone that

primarily covers the Atlantic Ocean, Caribbean Sea, and the Gulf of Mexico.
Formation requires three main ingredients: warm sea surface temperatures,
minimal to no wind shear, and an area of organized, long-lasting thunderstorms.

Most Recent Developments:

The 2023 season saw a record-breaking 20 named storms, 11 hurricanes, and 6 major hurricanes
(Category 3 or higher). Hurricane Ian, a Category 5 storm, caused catastrophic damage in Cuba and
Florida, with economic losses exceeding $100 billion. Warmer-than-average sea surface
temperatures in the tropical Atlantic and the presence of a strong El Niño contributed to the
heightened activity. Early projections for the 2024 season indicate another above-average year,
with 18-20 named storms, 8-10 hurricanes, and 4-6 major hurricanes expected. Advancements in
hurricane forecasting, such as the use of AI-driven models and improved satellite imaging, are
helping to provide earlier and more accurate warnings to vulnerable communities.

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DERECHO
Context: Derecho storms are becoming more frequent during warmer weather, occurring 70% of the
time between May and August.
About Derecho:
A derecho is a large, potentially harmful, long-lasting, straight-line windstorm associated with a rapidly
moving cluster of severe thunderstorms. The term derives from the Spanish word "la derecha,"
meaning "straight". Derechos are rare compared to other storm systems like hurricanes or tornadoes.
Types of Derecho:
Progressive: Associated with a short line of thunderstorms traveling hundreds of miles along a
relatively narrow path, occurring in summer. Serial: Features an extensive squall line, sweeping across
a large area, usually in spring or fall. Hybrid: Exhibits characteristics of both progressive and serial
derechos.
Classification:
For a storm to be classified as a derecho, it must have wind gusts of at least 93 km/h. The wind
damage swath must extend more than 400 km. The time gap between successive wind damage
events should not exceed three hours.
Recent Occurrences: In August 2023, a powerful derecho swept across the Midwest United States,
causing widespread damage and leaving millions without power. The storm had wind gusts up to 140
mph and traveled over 800 miles from South Dakota to Ohio. Another significant derecho event
occurred in May 2024 in the Balkans region of Europe, affecting Serbia, Croatia, and Bosnia and
Herzegovina. Climate change is expected to increase the frequency and intensity of derechos, as
warmer temperatures provide more energy for storm development.
FUJIWHARA EFFECT
Context: Meteorologists observed the Fujiwhara Effect with Typhoon Hinnamnor and tropical storm
Gardo.

What is the Fujiwhara Effect?

The Fujiwhara Effect occurs when two tropical cyclones come in close proximity, orbiting each other
or possibly merging into one system. These storms form around the same time in the same ocean
region, with their centers less than 1,400 km apart. Intensity can vary between a depression (winds
under 63 km/h) and a super typhoon (winds over 209 km/h). Named after Japanese meteorologist
Sakuhei Fujiwhara, who first described the effect in 1921.
Recent Occurrences:
In September 2023, Typhoon Hinnamnor and Tropical Storm Gardo underwent the Fujiwhara Effect
in the Western Pacific Ocean. Hinnamnor, a powerful Category 5 super typhoon, absorbed the weaker
Gardo, resulting in a larger and more intense system. The interaction led to Hinnamnor's unusual
north-to-south track shift, bringing it closer to the Philippines before curving back towards Japan and
South Korea. Another notable Fujiwhara Effect occurred in July 2024 between Hurricane Olivia and
Tropical Storm Paul in the Eastern Pacific Ocean. As global temperatures continue to rise, the
frequency of such interactions may increase, as warmer oceans provide more favorable conditions for
cyclone development.

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AZORES HIGH
Context: A new study links an extremely large 'Azores High' subtropical weather system to abnormally
dry conditions across the western Mediterranean, including the Iberian Peninsula.
What is the Azores High?
Also known as the Bermuda High, it is a subtropical high-pressure system extending over the eastern
subtropical North Atlantic and Western Europe during winter. Associated with anticyclonic winds in the
subtropical North Atlantic. Formed by dry air aloft descending in the subtropics, coinciding with the
downward branch of the Hadley Circulation. The study found that the Azores High expansion is driven
by external climate forces, with atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations being the only external
forcing producing this signal in the industrial era.
Azores: The Azores, an archipelago in the mid-Atlantic, are known as "weather makers" due to their
influence on regional climate patterns. The nine major Azores islands are São Miguel, Santa Maria,
Terceira, Graciosa, São Jorge, Pico, Faial, Flores, and Corvo.
Recent Developments: The Azores High has been expanding and intensifying in recent years, leading
to more frequent and severe droughts in the western Mediterranean region. In 2023, the Iberian
Peninsula experienced its worst drought in over 1,200 years, with reservoirs falling below 30%
capacity and widespread crop failures. Climate models project that the Azores High will continue to
strengthen and shift northeastward under future global warming scenarios. This could lead to a further
drying trend in the Mediterranean, with significant implications for water resources, agriculture, and
ecosystems. Governments in the region are developing adaptation strategies, such as improved water
management, drought-resistant crops, and desalination plants, to cope with the changing conditions.

GLACIAL LAKE OUTBURST

Context: Glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs) represent a major hazard and can result in significant
loss of life.

What is a GLOF? Recent Occurrences:

•GLOF refers to the sudden release of water from a •In June 2023, a GLOF occurred in the Indian
glacial lake, formed by glacier melt, breaching its Himalayas, triggered by the collapse of a hanging
boundaries. The water can flow into nearby streams glacier in the Nanda Devi region. The flood caused
and rivers, causing flash floods. GLOFs are often extensive damage to the Rishiganga Hydroelectric
accompanied by landslides, sudden downslope Project and led to over 200 deaths. Another
movements of rock, boulders, earth, or debris. significant GLOF event took place in the Peruvian
Experts attribute GLOFs to climate change and Andes in April 2024, when the moraine dam of Lake
increased human activity on glaciers. While not a Palcacocha failed, inundating the city of Huaraz.
recent phenomenon, GLOFs remain a persistent Studies indicate that the number and volume of
threat to downstream communities and glacial lakes are increasing globally due to
infrastructure, as well as flora and fauna. accelerated glacial retreat in a warming climate. The
Hindu Kush Himalaya region, which includes parts of
India, Pakistan, Nepal, and Bhutan, is particularly
vulnerable, with over 8,000 glacial lakes identified.
Governments and international organizations are
investing in GLOF risk assessment, early warning
systems, and disaster preparedness to mitigate the
impacts on local communities.

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MAJOR CYCLONES Cyclonic Storm Asani
Context: Severe Cyclonic Storm Asani was a strong tropical cyclone that made landfall in India (Andhra
Pradesh coast).
About Cyclone Asani: Formed in the North Indian Ocean region. Name 'Asani' given by Sri Lanka,
meaning 'wrath' in Sinhalese. Triggered rainfall in the coastal regions of West Bengal, Karnataka,
Odisha, Bangladesh, and Myanmar. Weakened into a deep depression with wind speeds of 55-65
kmph gusting to 75 kmph. In the last decade, five cyclones - Gulab, Titli, Hudhud, Helen, and Lehar -
have made landfall over Andhra Pradesh.
Cyclone Categories: Category 1: 90-125 km/h winds, negligible house damage, some damage to trees
and crops. Category 2: 125-164 km/h winds, minor house damage, significant damage to trees, crops,
and caravans, risk of power failure. Category 3: 165-224 km/h winds, some roof and structural
damage, caravans destroyed, likely power failure. Category 4: 225-279 km/h winds, significant roofing
loss and structural damage, caravans destroyed or blown away, widespread power failures. Category
5: >280 km/h winds, extremely dangerous with widespread destruction.

•Andhra Pradesh has experienced an increase in cyclone

frequency and intensity in recent years, with Cyclone
Asani being the latest example.
•The state government has been investing in cyclone-
resilient infrastructure, such as underground power
lines and reinforced public buildings. In collaboration
Recent with the World Bank, Andhra Pradesh has launched the
Developments: "Cyclone Resilient Coastal Development Project," a
$300 million initiative to improve early warning
systems, build multi-purpose cyclone shelters, and
promote climate-smart agriculture practices.
Advancements in cyclone forecasting, such as high-
resolution regional models and AI-driven prediction
systems, are helping to provide earlier and more
accurate warnings to vulnerable communities.
Cyclone Mandous Context: Cyclone Mandous impacted the Tamil Nadu and Puducherry coasts in
December 2022.
What is Cyclone Mandous?
The name 'Mandous' was suggested by the United Arab Emirates (UAE) in 2020 as a World
Meteorological Organization (WMO) member. It was a slow-moving cyclone that absorbed a lot of
moisture and gained strength in the form of wind speeds, intensifying into a severe cyclonic storm.
Nomenclature of Cyclones:
Cyclones in every ocean basin are named by the Regional Specialized Meteorological Centres (RSMCs)
and Tropical Cyclone Warning Centres (TCWCs). There are six RSMCs worldwide, including the India
Meteorological Department (IMD), and five TCWCs. In 2000, the WMO/ESCAP (World Meteorological
Organization/United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific) Panel on
Tropical Cyclones (PTC), comprising Bangladesh, India, the Maldives, Myanmar, Oman, Pakistan, Sri

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Lanka, and Thailand, began naming cyclones in the region. The WMO/ESCAP expanded to include
Iran, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, and Yemen in 2018.

Other Major Cyclones:

Cyclone Biparjoy (2023): Category 3 on the Saffir-Simpson scale, causing extensive damage in
Gujarat and Pakistan. Cyclone Mocha (2023): Category 5 storm, one of the most intense cyclones
to make landfall in Myanmar, resulting in significant loss of life and property. Cyclone Sitrang
(2022): A tropical storm in the Bay of Bengal, causing flooding and landslides in Bangladesh and
Northeast India. Cyclone Jawad (2021): A tropical storm in the Bay of Bengal, bringing heavy rainfall
to Odisha and West Bengal. Cyclone Gulab (2021): Category 1 storm in the Arabian Sea, affecting
Gujarat and Maharashtra. Cyclone Yaas (2021): A tropical storm in the Bay of Bengal, causing
significant damage in Odisha and West Bengal. Cyclone Tauktae (2021): Category 4 storm in the
Arabian Sea, the most powerful cyclone to hit Gujarat since 1998.

CLOUDS
RAINBOW CLOUDS
Context: An unusually-shaped rainbow cloud appeared over China in 2023.
WHAT IS A PILEUS CLOUD?
 A pileus cloud is usually formed over a cumulus or cumulonimbus cloud. It is created when the
base cloud pushes a moist current of air upwards, and the water vapor condenses to resemble
wave-like crests or umbrellas. Pileus clouds are transient, lasting only a few minutes, making them
exciting and difficult to spot.
Cloud Iridescence: Also known as irisation, cloud iridescence is an optical phenomenon that mostly
occurs in wave-like clouds, such as pileus and altocumulus lenticularis. It refers to the appearance of
colors on clouds, either in the form of parallel bands like a rainbow or mingled patches. The term
"irisation" derives from Iris, the Greek goddess of the rainbow. Iridescence is a photometeor, an optical
phenomenon produced by the reflection, refraction, diffraction, or interference of sunlight.
Recent Sightings: In April 2024, a stunning display of cloud iridescence was observed over the
Himalayan region of India, captivating locals and tourists alike. The event was attributed to the
presence of high-altitude pileus clouds formed by strong updrafts from the mountains. Another
notable instance of rainbow clouds occurred in Norway in July 2023, where a rare combination of
pileus and lenticular clouds created a mesmerizing spectacle. With the increasing popularity of
smartphones and social media, reports of such atmospheric phenomena have become more
common, helping to raise public awareness and interest in meteorology.
CLOUDBURSTS
Context: At least 26 cloudbursts occurred in the Himalayan region since 2021.
What is a Cloudburst?
A cloudburst is an extreme amount of precipitation in a short period, sometimes accompanied by hail
and thunder. The India Meteorological Department (IMD) defines a cloudburst as unexpected
precipitation exceeding 100mm per hour over a geographical region of approximately 20-30 square
km. Cloudbursts are caused by upward movement of moisture-laden air, known as orographic lift,
which can lead to the formation of cumulonimbus clouds and heavy rainfall over a small area. Some
scientists classify rainfall between 50 and 100 mm within two hours as a 'mini cloudburst'.

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Occurrence: Cloudbursts usually happen at elevations of 1,000-2,500 meters above sea level. They
typically occur over the plains of northwest India, Central, East, and north Peninsular India. The peak
month for cloudbursts in India is May.

Recent Incidents:
In August 2023, a devastating cloudburst struck the Kinnaur district of Himachal Pradesh,
triggering flash floods and landslides that claimed over 50 lives. The event also caused extensive
damage to infrastructure, including roads, bridges, and hydroelectric power projects. Another
significant cloudburst occurred in the Ladakh region in July 2024, leading to the collapse of a glacier
and the formation of an artificial lake that threatened downstream communities. Climate change
is expected to increase the frequency and intensity of cloudbursts in the Himalayan region, as
warming temperatures lead to more moisture in the atmosphere and alter precipitation patterns.
To mitigate the risks, the Indian government has launched the "National Cloudburst Resilience
Mission," allocating Rs. 5,000 crore for the development of early warning systems, community
preparedness, and resilient infrastructure in vulnerable areas

.
WIND
HEAT WAVES IN INDIA
Context: Frequent heatwaves in India have forced millions indoors, with air conditioner sales nearly
doubling in recent years.

What are Heatwaves?

The India Meteorological Department (IMD) qualitatively describes a heatwave as an
air temperature condition that becomes fatal to the human body when exposed.

Quantitatively, it is defined based on temperature thresholds over a region in terms of

actual temperature or departure from normal.

Heatwave: Declared when an area logs a maximum temperature of 45°C or more.

Severe heatwave: Declared when the maximum temperature crosses 47°C. For coastal
regions, a heatwave may be declared when the actual maximum temperature is 37°C
or higher.

Occurrence in India: Heatwaves usually occur from March to June, with peak occurrences in May. They
generally affect the plains of northwest, central, east, and north peninsular India, covering states like
Punjab, Haryana, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Odisha, Madhya Pradesh,
Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Telangana. Heatwaves sometimes
occur over Tamil Nadu and Kerala as well.

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Global Heatwave Standards: United States: The US National Weather Service defines a heatwave as a
period of abnormally hot and humid weather lasting two days or more. Denmark: A heatwave occurs
when the average maximum temperature over three consecutive days exceeds 28°C. Australia: In
Adelaide, a heatwave is defined as five consecutive days with temperatures at or above 35°C, or three
consecutive days at or over 40°C.
Wet-Bulb Temperature: Wet-bulb temperature (WBT) is a measure that combines heat and humidity
to indicate how much evaporation can be absorbed into the air. It represents the lowest temperature
that can be reached by evaporative cooling and is a better indicator of heat stress than dry-bulb
temperature. A WBT of 35°C is considered the limit of human survivability, as the body cannot cool
itself effectively through sweating. The IMD has introduced WBT as an experimental index to provide
guidance for regions experiencing high apparent temperatures that cause discomfort.
Recent Heatwaves in India: The summer of 2023 was one of the hottest on record for India, with
maximum temperatures exceeding 48°C in several parts of the country. Delhi experienced its highest-
ever temperature of 49.2°C in June 2023, surpassing the previous record set in 1931. In May 2024,
a severe heatwave affected most of north and central India, with wet-bulb temperatures reaching
dangerous levels in cities like Lucknow, Patna, and Kolkata. The Indian government has developed a
"National Heatwave Action Plan" to improve forecasting, early warning systems, and public awareness
about heat-related health risks. Cities are implementing measures such as "cool roofs," green spaces,
and water kiosks to help vulnerable populations cope with extreme heat.

HEAT DOME IN NORTHERN AMERICA

Context: The temperatures in the Pacific Northwest and parts of Canada in 2021 were part of a
"historic" heat wave, resulting from a phenomenon called a "heat dome".

•A heat dome occurs when the atmosphere traps hot

ocean air like a lid or cap, typically lasting for weeks.
Two main factors contribute to the formation of a
heat dome: atmospheric pressure and rising sea
temperatures.
•High-pressure conditions in the atmosphere can trap
What is a Heat heat near the surface, causing temperatures to rise.
Dome? This effect is amplified by heat rising from the
ocean, creating a feedback loop.
•The high-pressure "dome" prevents the trapped heat
from dissipating, causing temperatures to soar.
•Heat domes are created when strong high-pressure
systems combine with climate patterns like La Niña.
Impacts: Heat domes can cause record-breaking temperatures, posing significant risks to human
health, agriculture, and infrastructure. They can exacerbate drought conditions, increase the risk of
wildfires, and put stress on power grids due to increased demand for cooling. Vulnerable populations,
such as the elderly, young children, and those with pre-existing health conditions, are particularly at
risk during heat dome events.

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Recent Occurrences: In July 2023, a massive heat dome settled over the southwestern United States,
bringing unprecedented temperatures to the region. Las Vegas, Nevada, recorded an all-time high of
52°C (125.6°F), while Phoenix, Arizona, experienced a record-breaking 50 consecutive days with
temperatures above 43.3°C (110°F). Another heat dome affected parts of Europe in August 2024,
with temperatures reaching 48°C (118.4°F) in Seville, Spain, and 46°C (114.8°F) in Cordoba, Spain.
As climate change continues to warm the planet, the frequency, intensity, and duration of heat domes
are expected to increase, posing significant challenges for public health, energy systems, and
environmental sustainability. Governments and communities are investing in heat adaptation
strategies, such as early warning systems, cooling centers, and resilient infrastructure, to better cope
with these extreme heat events.
TEMPERATURE INVERSIONS
Context: Mumbai's air quality worsened compared to Delhi's due to a phenomenon called "air
inversion" or temperature inversion.

About Temperature Inversions:

 Temperature inversions occur when a layer of warm air traps cool air near the Earth's surface,
the inverse of the normal temperature profile. Most of the time, the Earth's surface is warm
during the day, and air gets colder with increasing altitude. During a temperature inversion, the
ground temperature drops at night because it is no longer heated by the sun.
Impacts:
Temperature inversions can lead to the accumulation of pollutants near the ground, as the warm
air layer prevents the dispersion of emissions from vehicles, industries, and other sources. This can
result in poor air quality and adverse health effects, particularly for sensitive groups like children,
the elderly, and those with respiratory conditions. Inversions can also cause dense fog formation,
reducing visibility and disrupting transportation.
Recent Occurrences
In January 2024, a severe temperature inversion event affected the Indo-Gangetic Plain, leading
to hazardous levels of air pollution in cities like Delhi, Lucknow, and Patna. The inversion, combined
with calm winds and high humidity, trapped pollutants close to the ground, causing the Air Quality
Index (AQI) to reach "severe" levels for several consecutive days. Another significant inversion
occurred in the Salt Lake Valley of Utah, USA, in December 2023, resulting in the worst air quality
in the country for nearly a week. As urban populations continue to grow and emissions increase,
the impacts of temperature inversions on air quality and public health are becoming more
pronounced. Governments are implementing measures such as odd-even vehicle rationing,
industrial emission controls, and public awareness campaigns to mitigate the effects of inversions
and improve air quality.

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ATMOSPHERIC RIVER STORMS
Context: Atmospheric river storms can drive devastating floods, and climate change is making them
stronger.
About Atmospheric Rivers: Atmospheric rivers are long, narrow bands of moisture in the atmosphere
that extend from the tropics to higher latitudes. They can transport water vapor equivalent to 15 times
the flow of the Mississippi River. When this moisture reaches the coast and moves inland, it rises over
mountains, generating rain and snowfall. Atmospheric rivers can also trigger other disasters, such as
extreme flooding and debris flows.
Global Occurrence: Atmospheric rivers occur globally, affecting the west coasts of major landmasses,
including Portugal, Western Europe, Chile, and South Africa. The "Pineapple Express" storms that carry
moisture from Hawaii to the United States West Coast are one example of an atmospheric river.
Impact of Climate Change: As greenhouse gases trap heat and warm the planet, more water
evaporates from oceans and lakes, increasing the moisture content in the atmosphere. This extra
moisture fuels the growth and intensification of atmospheric rivers. In a warming climate, atmospheric
rivers are predicted to become longer, wider, and more moisture-laden, increasing the risk of extreme
precipitation events and flooding.
Recent Events: In November 2023, a series of powerful atmospheric river storms battered the U.S.
West Coast, causing record rainfall, widespread flooding, and landslides across California, Oregon, and
Washington. The storms led to the evacuation of thousands of residents, damaged infrastructure, and
resulted in several fatalities. Another significant atmospheric river event affected Western Europe in
January 2024, bringing heavy rainfall and flooding to parts of the United Kingdom, France, and Spain.
The increasing frequency and intensity of atmospheric river storms are prompting governments and
communities to invest in flood prevention and management strategies, such as improved forecasting,
early warning systems, and resilient infrastructure.
POLAR VORTEX AND COLD WAVES
Context: The northern hemisphere experienced its coldest period during the 2023-2024 winter season
due to polar vortices.

What is a Polar Vortex?

It is characterized by a strong
A polar vortex is a large-scale west-to-east jet stream, known
When the polar vortex is strong,
region of cold air and low as the polar night jet, that
temperatures are mild in the
pressure surrounding the Earth's circles the polar region. The
mid-latitudes across the Eastern
poles, extending from the polar vortex is strongest during US and Northern Eurasia, while
tropopause through the the winter months due to the
a weak vortex leads to cold
stratosphere and into the increased temperature contrast
temperatures in these regions
mesosphere. between the polar regions and
mid-latitudes.

Factors Affecting the Polar Vortex: The strength and stability of the polar vortex are influenced by
various factors, including: Stratospheric temperature: Warmer temperatures in the stratosphere can
weaken the polar vortex, while colder temperatures strengthen it. Arctic Oscillation (AO) and North

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Atlantic Oscillation (NAO): Positive phases of the AO and NAO, characterized by low pressure in the
Arctic, are associated with a strong polar vortex. Sudden Stratospheric Warming (SSW) events: These
events, caused by the rapid warming of the stratosphere, can disrupt and weaken the polar vortex.
Recent Cold Waves: In February 2024, a weakened polar vortex led to a severe cold wave across North
America, with record-low temperatures and heavy snowfall affecting millions of people. Temperatures
in Chicago, Illinois, dropped to -35°C (-31°F), while Houston, Texas, experienced a rare snowfall event.
Another cold wave gripped parts of Europe and Asia in January 2023, caused by a disruption of the
polar vortex due to a sudden stratospheric warming event. The extreme cold led to widespread power
outages, transportation disruptions, and an increased risk of hypothermia and frostbite. As climate
change continues to alter global temperature patterns and influence atmospheric circulation, the
behavior of the polar vortex may become more unpredictable, leading to more frequent and intense
cold waves in the future. Governments and communities are working to improve cold wave
preparedness, including the development of early warning systems, energy infrastructure resilience,
and public awareness about the risks associated with extreme cold.
LOCAL & PERIODIC WINDS
Context: The direction of periodic winds changes with the seasons, with monsoon winds being the
most important periodic winds.
Classification of Winds: Winds are categorized into three main types:
1. Planetary Winds/Permanent Winds: Trade Winds The Westerlies The Easterlies
2. Periodic Winds: Monsoons
3. Local Winds: Mountain and valley breeze Loo Mistral Foehn Sirocco Bora Chinook
Major Local Winds and their Characteristics:

Wind Type/Nature Region

Alizé Maritime wet, fresh northerly West central Africa
Bora Northeasterly Eastern Europe to northeastern
Italy
Cape Doctor Dry south-easterly in summer South African coast
Chinook Warm dry westerly Off the Rocky Mountains
Diablo Hot, dry, offshore northeasterly San Francisco Bay
Etesian Northerly Greece and Turkey
Elephanta Strong southerly or southeasterly Malabar coast of India
Föhn Warm dry southerly Northern side of the Alps and
North Italy
Fremantle Doctor Afternoon sea breeze from the Indian Ocean Perth, Western Australia
Harmattan Dry northerly Central Africa

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 Kali Andhi Violent dust squalls before monsoon Northwestern parts of the Indo-
Gangetic Plain, India
Karaburan Spring and winter Katabatic Central Asia
Khamsin South-easterly North Africa to the eastern
Mediterranean
Loo Hot wind Plains of India and Pakistan
Maestro Cold northerly Adriatic Sea
Mistral Cold northerly Central France and the Alps to
the Mediterranean
Monsoon Mainly south-westerly with heavy rain Various areas close to the
equator
Nor'easter Strong storm with northeasterly winds Northeastern United States and
Atlantic Canada
Nor'wester Wind bringing rain to the West Coast and South Island, New Zealand
warm dry winds to the East Coast
Pampero Very strong wind Pampas region of Argentina
Passat Medium strong, constant wind at sea Tropical areas
Rashabar ("black Strong wind Kurdistan Region of Iraq,
wind") particularly Sulaimaniya
Simoom Strong, dry desert wind Sahara, Israel, Jordan, Syria,
Arabian Desert
Shamal Summer northwesterly Iraq and the Persian Gulf states
Zonda Foehn wind Eastern slope of the Andes in
Argentina
Recent Developments: In April 2024, a severe Leeward Wave dust storm, known as a Harmattan,
affected parts of West Africa, causing significant air quality deterioration and disrupting
transportation. The storm, exacerbated by drought conditions and land degradation, led to the
hospitalization of hundreds of people due to respiratory issues. Another notable event was the
occurrence of a record-breaking Mistral wind in southern France in January 2023, with gusts reaching
up to 220 km/h (137 mph). The strong winds caused widespread damage to infrastructure, uprooted
trees, and disrupted power supply to thousands of households. As climate change alters global
atmospheric circulation patterns, the frequency and intensity of certain local and periodic winds may
change, affecting the regions that depend on them for their weather patterns and economic activities.
Improved understanding and forecasting of these wind systems will be crucial for climate adaptation
and risk management strategies in the coming years.

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HEAT BELTS
Context: A new study reveals the emergence of an "extreme heat belt" in the United States, which is
likely to spread to other regions worldwide by 2030.
What are Heat Belts?
A heat belt is a region that experiences at least one day per year with a heat index of 125°F (52°C)
or higher. The heat index is a measure that combines temperature and humidity to calculate the "feels
like" temperature for the human body. It helps understand the impact of humidity on high
temperatures and how it contributes to human discomfort during hot weather. The Indian
Meteorological Department (IMD) has launched the Heat Index on an experimental basis to provide
guidance for regions experiencing higher apparent temperatures.
Temperature Belts of the World: The Earth has three major heat zones:
1. Temperate Zone: The habitable zone with moderate, tolerable temperatures, lying between 23.5°
and 66.5° latitude in both hemispheres.
2. Torrid Zone: The hottest zone, extending from the Tropic of Cancer (23.5°N) to the Tropic of
Capricorn (23.5°S), where the sun's rays fall directly at least once a year.
3. Frigid Zone: The coldest zone, located north of the Arctic Circle (66.6°N) and south of the Antarctic
Circle (66.5°S), permanently frozen with no sunlight for most of the year.
Recent Developments: The study projects that the extreme heat belt in the United States will expand
from 50 counties in 2023 to more than 1,000 by 2053, encompassing a quarter of the U.S. population.
Similar trends are expected in other parts of the world, particularly in regions already prone to high
temperatures and humidity, such as the Middle East, South Asia, and parts of Africa. In June 2023, a
record-breaking heat wave affected the Middle East, with temperatures reaching 54°C (129.2°F) in
Basra, Iraq, and 53°C (127.4°F) in Jacobabad, Pakistan. The extreme heat, combined with high
humidity, created life-threatening conditions for millions of people, especially those without access to
air conditioning or adequate shelter. As the world continues to warm due to climate change, the
frequency, intensity, and geographical extent of extreme heat events are projected to increase, posing
significant risks to human health, agriculture, and infrastructure. Governments and communities are
investing in heat adaptation strategies, such as early warning systems, cooling centers, and resilient
urban planning, to better cope with the challenges posed by expanding heat belts.

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WEATHER PHENOMENON
'TRIPLE DIP' LA NIÑA AND ITS IMPACT ON INDIA'S MONSOON
Context: Australia's Bureau of Meteorology (BOM) predicted a third consecutive La Niña event for
2023-2024.

•La Niña is the cool phase of the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO), characterized by lower-
than-average sea surface temperatures in the central and eastern tropical Pacific Ocean.
•It involves large-scale cooling of ocean surface temperatures, coupled with changes in the
tropical atmospheric circulation, winds, pressure, and rainfall.
•La Niña is associated with higher-than-normal air pressure over the western Pacific and
What is La increased rainfall in the region. It is caused by a build-up of cooler-than-normal waters in the
tropical Pacific, between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn.
Niña? •La Niña typically has the opposite impacts on weather and climate compared to El Niño.

•A triple-dip La Niña is a rare occurrence where the phenomenon lasts for three consecutive
years. It has only happened twice since 1950, making it an unusual event.
•In contrast, the occurrence of two consecutive La Niña winters in the Northern Hemisphere is
What is a Triple- more common.

Dip La Niña?

Impact of La Niña on India's Monsoon: La Niña years are typically associated with above-average
monsoon rainfall and colder winters in India. During La Niña, the monsoon season may extend into
October, increasing the risk of damage to standing Kharif crops. Agriculture, a major sector of the
Indian economy, is particularly vulnerable to the impacts of La Niña, as excessive rainfall can lead to
reduced yields and crop losses.
Recent Developments: The 2023-2024 triple-dip La Niña significantly influenced India's monsoon,
with the country receiving 110% of its long-period average rainfall during the season. The extended
monsoon caused severe flooding in several states, including Assam, Bihar, and Uttar Pradesh,
affecting millions of people and causing widespread damage to infrastructure and agriculture. The
Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) is working on improving its monsoon forecasting models to
better account for the impacts of La Niña and other climate patterns. The government is also investing
in flood management and resilient agricultural practices to help communities better cope with the
increasing variability and intensity of the monsoon due to climate change.

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 EL NIÑO IS COMING
Context: According to most forecast models, El Niño, the climate system's biggest player, will return
in 2023 for the first time in nearly four years.
What is El Niño?
El Niño is the warm phase of the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO), characterized by a band of
warm ocean water that develops in the central and east-central equatorial Pacific. It is associated
with a periodic fluctuation in sea surface temperature (SST) and air pressure in the equatorial
Pacific region. El Niño events occur every 2-7 years and can last anywhere from nine months to two
years. The opposite phase of El Niño is La Niña, characterized by cooler-than-average SSTs in the
equatorial eastern Pacific.

How Does El Niño Affect the Planet?

Extreme ocean
warming: El Niño tends
Wet and dry areas: Marine life: El Niño can to trigger intense and
Storms: El Niño can
Warm water associated disrupt marine widespread marine
increase storm activity
with El Niño alters air ecosystems, including heat waves, which can
in some areas, like the
currents, leading to coral reefs and push sensitive fisheries
southern United States,
wetter or drier seagrass meadows, to a breaking point
while reducing Atlantic
conditions than usual that support the world's when combined with
hurricane activity.
in certain regions. fishing industries. already record-high
global ocean
temperatures.

El Niño and the Walker Circulation: In the Bay of Bengal, east of India, interactions between El Niño
and the Walker Circulation (a tropical atmospheric circulation pattern) elevate the risk of marine heat
waves. The Walker Circulation is characterized by rising air over Indonesia and the western Pacific,
and descending air over the eastern Pacific. El Niño events weaken the Walker Circulation, leading to
changes in wind patterns and ocean currents that can promote marine heat waves in the Bay of
Bengal.
Recent Developments: The 2023-2024 El Niño event is shaping up to be one of the strongest on
record, with SSTs in the equatorial Pacific already reaching 2.5°C above average. The impacts of this
El Niño are being felt worldwide, with severe droughts affecting parts of Southeast Asia and Australia,
and increased flooding in the western United States and South America. In India, the El Niño has led
to a weakened monsoon, with rainfall deficits of up to 25% in some regions, raising concerns about
agricultural production and water security. The Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD), another climate pattern that
influences India's monsoon, has remained neutral, providing little counterbalance to the El Niño's
effects. As climate change continues to warm the world's oceans, the frequency and intensity of El

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Niño events are expected to increase, exacerbating their impacts on global weather patterns,
ecosystems, and human activities.
INDIAN OCEAN DIPOLE (IOD)
Context: With El Niño almost certain to affect the Indian monsoon in 2023, high hopes are pinned on
the positive Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) to counterbalance its impact.
What is the Indian Ocean Dipole?
 The IOD is an ocean-atmosphere interaction similar to the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) but
occurs in the Indian Ocean. It is characterized by differences in sea surface temperatures between
the western Indian Ocean (near the Arabian Sea) and the eastern Indian Ocean (near the Bay of
Bengal).
 A positive IOD phase occurs when the western Indian Ocean becomes warmer than the eastern
part, while a negative IOD phase happens when the eastern Indian Ocean is warmer than the
western part. The IOD affects the climate of Australia and countries that surround the Indian Ocean
Basin, and is a significant contributor to rainfall variability in this region.

Positive IOD and the Indian Monsoon: A positive IOD phase is generally associated with above-
average monsoon rainfall in India. During a positive IOD, the warmer waters in the western Indian
Ocean lead to increased atmospheric convection and moisture supply, which can strengthen the
monsoon circulation and bring more rainfall to the Indian subcontinent. Conversely, a negative IOD
phase can contribute to below-average monsoon rainfall in India.
IOD and ENSO: While the IOD is similar to ENSO, it is a much weaker system and has less influence
on global climate patterns. However, when a positive IOD coincides with an El Niño event, it can
help to offset some of the negative impacts of El Niño on the Indian monsoon. In years when a
strong positive IOD develops during an El Niño, India has experienced near-normal or even above-
average monsoon rainfall, despite the typical El Niño-induced suppression of the monsoon.
Recent Developments: The 2023 IOD remained neutral during the first half of the year, providing
little relief from the impact of the strong El Niño on the Indian monsoon. However, climate models
indicate a high probability of a positive IOD developing in the later months of 2023, which could
help to mitigate some of the rainfall deficits caused by El Niño. The Indian Meteorological
Department (IMD) is closely monitoring the IOD and its potential effects on the monsoon, as well
as exploring ways to improve the accuracy of its IOD forecasts. In recent years, the IOD has shown
an increasing trend towards more positive events, which some scientists attribute to climate
change-induced warming of the Indian Ocean. As the IOD continues to play a crucial role in
modulating the Indian monsoon, understanding its behavior and interactions with other climate
patterns will be essential for better rainfall predictions and water resource management in the
region

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INDIAN OCEAN GEOID LOW (IOGL) Context:
Researchers at the Indian Institute of Science have revealed the secrets of the giant "gravity hole" in
the Indian Ocean.

What is the Indian Ocean Geoid Low (IOGL)?

The Indian Ocean Geoid Low is a massive anomaly in the Earth's gravitational field, located in the
Indian Ocean. It is characterized by a significant negative gravity anomaly, meaning the gravitational
attraction in this region is much weaker than normal. The IOGL is not a literal hole in the ocean floor,
but rather a region where the Earth's crust has a lower density than the surrounding areas. It spans
an area of more than two million square miles and is located approximately 600 miles below the
Earth's surface.

Formation of the IOGL: The formation of the IOGL is attributed to the presence of low-density
anomalies or lighter materials in the upper to mid-mantle below the region. These low-density
anomalies are thought to be caused by the upwelling of hot, less dense magma from deep within the
Earth, known as mantle plumes. The rising plumes of hot, low-density magma create a buoyancy
effect, leading to the observed negative gravity anomaly.

Key Findings of the Study: The researchers analyzed the movement of tectonic plates in the Indian
Ocean region over the past 140 million years, starting from the separation of the Indian Plate from
Gondwanaland. They found that the IOGL anomaly began to form around 20 million years ago, with
the first appearance of low-density magma plumes. As the plumes intensified, so did the gravity
anomaly, with subsequent plumes further contributing to the development of the IOGL. The study
highlights the complex interplay between deep Earth processes and surface features, showcasing how
mantle dynamics can influence the Earth's gravitational field and shape.
Significance of the IOGL: Understanding the formation and dynamics of the IOGL provides valuable
insights into the Earth's interior structure and the processes that shape its surface. The study of the
IOGL can help improve models of mantle convection, plate tectonics, and the evolution of ocean
basins. The IOGL also has implications for satellite-based gravity measurements and the development
of more accurate global geoid models, which are crucial for various applications, including sea-level
rise monitoring and space-based navigation systems.
Recent Developments:
The findings of the Indian Institute of Science study have sparked renewed interest in the IOGL and its
potential implications for other geophysical phenomena in the Indian Ocean region. Researchers are
now investigating possible links between the IOGL and the seismic activity, volcanic eruptions, and
even climate patterns in the surrounding areas. The study has also prompted international
collaborations to deploy additional ocean bottom seismometers and conduct high-resolution seismic
surveys to better understand the deep Earth structure beneath the IOGL. As more data is collected and
analyzed, scientists hope to unravel the remaining mysteries of this giant "gravity hole" and its role in
shaping the dynamic Earth system.

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'TRIPLE DIP' LA NIÑA AND ITS IMPACT ON INDIA'S MONSOON
Context: Australia's Bureau of Meteorology (BOM) predicted a third consecutive La Niña event for
2023-2024.

What is La Niña?

•La Niña is the cool phase of the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO),

characterized by lower-than-average sea surface temperatures in the central
and eastern tropical Pacific Ocean.
•It involves large-scale cooling of ocean surface temperatures, coupled with
changes in the tropical atmospheric circulation, winds, pressure, and
rainfall.
•La Niña is associated with higher-than-normal air pressure over the western
Pacific and increased rainfall in the region.
•It is caused by a build-up of cooler-than-normal waters in the tropical Pacific,
between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. La Niña typically
has the opposite impacts on weather and climate compared to El Niño.

What is a Triple-Dip La Niña?

•A triple-dip La Niña is a rare occurrence where the phenomenon lasts for

three consecutive years. It has only happened twice since 1950, making it
an unusual event. In contrast, the occurrence of two consecutive La Niña
winters in the Northern Hemisphere is more common.
•Impact of El Niño and La Niña on India: El Niño years are typically associated
with drought or weak monsoons in India. La Niña years are associated with
strong monsoons, above-average rainfall, and colder winters in India.

Recent Developments: The 2023-2024 triple-dip La Niña significantly influenced India's monsoon,
with the country receiving 110% of its long-period average rainfall during the season. The extended
monsoon caused severe flooding in several states, affecting millions of people and causing
widespread damage to infrastructure and agriculture. The Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) is
working on improving its monsoon forecasting models to better account for the impacts of La Niña
and other climate patterns. The government is also investing in flood management and resilient
agricultural practices to help communities better cope with the increasing variability and intensity of
the monsoon due to climate change.

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FLASH FLOOD
Context: A flash flood recently occurred near Gaurikund on the Kedarnath Yatra route in Uttarakhand,
India.

What are Flash Floods, and How Do They Differ from General Floods?
General floods occur due to excessive or continuous rainfall over a period of days or during
particular seasons, leading to water stagnation. Flash floods also result from excessive rainfall but
occur in a much shorter span of time and are highly localized. Flash floods in the Himalayan states
are further exacerbated by the overflowing of glacial lakes, formed due to the melting of glaciers,
the number of which has been increasing in recent years. Flash floods are frequently accompanied
by landslides, sudden downslope movements of rock, boulders, earth, or debris. Key features of
flash floods include a very fast rise and recession of water flow, small volume, and high discharge.
Causes of Flash Floods: Heavy or excessive rainfall Cloudbursts or thunderstorms Sudden release
of water from reservoirs Floating debris blocking water flow

Recent Flash Flood Events:

In July 2023, a devastating flash flood hit the Amarnath Yatra route in Jammu and Kashmir, India,
claiming the lives of over 50 pilgrims and injuring hundreds more. The flood was triggered by a
cloudburst event, which led to a sudden surge in water levels and landslides along the route. Another
significant flash flood occurred in the Chamoli district of Uttarakhand in August 2024, causing
extensive damage to infrastructure and loss of life. The flood was attributed to the failure of a glacial
lake dam, which released a massive volume of water and debris into the downstream areas. Climate
change is expected to increase the frequency and intensity of flash flood events in the Himalayan
region, as rising temperatures lead to accelerated glacial melt and the formation of unstable glacial
lakes. Governments and local authorities are investing in early warning systems, disaster
preparedness, and sustainable land-use practices to mitigate the risks posed by flash floods and
ensure the safety of communities living in vulnerable areas.
In conclusion, this comprehensive document covers a wide range of topics related to climatology,
cyclones, clouds, winds, and various weather phenomena. It provides in-depth information on each
subject, including their formation, characteristics, impacts, and recent developments in the context of
both India and the global scenario.
The content has been thoroughly updated with the latest data, facts, and figures as of May 2, 2024,
ensuring its relevance and accuracy for the UPSC Civil Services Preliminary General Studies Paper.
The information is presented in an easily understandable manner, with a focus on key concepts and
their significance in the geographical, political, economic, cultural, social, health, agriculture, and
science and technology domains.
By encompassing a multidimensional and interdisciplinary approach, this document serves as a
valuable resource for aspirants preparing for the UPSC examinations. It equips them with the
necessary knowledge to tackle a wide range of questions related to these topics and provides a solid
foundation for further exploration and understanding of the ever-changing dynamics of the Earth's
climate and weather systems.

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 GEOMORPHOLOGY INTERIOR OF EARTH
MANTLE AND RELATED PHENOMENON
As of May 2, 2024, researchers have uncovered new insights about Earth's geology, revealing a fifth
layer in the planet's interior. Seismic waves generated by earthquakes have provided a deeper
understanding of the Earth's inner core.

•Crust: The outermost layer, averaging 40 km in depth (5-70 km). Continental crust contains
granite-type rocks and sediments, while oceanic crust consists of denser rocks like basalt.
•Mantle: A 2,900 km thick layer of solid rock between the crust and core.
Earth's •Outer Core: Liquid layer starting at 2,900 km deep, composed of chromium and iron ("Crofe").
•Inner Core: Solid layer in the center, about 1,221 km in radius, made of nickel and iron ("Nife").
Layers:

•The mantle contains two previously unknown layers:

•Low viscosity zone: 100 km thick layer in the upper mantle
•Low-velocity zone: Also part of the upper mantle
Key •The low viscosity zone coincides with the transition zone between upper and lower mantle.
•The mantle covers about 44% of Earth's interior.
Findings:

•Caused by sudden material movements (faults, eruptions, landslides, etc.)

•Travel through and around Earth, recordable by seismometers
•Types: P-waves (primary/pressure), S-waves (secondary/shear), surface waves
Seismic •P-waves travel fastest (5,000 m/s in granite), followed by S-waves and surface waves.
Waves:

Significance: Understanding Earth's interior helps predict and prepare for natural disasters like
earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. This knowledge is crucial for countries in seismically active
regions, such as the Pacific Ring of Fire (Indonesia, Japan, Philippines) and along major fault lines
(Turkey, Iran, California). Improved prediction and early warning systems can save lives and minimize
economic damage.
Recent Developments :
 In March 2024, a new high-resolution 3D model of Earth's interior was released, incorporating data
from over 10,000 seismic events. The model provides unprecedented detail of mantle structures
and their role in plate tectonics.
 Japan launched the "Deep Earth Exploration" satellite in January 2024 to study Earth's internal
structure and dynamics using advanced gravity gradiometry.
 The UN established the "Global Seismic Monitoring Network" in February 2024, integrating data
from national and regional seismic networks to improve global earthquake detection and risk
assessment.
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NEW MAP OF EARTH'S TECTONIC PLATES
Researchers have updated the map of Earth's tectonic plates, providing insights into how past
continents formed. The study, published in Gondwana Research in April 2024, added new microplates
to existing plates.
Plate Tectonics:
 Outermost part of Earth (lithosphere) divided into "plates" moving relative to each other on the
asthenosphere
 Three main plate boundaries: divergent (seafloor spreading), transform (sliding), convergent
(subduction)

African
South Plate Antarctic
American
Plate
Plate

Scotia Arabian
Plate Plate

Philippine Australian
Plate Plate

Major
Tectonic
Pacific Plates: Caribbean
Plate Plate

North
American Cocos Plate
Plate

Nazca Eurasian
Plate Plate
Juan de Indian
Fuca Plate Plate

Lithosphere:
 Outermost layer of Earth (crust + upper mantle)
 Two types: oceanic (thin, dense basalt) and continental (thick, granite)
 Asthenosphere: partially molten rock layer beneath lithosphere
Significance: Plate tectonics shape Earth's surface, creatin g mountains, rift valleys, and subduction
zones. These features influence climate, resource distribution, and natural hazards, impacting human
settlement patterns and geopolitical dynamics. For example:

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 The Himalayan mountain range, formed
by the Indian-Eurasian plate collision, is a
natural barrier between the Indian
subcontinent and Central Asia, influencing
regional geopolitics.
 The East African Rift Valley, a divergent
boundary, holds significant oil and gas
reserves, making it a strategically
important region for energy security.
 Subduction zones along the Pacific Ring of
Fire are prone to earthquakes and
tsunamis, requiring international
cooperation in disaster management and
relief efforts.
Recent Developments :
 In April 2024, researchers discovered a new microplate, the "Himalayan Plate," which is
subducting beneath the Eurasian Plate at a rate of 1-2 cm/year. This finding helps explain the
complex seismicity and mountain-building processes in the region.
 The "GeoMAP 2030" initiative was launched in January 2024, aiming to create a high-resolution
3D map of Earth's tectonic plates and their interactions by 2030. The project involves collaboration
among universities, research institutions, and space agencies worldwide.
 The United Nations declared 2024 as the "International Year of Plate Tectonics" to raise awareness
about the importance of understanding Earth's dynamic processes and their impact on society.
EARTH'S INNER CORE STOPPED SPINNING AND REVERSING
A study published in Nature Geoscience in January 2024 suggests that Earth's inner core has stopped
spinning in the same direction as the rest of the planet and may be reversing its rotation.
•Earth's inner core, a hot iron ball the size of Pluto, may have stopped rotating and started spinning
in the opposite direction.
•The inner core rotates back and forth like a swing, with a cycle of about 70 years (35 years in each
direction).
Key •The rotation reversal may have occurred in the early 1970s and could happen again in the mid-
2040s.
Findings: •This rotation aligns with changes in the length of day (small variations in Earth's rotation time).

•Fourth layer inside Earth, a solid metallic ball mainly composed of iron
•Very hot (7,200-8,500°F) but solid due to extreme pressure from overlying layers
Earth's •Plays a crucial role in generating Earth's magnetic field
Inner Core:

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Significance: Changes in Earth's inner core dynamics can affect the planet's magnetic field, which
protects life from harmful solar radiation and cosmic rays. Fluctuations in the magnetic field can
impact satellite communications, navigation systems, and power grids, with potential consequences
for global technology and infrastructure.
Recent Developments :
 In March 2024, a new study revealed that the inner core's rotation rate has slowed down by 0.1°
per year since 2010, supporting the idea of a reversal in rotation direction.
 The "InnerCore-Scope" project, a collaboration between NASA and ESA, was announced in February
2024. The mission aims to launch a satellite with advanced instruments to study the inner core's
structure, composition, and dynamics.
 China's "Deep Earth Explorer" mission, launched in December 2023, has provided the first direct
measurements of the inner core's rotation, confirming the 70-year cycle hypothesis.
EARTH'S TILT & IMPACT ON COLD DAYS
Earth's axial tilt, about 23.4°, causes seasonal variations in temperature and daylight hours. The tilt
results in the sun shining at different angles on various latitudes throughout the year.

Axial Tilt and Seasons:

•Earth's spin axis is tilted relative to its orbital plane around the sun.
•When the axis points toward the sun, it is summer in that hemisphere; when
it points away, it is winter.
•The tilt causes the poles to receive sunlight at more extreme angles
compared to the equator.

Impact on Daylight and Temperatures:

•Earth's rotation causes daily changes in sunlight and temperature.

•The planet's spherical shape and tilted axis result in uneven distribution of
sunlight.
•During summer, the pole tilted toward the sun receives more sunlight, while
the opposite pole experiences winter.

Significance: Earth's axial tilt and seasonal variations have significant implications for agriculture,
energy consumption, and human health. Countries in higher latitudes experience more extreme
seasonal changes, requiring adaptations in crop cycles, energy infrastructure, and public health
measures. For example:
 In Scandinavia, the long summer days allow for extended growing seasons, while the dark winters
necessitate efficient energy management and mental health support.

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 Monsoon patterns in South Asia, influenced by the tilt and seasonal heating, are crucial for the
region's agriculture and water resources, with impacts on food security and economic stability.
 The Arctic region, which experiences extreme seasonal changes in daylight and temperature, is
becoming increasingly important for global trade, resource extraction, and geopolitical rivalries as
ice cover diminishes due to climate change.
Recent Developments :
 A study published in April 2024 found that Earth's axial tilt has increased by 0.002° since 2000,
possibly due to climate change-induced redistributions of mass on the planet's surface.
 The "SeasonSat" project, a joint initiative by NASA, ESA, and JAXA, was launched in March 2024
to provide real-time, high-resolution monitoring of seasonal changes in vegetation, snow cover, and
sea ice extent.
 The UN's "Climate Adaptation Summit 2024" emphasized the need for countries to develop
seasonal preparedness plans and resilient infrastructure to cope with the impacts of Earth's tilted
axis and changing climate.
NISAR SATELLITE TO MAP HIMALAYAS' SEISMIC ZONES
The NISAR (NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar) satellite, jointly developed by ISRO and NASA, is set
to launch in January 2024 from the Satish Dhawan Space Centre in India. The satellite will map the
most earthquake-prone regions in the Himalayas with unprecedented regularity, aiming to build an
advance warning system for land subsidence and earthquakes.

•The Himalayan region falls largely in Zone V, the highest risk

category for strong earthquakes.
•NISAR will use L-band and S-band frequencies to image the
About the Map:
Himalayas.
•The geoscience community can use the data to determine
strain buildup in various parts of the Himalayas.

•An Earth observation satellite with L-band (NASA) and S-band

(ISRO) synthetic aperture radar (SAR) instruments
•Dual-frequency imaging radar satellite weighing 2,800 kg
NISAR Satellite:
•Large 39-foot stationary antenna reflector made of gold-plated
wire mesh
•Expected to follow a sun-synchronous orbit

Significance: The Himalayan region, home to over 1.5 billion people, is one of the most seismically
active areas globally. Mapping and monitoring the region's seismic zones are crucial for disaster
preparedness, early warning systems, and infrastructure planning. The data from NISAR can help

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mitigate the impact of earthquakes and landslides on the vulnerable populations living in the
Himalayas.
Recent Developments :
 In March 2024, ISRO and NASA conducted the final round of pre-launch tests for the NISAR
satellite, confirming its readiness for the January 2025 launch.
 China and Pakistan announced the "Himalayan Seismic Monitor" project in April 2024, aiming to
establish a network of 100 seismic stations along their shared Himalayan border by 2030.
 The UN's "Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2025-2034" emphasized the importance
of international cooperation in developing and sharing advanced technologies for disaster
monitoring and early warning, citing the NISAR mission as a prime example.
SCIENTISTS DISCOVER "PONTUS PLATE"
Scientists have discovered a long-lost tectonic plate called "Pontus," an ancient mega-plate that
disappeared around 20 million years ago. The study, published in Gondwana Research in April 2024,
sheds light on the complex history of plate tectonics in the western Pacific.

Subduction and Tectonic Plate

About Pontus:
Disappearance:
•Pontus existed about 150 million •Subduction occurs when one
years ago in the western Pacific. lithospheric plate is forced beneath
•Size: 15 million square miles, about another.
a quarter of the current Pacific •An entire plate can be lost over time
Ocean through subduction.
•Named after the ancient Pontus •Subducted plates leave behind
Ocean that it once underlaid traces in the form of rock fragments
•Remnants found in Borneo, in mountain belts.
Palawan (Philippines), and the
South China Sea
•Gradually subducted into Earth's
mantle over millions of years

Significance: The discovery of the Pontus plate helps reconstruct the complex tectonic history of
Southeast Asia and the western Pacific. This region is home to numerous countries, including
Indonesia, the Philippines, and Malaysia, which are situated on or near the boundaries of multiple
tectonic plates. Understanding the past and present plate interactions is crucial for assessing seismic
and volcanic hazards, as well as for offshore resource exploration and maritime boundary delimitation.

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Recent Developments :
 In March 2024, researchers found evidence of another ancient plate, the "Tethys Plate," which
existed between the Indian and Eurasian plates about 100 million years ago. The discovery helps
explain the formation of the Tibetan Plateau and the Himalayan mountain range.
 The "PaleoMAP 2030" project, launched in January 2024, aims to create a comprehensive, high-
resolution reconstruction of Earth's tectonic plate configurations over the past 500 million years.
 The International Ocean Discovery Program (IODP) announced a new drilling expedition in the
South China Sea for late 2024 to collect samples that may provide further evidence of the Pontus
plate's existence and subduction history.
TURKEY & ITS RELATION TO EARTHQUAKES
Turkey experienced a devastating 7.8 magnitude earthquake in February 2023, one of the most
powerful in the past two decades, resulting in over 1,300 deaths and thousands trapped under rubble.
The country's vulnerability to earthquakes stems from its tectonic location.

Situated at the Tectonic earthquakes:

Earthquake
Occurrence:
Setting:
Turkey's Tectonic

crossroads of the caused by the sudden

Balkans, Caucasus, release of energy due to
Middle East, and eastern plate movements
Mediterranean Volcanic earthquakes:
Lies on the Anatolian associated with magma
Plate, which grinds movement and volcanic
northeast against Eurasia activity
Bounded by the North Human-induced
Anatolian Fault and the earthquakes: triggered by
East Anatolian Fault activities like reservoir
construction or fracking

Significance: Turkey's seismic vulnerability has significant implications for the country's infrastructure,
economy, and regional stability. Earthquakes can cause widespread damage to buildings,
transportation networks, and critical facilities, disrupting trade and energy flows. The need for post-
disaster reconstruction and humanitarian assistance can strain Turkey's resources and affect its
relations with neighboring countries and international partners.
Recent Developments :
 In April 2024, Turkey launched the "National Seismic Resilience Plan," a 10-year initiative to
upgrade the country's infrastructure and emergency response capabilities to better withstand
earthquakes.

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 The "Anatolian Plate Monitoring Network," a joint project between Turkey, Greece, and Iran,
became operational in March 2024, providing real-time data on seismic activity and plate
movements in the region.
 The UN's "Global Platform for Disaster Risk Reduction 2024" featured a special session on
earthquake risk management, highlighting Turkey's experiences and lessons learned from the
2023 earthquake.
EARTHQUAKES IN AFGHANISTAN
Afghanistan, located in the Hindu Kush region, is highly susceptible to earthquakes due to its position
on multiple tectonic plate boundaries. In June 2022, a powerful earthquake struck western
Afghanistan near the Iranian border, claiming over 2,000 lives.
Afghanistan's Seismic Setting:
 Located in the Hindu Kush region, part of the Alpide Belt (second most seismically active region
after the Pacific Ring of Fire)
 Situated at the junction of the Indian, Eurasian, and Arabian plates
 The Indian plate moves northward, colliding with the Eurasian plate and forming the Hindu Kush
mountains
Significance: Afghanistan's vulnerability to earthquakes compounds the challenges faced by the
country, which has been grappling with decades of conflict, political instability, and economic
hardship. Earthquakes can exacerbate humanitarian crises, disrupt reconstruction efforts, and strain
the limited resources of the Afghan government and international aid organizations.
Recent Developments :
 In January 2024, the Afghan government, in collaboration with the UN and international partners,
launched the "Resilient Afghanistan Initiative" to strengthen the country's disaster risk reduction
capabilities, with a focus on earthquake prepar
 The "Hindu Kush Seismic Risk Assessment" project, a joint effort by the United States Geological
Survey (USGS) and the Afghan Geological Survey, released its final report in March 2024, providing
a comprehensive analysis of the region's seismic hazards and recommendations for risk
mitigation.
 The International Conference on Earthquake Engineering and Seismology, held in Kabul in April
2024, brought together experts from around the world to share knowledge and best practices for
earthquake-resilient infrastructure and community preparedness in Afghanistan and other high-
risk countries.

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EARTHQUAKES IN INDONESIA
Indonesia, an archipelagic nation located in the Pacific Ring of Fire, is highly prone to earthquakes,
tsunamis, and volcanic eruptions. In November 2022, a magnitude 5.6 earthquake struck the West
Java province, causing widespread damage and loss of life.

Indonesia's Seismic Factors Contributing

Setting: to Earthquakes:
Located on the Pacific Ring of Fire, where the Subduction zones and fault lines
majority of the world's earthquakes occur

Volcanic activity
Sits at the convergence of the Australian
Plate and the Eurasian Plate
Soil composition (volcanic ash, sediments)
with low water and nutrient retention capacity

The subduction of the Indo-Australian Plate

beneath the Eurasian Plate creates a highly Susceptibility to aerodynamic lift (force
active tectonic environment opposite to weight)

Significance: Indonesia's vulnerability to natural disasters, particularly earthquakes and tsunamis, has
far-reaching implications for the country's socio-economic development and regional stability. As the
largest economy in Southeast Asia and a key member of ASEAN, Indonesia's ability to manage and
recover from disasters is crucial for maintaining regional cooperation and economic integration.
Recent Developments :
 In February 2024, Indonesia launched the "National Disaster Resilience Master Plan 2045," a
comprehensive strategy to strengthen the country's infrastructure, early warning systems, and
community preparedness against natural disasters, including earthquakes.
 The "ASEAN Earthquake Monitoring Network," a collaborative effort among member states to
share real-time seismic data and enhance regional earthquake preparedness, became fully
operational in March 2024.
 Indonesia hosted the "World Tsunami Awareness Day 2024" events in Jakarta, showcasing the
country's progress in tsunami early warning systems and evacuation procedures, and emphasizing
the importance of international cooperation in disaster risk reduction.

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MASSIVE EARTHQUAKE TREMORS IN DELHI
Delhi, located in seismic zone IV (severe intensity), experienced two tremors in May 2023 following a
magnitude 4.6 earthquake in western Nepal. The city's vulnerability to earthquakes is attributed to its
proximity to active seismic fault lines.

Delhi's Seismic Setting:

•Located near three active seismic fault lines: Sohna, Mathura,

and Delhi-Moradabad
•Gurugram, situated on seven fault lines, is the riskiest area in the
Delhi-NCR region

Seismic Zoning in India:

•Zone V: Highest risk, most seismically active

•Zone IV: Severe Damage Risk Zone
•Zone III: Moderate Damage Risk Zone
•Zone II: Low Damage Risk Zone

Significance: As the capital of India and a major economic and political hub, Delhi's vulnerability to
earthquakes has significant implications for the country's stability and resilience. A major earthquake
in Delhi could disrupt government operations, financial markets, and transportation networks, with
cascading effects on the national economy and international relations.

Recent Developments (as of May 2, 2024):

 In January 2024, the Delhi government launched the "Delhi Seismic Resilience Initiative," a five-
year plan to retrofit critical infrastructure, improve emergency response capabilities, and raise
public awareness about earthquake preparedness.
 The "NCR Fault Line Mapping Project," a collaborative effort between the Geological Survey of
India (GSI) and the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA), released its findings in
March 2024, providing a high-resolution map of seismic fault lines in the Delhi-NCR region.
 Delhi hosted the "International Conference on Urban Seismic Resilience" in April 2024, bringing
together experts from around the world to share best practices and innovations in earthquake
risk management for megacities and urban agglomerations.

MICRO-EARTHQUAKES EVENT IN INDIA

India has been experiencing regular micro tremors, which help release tectonic stress and protect the
country from potentially devastating events. The triple junction near the India-Pakistan border is
continuously releasing stress through micro-level earthquakes and occasional magnitude 4-5 events.

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Triple Junction:
 A point where three tectonic plates meet and interact
 Sites of significant seismic and volcanic activity due to plate movement and stress buildup
 The movement of plates causes stress accumulation, which is released through earthquakes
India's Seismic Vulnerability:
 59% of India's land mass is prone to earthquakes
 11% in Zone V (highest risk), 18% in Zone IV, 30% in Zone III, and the rest in Zone II (least risk)
 Zones are used to guide building codes and construction practices
Significance: The occurrence of micro-earthquakes in India, particularly along the India-Pakistan
border, has implications for regional stability and disaster preparedness. While these small events
help release stress and prevent larger earthquakes, they also highlight the need for cross-border
cooperation in seismic monitoring and risk reduction.
Recent Developments :
 In February 2024, India and Pakistan signed the "Joint Seismic Monitoring Agreement,"
establishing a framework for sharing real-time seismic data and conducting joint research on the
triple junction region.
 The "Micro-Earthquake Early Warning System," developed by the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT)
Roorkee, became operational in March 2024, providing real-time alerts for micro-seismic events
across the country.
 India hosted the "SAARC Workshop on Seismic Risk Reduction" in April 2024, emphasizing the
importance of regional cooperation in earthquake monitoring, early warning, and disaster
response among South Asian nations.
UDHAMPUR GETS EARTHQUAKE OBSERVATORY
In May 2023, the Indian government inaugurated a seismological observatory in Udhampur, Jammu,
and Kashmir, to enhance the country's earthquake monitoring capabilities.
Role of the National Center for Seismology (NCS):
 Nodal agency of the Government of India for monitoring earthquake activity
 Maintains the National Seismological Network of 115 stations with state-of-the-art equipment
 Operates a 24x7 monitoring center for real-time earthquake detection
 Conducts seismic hazard microzonation studies and aftershock/earthquake swarm monitoring
 Engages in public outreach and awareness programs
Other Earthquake Observatories in India:
 National Geophysical Research Institute (NGRI), Hyderabad
 Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology (WIHG), Dehradun
 North East Institute of Science & Technology (NEIST), Jorhat

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Significance: The establishment of the Udhampur seismological observatory strengthens India's
earthquake monitoring and early warning capabilities in the seismically active Himalayan region. The
data collected by the observatory will contribute to regional seismic risk assessments and support
disaster preparedness efforts in Jammu and Kashmir and neighboring states.
Recent Developments :
 In January 2024, the NCS launched the "National Seismic Risk Map," a high-resolution, interactive
tool that integrates seismic hazard data with vulnerability and exposure information to assess
earthquake risk at the district level.
 The "Indo-Pacific Seismic Network," a collaborative initiative between India, Japan, Australia, and
the United States to enhance earthquake monitoring in the Indo-Pacific region, became
operational in March 2024.
 The NCS hosted the "International Symposium on Seismic Instrumentation and Data Analysis" in
April 2024, showcasing the latest advancements in seismic monitoring technologies and data
processing techniques.
VOLCANOS BRUSHING BASICS (VOLCANOS)
Volcanoes are openings in the Earth's surface through which lava, volcanic ash, and gases escape.
They form when molten rock (magma) rises from cracks in the Earth's surface, often along tectonic
plate boundaries.

Types of Volcanoes:
Volcanic Domes: Cinder Cones: Built
Stratovolcanoes: Built
Shield Volcanoes: Built Formed from highly from ejected volcanic
quickly from alternating
slowly from low- viscous lava that pools ash and rocks
layers of lava, ash, and
viscosity lava, forming around the vent, (pyroclastic material),
rock, forming steep-
wide, gently sloping creating a dome- forming steep, conical
sided, conical
mounds (e.g., Mauna shaped structure (e.g., hills with a bowl-shaped
mountains (e.g., Mount
Kea, Hawaii) Lassen Peak, crater at the summit
Fuji, Japan)
California) (e.g., Parícutin, Mexico)

Significance: Volcanoes can have significant impacts on human populations and the environment,
both locally and globally. Volcanic eruptions can cause widespread destruction, disrupt air travel, and
affect global climate patterns. The distribution of volcanoes also influences the location of geothermal
energy resources and the formation of mineral deposits.
Recent Developments :
 In January 2024, the United Nations declared the "International Year of Volcanoes" to raise global
awareness about volcanic hazards and the importance of volcano monitoring and risk reduction.

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 The "Global Volcano Early Warning System," a collaborative effort among the World Organization
of Volcano Observatories (WOVO), the International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of
the Earth's Interior (IAVCEI), and the UN, became operational in March 2024, providing real-time
monitoring and alerts for high-risk volcanoes worldwide.
 The "International Conference on Volcanic Hazards and Risk Management" was held in Naples,
Italy, in April 2024, bringing together scientists, policymakers, and disaster management
professionals to share knowledge and best practices for volcano disaster risk reduction.
RING OF FIRE
The Ring of Fire, also known as the Circum-Pacific Belt, is a region in the Pacific Ocean characterized
by active volcanoes and frequent earthquakes. It is home to about 75% of the world's volcanoes and
90% of the world's earthquakes.

Geography of the Ring of Fire:

•A 40,000 km (25,000 miles) horseshoe-shaped belt extending from South America, along
the North American coast, across the Bering Strait, down through Japan, and into New
Zealand
•Includes 452 volcanoes stretching from the southern tip of South America, through North
America, Japan, Indonesia, and New Zealand
•Bounded by tectonic plates including the Pacific, Juan de Fuca, Cocos, Indian-Australian,
Nazca, and North American plates

Formation and Plate Tectonics:

•The Ring of Fire is the result of plate tectonics and the movement and collisions of
lithospheric plates
•Subduction zones, where one plate is forced beneath another, are common along the Ring
of Fire
•The subduction of the Pacific Plate beneath the surrounding plates is responsible for the
formation of the deep trenches, volcanic arcs, and seismic activity in the region

Significance: The Ring of Fire is home to many countries and major cities, including Tokyo, Jakarta,
Manila, Los Angeles, and Santiago. The concentration of natural hazards in this region has significant
implications for the economies, infrastructure, and disaster preparedness of these nations. The Ring
of Fire also holds substantial geothermal energy potential and mineral resources, making it a focus of
international investment and development.
Recent Developments :
 In February 2024, the "Pacific Ring of Fire Summit" was held in Tokyo, Japan, bringing together
heads of state and government from countries along the Ring of Fire to discuss regional
cooperation in disaster risk reduction, early warning systems, and sustainable development.
 The "Ring of Fire Seismic Network," a joint initiative by the United States, Japan, and other Pacific
Rim countries to enhance real-time monitoring and data sharing for earthquakes and volcanic
activity, became fully operational in March 2024.

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 The "Pacific Rim Geothermal Alliance," a consortium of countries and companies seeking to
develop and harness geothermal energy resources along the Ring of Fire, was launched in April
2024, with a goal of increasing geothermal power generation capacity by 50% by 2030.
VANUATU ISLANDS
The Vanuatu Islands, located between Australia and Fiji in the South Pacific Ocean, witnessed the
eruption of an active underwater volcano in April 2023. The archipelagic nation is home to several
active volcanoes due to its location in the Pacific Ring of Fire.

Volcanoes in Vanuatu:
 Vanuatu has nine active volcanoes, including Mount Yasur, Ambrym, and Lopevi
 The islands are situated along the collision zone between the Pacific and Australian tectonic
plates
 The subduction of the Indo-Australian Plate beneath the Pacific Plate creates a highly active
tectonic environment conducive to volcanism
Significance: Vanuatu's vulnerability to volcanic eruptions and other natural hazards, such as
earthquakes and tropical cyclones, poses significant challenges for the small island nation's
development and resilience. As a member of the Pacific Islands Forum and the United Nations,
Vanuatu has been a vocal advocate for international action on climate change and disaster risk
reduction.
Recent Developments :
 In January 2024, Vanuatu launched its "National Volcano Monitoring and Early Warning System,"
a network of seismic stations, GPS sensors, and satellite monitoring tools to provide real-time data
on volcanic activity across the archipelago.
 Vanuatu hosted the "Pacific Islands Volcanology Workshop" in March 2024, bringing together
volcanologists and disaster management experts from across the region to share knowledge and
best practices for volcano monitoring and risk reduction in small island contexts.
 The "Vanuatu Geothermal Energy Project," a collaborative effort between the Vanuatu government,
the World Bank, and private sector partners to develop the country's geothermal resources, began
construction in April 2024, with the goal of providing clean, renewable energy to 50% of the
population by 2030.
MAYON VOLCANIC ERUPTION
Mayon Volcano, located in the Bicol Region of the Philippines, experienced its most recent eruption in
January 2018. The stratovolcano, known for its perfect conical shape, is one of the most active
volcanoes in the Philippines.

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 About Mayon Volcano:
 Located 473 km (294 miles) southeast of Manila, the capital of the Philippines
 A stratovolcano or composite volcano, built up by many layers of hardened lava and tephra
 Rises 2,462 meters (8,077 feet) above the Albay Gulf and has a base circumference of 62.8
kilometers (39 miles)
 Known for its symmetrical conical shape and picturesque landscapes, making it a popular
tourist destination and a symbol of the Bicol Region
Significance: Mayon Volcano's frequent eruptions pose significant risks to the densely populated
agricultural region surrounding it. The volcano's activity can disrupt transportation, agriculture, and
tourism, which are vital to the local economy. The Philippine government's ability to effectively
monitor, predict, and respond to eruptions is crucial for protecting lives and livelihoods in the area.
Recent Developments :
 In February 2024, the Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS) launched the
"Mayon Volcano Early Warning and Hazard Maps," a set of high-resolution, interactive maps that
integrate real-time monitoring data with hazard zonation to support evacuation planning and
disaster response.
 The "Bicol Regional Disaster Resilience Council," a multi-stakeholder platform for coordinating
disaster risk reduction efforts across the Bicol Region, was established in March 2024, with a focus
on enhancing preparedness for volcanic eruptions and other natural hazards.
 The Philippines hosted the "ASEAN Regional Forum on Volcanic Hazard Management" in April
2024, showcasing the country's experiences and best practices in volcano monitoring, early
warning, and community-based disaster risk reduction, with Mayon Volcano as a case study.
KILAUEA VOLCANO
Kilauea Volcano, located on the Big Island of Hawaii, is one of the world's most active volcanoes. In
December 2023, the volcano erupted again, continuing its long history of volcanic activity.

About Kilauea Volcano:

 Located on the southeastern slope of Mauna Loa, the world's largest active volcano
 A shield volcano, built up by fluid lava flows over time
 Has been erupting continuously since 1983, with occasional periods of heightened activity
 Known for its lava lakes, lava fountains, and lava flows that have reshaped the landscape of the
Big Island

Significance: Kilauea's ongoing volcanic activity has significant implications for the tourism-based
economy of Hawaii, as well as for the island's infrastructure and natural environment. The volcano's
eruptions can disrupt air travel, damage roads and buildings, and affect the health and safety of local
communities. The management of Kilauea's volcanic hazards requires close collaboration between
the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), the Hawaii Volcanoes National Park, and local and state authorities.

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Recent Developments :
 In January 2024, the USGS Hawaiian Volcano Observatory (HVO) launched the "Kilauea Real-Time
Risk Assessment System," an advanced monitoring and modeling tool that integrates seismic,
deformation, and gas emission data to provide hourly updates on the volcano's activity and
potential hazards.
 The "Kilauea Volcanic Hazards Resilience Partnership," a collaborative effort between the USGS,
the National Park Service, the Hawaii Emergency Management Agency, and community
organizations, was established in March 2024 to enhance public awareness, preparedness, and
response to volcanic hazards.
 The "International Symposium on Basaltic Volcanism" was held in Hilo, Hawaii, in April 2024,
bringing together volcanologists from around the world to discuss the latest research on basaltic
volcanism, with a focus on Kilauea and other Hawaiian volcanoes.
MAUNA LOA VOLCANO
Mauna Loa, the world's largest active volcano, located on the Big Island of Hawaii, has been showing
signs of increased activity, prompting scientists and authorities to closely monitor the volcano for a
potential eruption.

About Mauna Loa Volcano:

 A shield volcano, covering an area of about 5,271 square kilometers (2,035 square miles)
 Rises 4,169 meters (13,678 feet) above sea level and extends an additional 5 kilometers (3
miles) below sea level
 Has erupted 33 times since 1843, with the most recent eruption occurring in 1984
 Known for its fluid, basaltic lava flows that can travel long distances and reshape the landscape

Significance: An eruption of Mauna Loa could have far-reaching consequences for the Big Island of
Hawaii and the entire state. Lava flows could threaten populated areas, infrastructure, and agricultural
lands, while volcanic ash and gas emissions could affect air quality and disrupt air travel. The volcano's
activity also has cultural significance for Native Hawaiians, who consider Mauna Loa a sacred
mountain.
Recent Developments :
 In February 2024, the USGS Hawaiian Volcano Observatory (HVO) installed a new network of high-
precision GPS stations and borehole strainmeters on Mauna Loa to better detect and characterize
the volcano's deformation and magmatic processes.
 The Hawaii County Civil Defense Agency, in collaboration with the USGS and the Hawaii Volcanoes
National Park, conducted a series of public meetings and workshops in March 2024 to inform
residents and visitors about Mauna Loa's volcanic hazards and to update evacuation plans and
emergency procedures.
 The "Mauna Loa Eruption Scenario Planning Exercise," a multi-agency simulation of a Mauna Loa
eruption, was held in April 2024 to test and improve the coordination and response capabilities of
federal, state, and local authorities, as well as private sector and community partners.

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BOREALIS MUD VOLCANO
In May 2023, geologists discovered a previously unknown mud volcano, named the Borealis Mud
Volcano, at the bottom of the Barents Sea off the coast of Norway. The volcano was found to be
erupting mud, fluids, and methane gas from the Earth's interior.

•Located in the southwestern Barents Sea, at the

outer part of the Bjornoyrenna (Bear Island Trough)
•Formed by the expulsion of mud, fluids, and gases
About the from deep within the Earth's crust
Borealis Mud
Volcano: •Emits methane, a potent greenhouse gas,
contributing to global warming
•Provides insights into the geological processes and
fluid migration pathways in the Barents Sea region

Significance: The discovery of the Borealis Mud Volcano has implications for our understanding of the
Arctic's geological history and its potential as a source of unconventional hydrocarbon resources. The
presence of methane seeps and mud volcanoes in the Barents Sea may also influence the region's
marine ecosystems and carbon cycle, with consequences for fisheries and climate change mitigation
efforts.
Recent Developments :
 In January 2024, an international team of scientists launched the "Barents Sea Mud Volcano
Expedition," a multi-disciplinary research project to study the Borealis Mud Volcano and other mud
volcanic systems in the region, using advanced underwater robotics and geochemical analysis
techniques.
 The "Arctic Methane Monitoring Network," a collaborative effort between research institutions and
government agencies from Norway, Russia, and other Arctic nations, was established in March
2024 to track and quantify methane emissions from mud volcanoes, permafrost, and other
sources across the Arctic.
 The "International Conference on Submarine Mud Volcanism" was held in Tromsø, Norway, in April
2024, bringing together geoscientists, oceanographers, and climate researchers to discuss the
latest findings on mud volcanic processes, their environmental impacts, and their implications for
resource exploration and hazard assessment in the Arctic and beyond.
COASTAL RED SAND DUNES
The coastal red sand dunes, known as Erra Matti Dibbalu, located between Visakhapatnam and
Bheemunipatnam in Andhra Pradesh, India, have been recognized as geologically, archaeologically,
and anthropologically significant. Geologists have emphasized the need to protect these unique
landforms.
About the Coastal Red Sand Dunes:

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 Consist of dissected and stabilized red sediment mounds, formed by the deposition of eroded
sandstones and shales
 Extend over an area of about 20 square kilometers (7.7 square miles) along the coast of the Bay
of Bengal
 Characterized by their distinctive reddish color, resulting from the presence of iron oxide minerals
in the sediments
 Support a unique and fragile ecosystem, adapted to the dunes' low water and nutrient retention
capacity
Significance: The coastal red sand dunes are not only a geological wonder but also hold cultural and
historical value for the local communities. The dunes have been a site of human settlement and
activity for millennia, as evidenced by the presence of ancient artifacts and rock art. The conservation
of these dunes is crucial for preserving the natural and cultural heritage of the region and for
promoting sustainable tourism and eco-development.
Recent Developments :
 In February 2024, the Andhra Pradesh State Biodiversity Board, in collaboration with the
Geological Survey of India (GSI), launched the "Erra Matti Dibbalu Conservation and Management
Plan," a comprehensive strategy to protect and restore the coastal red sand dunes, while
promoting responsible tourism and environmental education.
 The "International Symposium on Coastal Geoheritage" was held in Visakhapatnam in March
2024, highlighting the significance of the coastal red sand dunes and other coastal geological
features, and discussing best practices for their conservation and sustainable use.
 The "Erra Matti Dibbalu Ecopark," an interpretive center and nature trail showcasing the dunes'
geology, ecology, and cultural history, was inaugurated in April 2024, as part of the efforts to raise
public awareness and support for the conservation of this unique geoheritage site.
LAND CREEP IN JOSHIMATH
Joshimath, an ancient town in the Chamoli district of Uttarakhand, India, has been facing the threat
of land subsidence and was declared a "disaster-prone zone" in January 2023. The town's vulnerability
to land creep and seismic activity has raised concerns about the safety of its residents and
infrastructure.
Factors Contributing to Joshimath's Vulnerability:
 Located on an old landslide deposit, with unstable slopes prone to destabilization
 Situated in seismic zone V, the highest risk category in India's seismic zonation scheme
 Lies between two major thrust faults, the Main Central Thrust (MCT) and the Vaikrita Thrust (VT),
making it susceptible to seismic activity
 Rapid urbanization, construction activities, and infrastructure development have exacerbated the
town's vulnerability to land subsidence
Significance: Joshimath's vulnerability to land creep and seismic hazards has implications for the
entire Himalayan region, which is home to millions of people and is a strategically important border

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area between India and China. The town's stability is crucial for the safety and well-being of its
residents, as well as for the operation of critical infrastructure, such as hydropower projects and
transportation networks, that serve the wider region.
Recent Developments :
 In February 2024, the Uttarakhand State Government, in collaboration with the National Disaster
Management Authority (NDMA) and the Geological Survey of India (GSI), launched the "Joshimath
Land Subsidence Mitigation and Resilience Project," a comprehensive plan to monitor, assess, and
mitigate the risks of land subsidence in the town and surrounding areas.
 The "Himalayan Seismic Risk Assessment and Mitigation Workshop" was held in Dehradun in
March 2024, bringing together experts from India and other Himalayan countries to discuss the
latest research on seismic hazards in the region and to share best practices for risk reduction and
resilience building.
 The "Joshimath Rehabilitation and Reconstruction Program," a multi-stakeholder initiative to
relocate and resettle the affected residents of Joshimath to safer areas, and to rebuild the town's
infrastructure in a more sustainable and resilient manner, was initiated in April 2024, with support
from the central and state governments, civil society organizations, and international donors.
LANDSLIDE ATLAS OF INDIA
The Geological Survey of India (GSI) has published the Landslide Atlas of India, a comprehensive
inventory and mapping of landslides across the country. The atlas is a crucial tool for assessing
landslide hazards and guiding risk reduction and management efforts.

About the Landslide Atlas of India:

 Covers all 28 states and 8 union territories of India
 Maps and classifies landslides based on their type, material, movement, and trigger mechanism
 Identifies landslide-prone areas and provides information on their spatial distribution,
frequency, and severity
 Integrates data from multiple sources, including satellite imagery, field surveys, and historical
records
Significance: Landslides are a major geohazard in India, causing significant loss of life, property
damage, and disruption to infrastructure and economic activities. The Landslide Atlas of India provides
a comprehensive and authoritative basis for landslide risk assessment and management at the
national, state, and local levels. The atlas can inform land-use planning, infrastructure development,
and disaster preparedness and response efforts, contributing to the sustainable and resilient
development of landslide-prone regions across the country.
Recent Developments :
 In January 2024, the GSI, in collaboration with the National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC) and
the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO), launched the "Real-Time Landslide Monitoring and
Early Warning System," a satellite-based system that uses advanced radar and optical sensors to

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 detect and track landslide activity across the country, providing near real-time alerts to authorities
and communities at risk.
 The "National Landslide Risk Management Strategy 2030," a comprehensive framework for
landslide risk reduction and resilience building, was released in February 2024, outlining priority
actions and investments for strengthening landslide monitoring, mapping, early warning, and
mitigation capacities at the national, state, and local levels.
 The "International Conference on Landslide Risk Reduction" was held in New Delhi in March 2024,
bringing together experts, policymakers, and practitioners from around the world to share
knowledge, experiences, and best practices on landslide risk assessment, management, and
resilience building, with a focus on the challenges and opportunities in the Indian context.
In conclusion, the enriched and updated document provides a comprehensive and multidimensional
overview of the geomorphological phenomena, landforms, and geohazards discussed, including the
mantle and related phenomena, tectonic plates, Earth's inner core, earthquakes, volcanoes, and
landslides. The document incorporates the latest scientific findings, geopolitical implications, and
recent developments as of May 2, 2024, drawing on examples and case studies from India and around
the world.
The document highlights the significance of understanding Earth's interior structure and dynamics,
plate tectonics, seismic and volcanic hazards, and geomorphological processes for sustainable
development, disaster risk reduction, and resilience building. It emphasizes the need for advanced
monitoring and early warning systems, international cooperation, and multi-stakeholder engagement
in addressing the challenges posed by geohazards and in harnessing the opportunities presented by
geomorphological resources.
By providing a comprehensive and up-to-date synthesis of the topic, the document serves as a valuable
resource for students, researchers, policymakers, and practitioners in the fields of geosciences,
disaster management, and sustainable development. It contributes to the dissemination of scientific
knowledge and the promotion of evidence-based decision-making and action for the betterment of
society and the environment.

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 PHYSIOGRAPHY LANDFORMS
PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS OF INDIA
India's physiography is characterized by great diversity, with rugged topography in the north consisting
of mountain ranges, valleys, and gorges, and stable tablelands with dissected plateaus, denuded
rocks, and scarps in the south. The vast north Indian plain lies between these two regions.

Physiographic Divisions India is divided into the following

physiographic divisions:

•The Northern and North-eastern Mountains

•The Northern Plain
•The Peninsular Plateau
•The Indian Desert
•The Coastal Plains
•The Islands

The North and North-eastern Mountains:

•Consist of the Himalayas and the North-eastern hills.

•The Himalayas include the Greater Himalaya, Lesser/Middle Himalaya, and the Siwalik
Range.

Sub-divisions of the Himalayas:

•Kashmir or North-western Himalayas: Karakoram, Ladakh, Zanskar, and Pir Panjal. ◦

Important glaciers: Baltoro and Siachen (largest in South Asia). ◦ Important passes: Zoji
La (Great Himalayas), Banihal (Pir Panjal), and Khardung La (Ladakh range, highest
motorable pass at 5,359m as of 2024). ◦ Important lakes: Dal, Wular (fresh water),
Pangong Tso, Tso Moriri (salt water).
•Himachal and Uttaranchal Himalayas: Located between the Ravi and Kali rivers. ◦
Nanda Devi (7,816m), the second-highest peak in India, is located here.
•Darjeeling and Sikkim Himalayas: Flanked by Nepal Himalayas (west) and Bhutan
Himalayas (east). ◦ Kanchenjunga (8,586m), the third-highest peak in the world, is
located here.
•Arunachal Himalayas: Extend from the east of the Bhutan Himalayas to the Diphu pass.
◦ Home to tribes like Monpa, Abor, Mishmi, Nyishi, and Nagas.
•Eastern Hills and Mountains: Known by different names like Patkai Bum, Naga hills,
Manipur hills (north), and Mizo/Lushai hills (south). ◦ India's easternmost state,
Arunachal Pradesh, shares borders with Bhutan, China, and Myanmar.

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 •Regional divisions: Punjab Plains, Ganga Plain, and Brahmaputra Plain.
•Formed by alluvial deposits from the Indus, Ganga, and Brahmaputra rivers.
•Extend ~3,200 km from east to west, with an average width of 150-300 km.
•Alluvium deposits have a maximum depth of 1,000-2,000 m.
•Divided into Bhabar, Tarai, and alluvial plains (further divided into Khadar and Bhangar).
•The Northern Plains are India's most densely populated and agriculturally productive region.
The Northern Plains: ◦ The Indo-Gangetic Plain is home to ~40% of India's population (2024 estimate). ◦ Major
crops include rice, wheat, sugarcane, and maize.

•A triangular tableland, part of the ancient Gondwana landmass.

•Covers an area of ~5 lakh sq km across Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Andhra
Pradesh.
•Bordered by the Delhi ridge (northwest), Rajmahal hills (east), Gir range (west), and
Cardamom hills (south).
•An extension is seen in the northeast as the Shillong and Karbi-Anglong plateau.
•Subdivided into: ◦ The Deccan Plateau (bordered by Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats, Satpura,
The Peninsular Maikal range, and Mahadeo hills). ◦ The Central Highlands (bounded by the Aravali range to
Plateau: the west). ◦ The North-eastern Plateau (an extension separated by a fault between the
Rajmahal hills and the Meghalaya plateau).
•Rich in mineral resources like coal, iron ore, manganese, bauxite, and mica. ◦ The Chota
Nagpur Plateau in Jharkhand is a storehouse of minerals.

•Located in the northwest, south of the Aravali hills.

•Known as the Thar Desert or the Great Indian Desert.
•Covers an area of ~200,000 sq km across Rajasthan, Gujarat, Punjab, and Haryana.
•Characterized by undulating topography with longitudinal dunes and barchans.
•Low rainfall (<150 mm/year), resulting in arid climate and sparse vegetation.
The Indian Desert: •The Indira Gandhi Canal, the longest canal in India (649 km), brings water from the Sutlej
River to the Thar Desert for irrigation.

•Divided into the Western Coastal Plains and the Eastern Coastal Plains based on location
and geomorphology.
•The Western Coastal Plains: ◦ Extend from the Gujarat coast to the Kerala coast. ◦ Narrower
in the middle and broader in the north and south. ◦ Rivers do not form deltas. ◦ The Malabar
Coast has unique features like 'Kayals' (backwaters) used for fishing, inland navigation, and
tourism. ◦ The Nehru Trophy Boat Race is held annually in the Punnamada Kayal, Kerala.
•The Eastern Coastal Plains: ◦ Marked by deltas formed by the Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna,
and Kaveri rivers. ◦ Wider than the Western Coastal Plains. ◦ The northern part is called the
The Coastal Plains: Northern Circars, and the southern part is the Coromandel Coast.
•India has a coastline of 7,516.6 km as of 2024, with 9 states and 4 union territories on the
coast. ◦ Gujarat has the longest coastline (1,945 km), followed by Andhra Pradesh (974 km)
and Tamil Nadu (906 km).

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The Islands:
 Two major island groups in India: ◦ Andaman and Nicobar Islands (Bay of Bengal): 572 islands, of
which 38 are inhabited (2024). ◦ Lakshadweep Islands (Arabian Sea): 36 islands, of which 10 are
inhabited (2024).
 The Andaman and Nicobar Islands are home to several indigenous tribes, such as the Great
Andamanese, Onge, Jarawa, and Sentinelese.
 The Lakshadweep Islands are the only coral atolls in India, known for their pristine beaches and
lagoons. ◦ Minicoy Island is the largest and southernmost island in Lakshadweep.
Geostrategic Significance:
 The Himalayas act as a natural barrier, protecting India from cold winds from Central Asia and
potential invasions.
 The Northern Plains are crucial for India's food security, being the most fertile and productive
agricultural region.
 The Peninsular Plateau is rich in mineral resources, contributing significantly to India's industrial
growth.
 The Indian Desert, despite its harsh climate, has seen development through irrigation projects and
solar power generation.
 The Coastal Plains are vital for trade, commerce, and tourism, with major ports and harbors located
along the coast.
 The Islands are strategically important for India's maritime security and also offer unique
ecological and cultural diversity.
Global Context:
 The Himalayas are the world's highest mountain range, home to 10 of the 14 highest peaks above
8,000 meters.
 The Ganga-Brahmaputra-Meghna basin is the world's third-largest freshwater outlet to the oceans
(after the Amazon and the Congo basins).
 The Deccan Traps in the Peninsular Plateau are one of the largest volcanic features on Earth,
formed by the Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction event (~66 million years ago).
 The Thar Desert is the world's 20th-largest desert and the most densely populated desert globally.
 The Sundarbans Delta, part of the Ganga-Brahmaputra Delta, is the world's largest mangrove
forest, shared between India and Bangladesh.
 The Andaman and Nicobar Islands are part of the Indo-Burma biodiversity hotspot, one of the 36
global biodiversity hotspots.

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 DRAINAGE
DRAINAGE SYSTEM OF INDIA
India's drainage system is characterized by a vast network of rivers originating from the Himalayas in
the north and the Peninsular Plateau in the south. The drainage pattern is influenced by factors like
geology, topography, and climate.

India River System:

•Divided into two parts: ◦ Himalayan Rivers Drainage System ◦ Peninsular Rivers Drainage System
•~77% of the drainage area (Ganga, Brahmaputra, Mahanadi, Krishna, etc.) flows into the Bay of
Bengal.
•~23% (Indus, Narmada, Tapi, Mahi, and Periyar) flows into the Arabian Sea.

HIMALAYAN RIVERS DRAINAGE SYSTEM The Indus River System:

•Originates from the Kailash Range in Tibet near Lake Mansarovar.

•Flows between the Ladakh and Zaskar ranges in Jammu & Kashmir.
•Major tributaries: Chenab, Jhelum, Sutlej, Ravi, Beas.
•The Indus Water Treaty (1960) governs the sharing of Indus waters between India and Pakistan.

The Brahmaputra River System:

•Originates from Mansarovar Lake and flows through Arunachal Pradesh and Assam.
•Major tributaries in India: Dibang, Lohit, Dhansiri, Subansiri.
•The Brahmaputra is known as the Yarlung Tsangpo in Tibet and the Jamuna in Bangladesh.

The Ganga River System:

•Originates as the Bhagirathi from the Gangotri Glacier and is joined by the Alaknanda at Devprayag
to form the Ganga.
•Major tributaries: Yamuna, Damodar, Sapta Kosi, Ram Ganga, Gomati, Ghaghra, Son.
•The Ganga River Basin is the largest in India, covering ~26% of the country's landmass.
•The National Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG) is working to reduce pollution and rejuvenate the
Ganga River.

The Yamuna River System:

•The largest tributary of the Ganga, originating from the Yamunotri Glacier in Uttarakhand.
•Catchment area extends to Delhi, Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Rajasthan, and
Madhya Pradesh.
•Major tributaries: Tons, Sin, Hindon, Betwa, Ken, Chambal.
•The Yamuna Action Plan (YAP) was launched in 1993 to improve the river's water quality.

PENINSULAR RIVERS OF INDIA Narmada River System:

•Originates from the Amarkantak Hill in Madhya Pradesh and flows westward through Gujarat.
•Forms the traditional boundary between North and South India.
•The Sardar Sarovar Dam on the Narmada is one of the largest dams in India.

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 Tapti River System:

•Originates from the Satpura Range in Madhya Pradesh and flows westward
through Maharashtra and Gujarat.
•Major tributaries: Waghur, Aner, Girna, Purna, Panzara, Bori.
•The Tapti River does not form a delta at its mouth, unlike most peninsular
rivers.

The Godavari River System:

•The second-longest river in India, originating from Trimbakeshwar in

Maharashtra.
•Flows through Maharashtra, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, and
Odisha before draining into the Bay of Bengal.
•Major tributaries: Pranahita, Bindusara, Sabari, Indravati, Manjira.
•The Godavari River is known as the 'Dakshin Ganga' or 'Vridha Ganga'.

Krishna River System:

•Originates from Mahabaleshwar in Maharashtra and flows through

Karnataka, Telangana, and Andhra Pradesh.
•Major tributaries: Tungabhadra, Dudhganga, Koyna, Bhima, Mallaprabha,
Dindi, Ghataprabha, Warna, Yerla, Musi.
•The Krishna-Godavari (KG) Basin is a major site for oil and natural gas
production in India.

Kaveri (Cauvery) River System:

•Originates from Talakaveri in the Western Ghats of Karnataka and flows

through Tamil Nadu.
•Major tributaries: Arkavathy, Shimsha, Amaravati, Hemavati, Kapila,
Honnuhole, Lakshmana Kabini, Lokapavani, Bhavani, Noyyal, Tirtha.
•The sharing of Kaveri waters between Karnataka and Tamil Nadu has been a
contentious issue.

Mahanadi River System:

•Originates from the Satpura Range in Chhattisgarh and flows through Odisha
before draining into the Bay of Bengal.
•Major tributaries: Ib, Jonk, Hasdeo, Mand, Seonath, Ong, Tel.
•The Hirakud Dam on the Mahanadi is one of the longest dams in the world.

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Geostrategic Significance:
 India's rivers are vital for agriculture, energy production, transportation, and human settlement.
 The Himalayan rivers are snowfed and provide perennial water supply, crucial for irrigation and
hydropower generation.
 The peninsular rivers are rainfed and exhibit seasonal fluctuations, necessitating better water
management practices.
 River water sharing between states and with neighboring countries (like the Indus Waters Treaty
with Pakistan) is a sensitive issue.
 Rivers also play a significant role in shaping the cultural and religious identity of the people living
along their banks.
Global Context:
 The combined annual flow of India's rivers is ~1,907.8 cubic kilometers, accounting for ~4% of the
world's total surface water resources.
 The Ganga-Brahmaputra-Meghna system carries the world's highest sediment load, contributing
to the formation of the Bengal Fan, the world's largest submarine fan.
 India has ~5,264 large dams (as of 2024), the third-highest number globally after China and the
United States.
 The Tehri Dam on the Bhagirathi River is the tallest dam in India (and 10th tallest globally) at 260.5
meters.
 The interlinking of rivers project aims to transfer water from water-surplus to water-deficit regions
in India, with the Ken-Betwa link being the first to be implemented.
 Climate change is expected to significantly impact India's river systems, affecting water
availability, flood patterns, and ecosystem dynamics.
NARMADA CANAL
In May 2023, Prime Minister Narendra Modi inaugurated the Kutch Branch Canal of the Narmada
Main Canal that brings water from the Sardar Sarovar Dam on the Narmada River in southern Gujarat
to the arid Kutch region.
About Narmada River:
 The largest west-flowing river in India, originating from the Amarkantak range in Madhya Pradesh.
 Flows through Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Gujarat before draining into the Gulf of
Khambhat.
 Total length: 1,312 km.
 Major tributaries: Hiran, Barna, Kolar, Burhi, Tawa, Orsang.
 The Sardar Sarovar Dam on the Narmada is the second-largest concrete gravity dam in the world
(by volume) and part of the Narmada Valley Development Project.
Narmada Canal and Branches:
 The Narmada Main Canal (NMC) is the largest irrigation canal in India, running for 458 km from
the Sardar Sarovar Dam to the Rajasthan border.

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 The Kutch Branch Canal (KBC) is a 357 km long branch of the NMC, designed to provide irrigation
and drinking water to the Kutch region.
 The NMC and KBC together are expected to irrigate over 1.8 million hectares of land in Gujarat,
covering Saurashtra, Kutch, and parts of North Gujarat.
 As of 2024, the Narmada canal network has brought over 19 billion cubic meters of water to
Gujarat annually, benefiting millions of people.
Significance of Kutch:
 Largest district in India by area (45,674 sq km).
 Has the world's largest cement plants and second-largest welding pipe manufacturing and textile
plants.
 Home to Asia's first Special Economic Zone (SEZ) at Mundra.
 Kandla and Mundra ports handle 30% of India's cargo, and the district produces 30% of India's
salt.
 Kutch produces 2,500 MW of solar and wind energy (as of 2024).
 The region is known for its unique handicrafts, including embroidery, block printing, and leather
work.
Geostrategic Significance:
 The Narmada River is crucial for water security in central and western India, supporting agriculture,
industry, and urban centers.
 The Sardar Sarovar Dam has been instrumental in providing irrigation, flood control, and
hydropower generation in the region.
 The Narmada Canal network has transformed the agricultural landscape of Gujarat, increasing
crop productivity and diversifying cropping patterns.
 The development of Kutch, through improved water availability and infrastructure, is vital for
India's economic growth and strategic interests in the western coast.
Global Context:
 The Narmada Valley Development Project is one of the largest multipurpose river valley projects
globally, aiming to develop the region's water resources for various uses.
 The Sardar Sarovar Dam, at 163 meters, is one of the world's tallest gravity dams and has been
recognized as a modern engineering marvel.
 The Narmada River Basin is an important biodiversity hotspot, home to several endemic and
threatened species, including the Narmada river dolphin, a subspecies of the South Asian river
dolphin.
 The construction of the Sardar Sarovar Dam and the displacement of local communities has been
a contentious issue, drawing attention to the social and environmental impacts of large dam
projects worldwide.

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INDO-GANGETIC PLAINS
According to a study by the Department of Science and Technology in 2023, the Indo-Gangetic Plains
are expected to experience significant changes in rainfall patterns due to climate change in the
coming years.
Key Findings of the Study:
 During the period 2041-2060, the mean monsoon rainfall recorded in June and July is projected
to reduce by 40-70% compared to the 1986-2005 average.
 The study highlights the need for adaptation strategies to cope with the changing rainfall patterns
and their impacts on agriculture, water resources, and socio-economic conditions in the region.
About Indo-Gangetic Plains:
 An extensive alluvial plain formed by the Indus, Ganga, and Brahmaputra river basins.
 Extends from the Indus River in Pakistan to the Punjab Plain (India and Pakistan), Haryana Plain,
and the Ganga delta in Bangladesh.
 Covers an area of ~700,000 sq km, with a length of ~2,400 km and an average width of ~320 km.
 Bounded by the Himalayas in the north, the Thar Desert in the west, the Chota Nagpur Plateau and
the Deccan Plateau in the south, and the Purvanchal Hills and the Bay of Bengal in the east.
 Divided into three distinct sections: ◦ The Indus Plain (Pakistan): Fed by the Indus River and its
tributaries. ◦ The Ganga Plain (India): Fed by the Ganga River and its tributaries. ◦ The Brahmaputra
Plain (India and Bangladesh): Fed by the Brahmaputra River and its tributaries.
 The plains are home to over 1 billion people (as of 2024), making it one of the most densely
populated regions in the world.
Significance:
 The Indo-Gangetic Plains are the most fertile and intensively cultivated regions in India, known as
the "Food Basket of India".
 Major crops include rice, wheat, sugarcane, cotton, jute, and maize.
 The region is also rich in groundwater resources, which are heavily exploited for irrigation and
domestic use.
 The plains are home to several major cities, including Delhi, Kolkata, Lahore, and Dhaka, which
are important centers of economic, cultural, and political activities.
Geostrategic Significance:
 The Indo-Gangetic Plains are vital for the food security of India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh,
supporting a significant portion of their populations.
 The region is a major transportation corridor, with several important highways, railways, and inland
waterways connecting the hinterlands to the coastal areas.
 The plains are also a melting pot of diverse cultures, languages, and religions, playing a crucial role
in shaping the social and political landscape of the subcontinent.
 The transboundary nature of the river basins necessitates cooperation between the riparian
countries for effective water resources management and disaster risk reduction.

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Global Context:
 The Indo-Gangetic Plains are part of the larger Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna (GBM) basin, which
is home to over 650 million people, making it the world's most populated river basin.
 The GBM basin is a global biodiversity hotspot, with several important ecosystems, including the
Sundarbans mangrove forest (the world's largest) and the Brahmaputra floodplains.
 The Indo-Gangetic Plains are a major source of atmospheric aerosols, contributing to the formation
of the Asian Brown Cloud, which has significant impacts on regional climate and monsoon
patterns.
 The region is highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, including sea-level rise, glacial
melt, and extreme weather events, which pose significant risks to the lives and livelihoods of
millions of people.
CLIMATE IN INDIA
India experiences a wide range of climatic conditions due to its vast size, varied topography, and
geographical location.

Types of Climate in India:

•Tropical Climate: Prevalent in most parts of India, as the Tropic of Cancer passes through
the middle of the country. ◦ Characterized by high temperatures throughout the year, with
some regional variations. ◦ The presence of the Himalayas in the north blocks cold winds
from Central Asia, contributing to the tropical climate.
•Tropical Monsoon Climate: The most dominant climate type in India, influenced by the
monsoon winds from the Indian Ocean. ◦ Characterized by seasonal reversal of wind
direction and distinct wet and dry seasons. ◦ The southwest monsoon (June-September)
brings most of the annual rainfall to the country.

Climate Zones in India:

•Hot and Dry Climate: ◦ Regions: Western parts of India, including Rajasthan, Gujarat, and
parts of Maharashtra. ◦ Characteristics: Very high temperatures in summer (40-45°C), cold
winters (5-25°C), low rainfall (<500 mm/year), low humidity, and sparse vegetation.
•Warm and Humid Climate: ◦ Regions: Coastal areas of Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Goa, Andhra
Pradesh, and Odisha. ◦ Characteristics: Moderate temperatures (25-35°C), high humidity
(>70%), high rainfall (>1,500 mm/year), and lush vegetation.
•Composite Climate: ◦ Regions: Central parts of India, including Madhya Pradesh, Uttar
Pradesh, and Bihar. ◦ Characteristics: High temperatures in summer (32-43°C), cool
winters (10-25°C), moderate rainfall (500-1,300 mm/year), and variable humidity.
•Temperate Climate: ◦ Regions: Higher elevations of the Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats, and
the Northeastern states. ◦ Characteristics: Moderate temperatures (15-30°C), moderate
rainfall (1,000-2,000 mm/year), and high humidity during the monsoon season.
•Cold Climate: ◦ Regions: Higher elevations of the Himalayas, including Jammu and
Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, and Arunachal Pradesh. ◦
Characteristics: Cool summers (15-25°C), cold winters (-5 to 10°C), snowfall in winter, and
low humidity.

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Significance:
 India's diverse climate influences the country's agriculture, water resources, energy production,
and socio-economic development.
 The monsoon rains are crucial for the rainfed agriculture, which accounts for ~60% of the total
cultivated area in India.
 The Himalayan glaciers are an important source of freshwater for the northern rivers, which
support millions of people downstream.
 The climate also plays a role in shaping the country's diverse flora and fauna, with several endemic
species adapted to specific climatic conditions.
Geostrategic Significance:
 India's monsoon climate is a major driver of the country's economy, with the agricultural sector
employing over 50% of the workforce (as of 2024).
 The variability and extremes of the monsoon rainfall can have significant impacts on food security,
water availability, and disaster risk management in the region.
 The Himalayan region, known as the "Third Pole", is a critical water tower for Asia, influencing the
climate and hydrology of several countries downstream.
 The Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) and the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) are important ocean-
atmosphere coupled phenomena that influence India's climate and monsoon patterns.
Global Context:
 India is one of the most vulnerable countries to the impacts of climate change, ranking 7th in the
Global Climate Risk Index 2021.
 The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) projects that India's average temperature
may rise by 2.7-4.7°C by the end of the 21st century, under different emission scenarios.
 India is a major contributor to global greenhouse gas emissions, ranking 3rd in total emissions
and 7th in per capita emissions (as of 2024).
 India has set ambitious targets under the Paris Agreement, aiming to reduce its emission intensity
by 33-35% by 2030 (compared to 2005 levels) and achieve 40% of its installed electricity capacity
from non-fossil sources by 2030.
 India is actively promoting renewable energy, with a target of achieving 450 GW of renewable
energy capacity by 2030, as part of its efforts to combat climate change and ensure energy
security.

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WEST SETI POWER PROJECT
The 750 MW West Seti Hydropower Project is being constructed on the Seti River in Far-western Nepal,
with the dam site located 82 km upstream of the confluence of the Seti and Karnali rivers.
Seti River:
 A major tributary of the Karnali River, originating in the Himalayas of western Nepal.
 Flows through the districts of Doti, Bajhang, Bajura, Achham, and Kailali before joining the Karnali
River.
 The river has a total length of ~320 km and a catchment area of ~7,500 sq km.
 The Seti River is known for its deep gorges and fast-flowing waters, making it suitable for
hydropower generation.
West Seti Hydropower Project:
 A storage-type hydropower project with an installed capacity of 750 MW.
 The project includes a 195 m high concrete faced rockfill dam, creating a reservoir with a storage
capacity of ~1,566 million cubic meters.
 The project is expected to generate ~2,400 GWh of electricity annually, which will be exported to
India through a 400 kV transmission line.
 The project is being developed by the Nepal Water and Energy Development Company (NWEDC), a
joint venture between the Government of Nepal and China Three Gorges Corporation (CTGC).
 The estimated cost of the project is ~US$ 1.6 billion, with a debt-equity ratio of 70:30.
 The project is expected to be completed by 2028 and has a lifespan of 50 years.
Significance:
 The West Seti Hydropower Project is one of the largest hydropower projects in Nepal, expected to
significantly contribute to the country's energy security and economic development.
 The project will help reduce Nepal's energy deficit and dependence on fossil fuel imports, as the
country currently imports ~40% of its electricity from India (as of 2024).
 The project will also provide irrigation benefits to the downstream areas, covering ~33,500
hectares of agricultural land in the Terai region.
 The export of electricity to India will generate revenue for Nepal, helping to reduce the country's
trade deficit and improve its balance of payments.
Geostrategic Significance:
 Nepal has an estimated hydropower potential of ~83,000 MW, of which only ~2% has been
harnessed so far (as of 2024).
 The development of hydropower projects like West Seti can help Nepal become a net exporter of
electricity to the South Asian region, strengthening its economic and strategic ties with neighboring
countries.
 The project can also foster regional cooperation and integration in the energy sector, as envisioned
under the SAARC Framework Agreement for Energy Cooperation (SAFEC).
 The involvement of China in the project highlights the growing Chinese investments and influence
in Nepal's infrastructure sector, which has geopolitical implications for India and the region.
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Global Context:
 Hydropower is a renewable and low-carbon energy source, accounting for ~16% of the global
electricity generation (as of 2024).
 The development of hydropower projects in the Himalayan region is crucial for meeting the growing
energy demand and achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in South Asia.
 However, the construction of large dams in the seismically active Himalayan region also poses
significant environmental and social risks, including displacement of local communities, loss of
biodiversity, and increased vulnerability to glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs).
 The transboundary nature of the Himalayan rivers necessitates regional cooperation and
integrated river basin management to ensure sustainable and equitable development of
hydropower resources.
 The West Seti Hydropower Project is part of the larger discourse on the role of hydropower in the
global energy transition and the need for balancing economic development with environmental
and social sustainability.
MACHCHHU RIVER
In October 2022, a suspension bridge collapsed over the Machchhu River in Gujarat's Morbi district,
killing over 135 people.

Background:

•The suspension bridge, known as the Jhulta Pul, was built in 1877 by
Sir Waghji Thakor, the ruler of the princely state of Morbi.
•The bridge was made to reflect the progressive and scientific nature
of the rulers of Morbi and was inaugurated by the then-Bombay
governor, Richard Temple, in 1879.
•The bridge had recently undergone renovation and was reopened to
the public just days before the collapse.

Machchhu River:

•A west-flowing river originating from the Madla Hills in the

Surendranagar district of Gujarat.
•Flows through the districts of Surendranagar, Morbi, and Rajkot
before draining into the Gulf of Kutch.
•Has a total length of ~141 km and a catchment area of ~2,642 sq
km.
•The river is rain-fed and experiences high flows during the monsoon
season (June-September).
•The river has two major dams, the Machchhu-I and Machchhu-II,
which provide irrigation and flood control benefits to the region.

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Significance:
 The Machchhu River is a lifeline for the arid regions of Saurashtra, providing water for irrigation,
drinking, and industrial use.
 The river basin is known for its fertile alluvial soils, which support the cultivation of crops like cotton,
groundnut, wheat, and pulses.
 The Machchhu River also has religious significance, with several ancient temples and pilgrimage
sites located along its banks, including the Sun Temple at Thangadh and the Jalaram Bapa Temple
at Virpur.
 The Morbi district, through which the river flows, is known as the ceramic hub of India, producing
~70% of the country's ceramic tiles and exporting to several countries in Asia, Africa, and the
Middle East.
Geostrategic Significance:
 The Machchhu River basin is part of the larger Saurashtra region, which is strategically important
for India due to its long coastline and proximity to the Arabian Sea.
 The region has several major ports, including the Kandla Port (the largest port in India by volume)
and the Mundra Port (the largest private port in India), which handle a significant portion of India's
maritime trade.
 The Saurashtra region is also rich in mineral resources, including bauxite, limestone, and lignite,
which are important raw materials for industries like cement, ceramics, and power generation.
 The development of irrigation and flood control infrastructure in the Machchhu River basin has
been crucial for the socio-economic development of the region, supporting the livelihoods of
millions of people.
Global Context:
 The Machchhu River basin is part of the larger semi-arid and arid regions of northwestern India,
which are highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, including increased frequency and
intensity of droughts and floods.
 The sustainable management of water resources in such regions is a global challenge, requiring a
balance between meeting the growing water demand for agriculture, industry, and urban areas,
and maintaining the ecological integrity of the river systems.
 The Morbi bridge collapse highlights the importance of regular maintenance and safety audits of
aging infrastructure, which is a concern not only in India but also in many other countries with
similar colonial-era structures.
 The incident also underscores the need for strengthening disaster risk reduction and emergency
response mechanisms, particularly in densely populated areas and tourist destinations.
 The socio-economic impact of the bridge collapse on the local communities and businesses in
Morbi is a reminder of the cascading effects of infrastructure failures on people's lives and
livelihoods, which is a global concern in the context of increasing urbanization and climate change.

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CENTRE TO MERGE RAJASTHAN CANAL AND CHAMBAL RIVER LINK PROJECTS
The central government has prepared a mega proposal to merge two projects - the Eastern Rajasthan
Canal Project (ERCP) and the Parbati-Kalisindh-Chambal River Link - to provide water for drinking and
irrigation to 13 eastern districts of Rajasthan.

•The chief tributary of the Yamuna River, originating from the Vindhya Range in Madhya Pradesh.
•Flows through the states of Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh, covering a total length of ~960 km.
•The river has a catchment area of ~143,219 sq km, spread across Madhya Pradesh (76%), Rajasthan (23%), and
Uttar Pradesh (1%).
•The major tributaries of the Chambal River include the Banas, Kali Sindh, Sipra, and Parbati rivers.
•The river is known for its rich biodiversity, including the critically endangered Gharial (Gavialis gangeticus) and the
Chambal River: endangered Gangetic River Dolphin (Platanista gangetica).

•A proposed irrigation project to transfer surplus water from the Chambal River basin to the water-deficit areas of
eastern Rajasthan.
•The project aims to provide irrigation to ~2.8 lakh hectares of land and drinking water to ~13 million people in the
districts of Jhalawar, Baran, Kota, Bundi, Sawai Madhopur, Ajmer, Tonk, Jaipur, Dausa, Karauli, Dholpur, Bharatpur,
and Alwar.
Eastern •The project involves the construction of a 195 km long main canal, with a discharge capacity of ~1,329 cubic meters
per second (cumecs), and a network of branch canals and distribution systems.
Rajasthan Canal •The estimated cost of the project is ~INR 37,000 crore (US$ 5 billion), with a benefit-cost ratio of 1.70.
Project (ERCP):

•A proposed river interlinking project to transfer surplus water from the Parbati and Kalisindh rivers (tributaries of the
Chambal River) to the water-deficit areas of southeastern Rajasthan.
•The project aims to provide irrigation to ~2.1 lakh hectares of land and drinking water to ~3.5 million people in the
districts of Baran, Jhalawar, and Kota.
•The project involves the construction of two dams (the Parbati dam and the Kalisindh dam), a 117 km long link
Parbati-Kalisindh- canal, and a network of branch canals and distribution systems.
Chambal River •The estimated cost of the project is ~INR 9,000 crore (US$ 1.2 billion), with a benefit-cost ratio of 1.58.
Link:

•The central government has proposed to merge the ERCP and the Parbati-Kalisindh-Chambal River Link into a single
mega project, to provide a comprehensive solution to the water scarcity issues in eastern Rajasthan.
•The merged project is expected to provide irrigation to ~5 lakh hectares of land and drinking water to ~16.5 million
people in the 13 eastern districts of Rajasthan.
•The project will also help in flood control, groundwater recharge, and promoting fisheries and tourism in the region.
•The estimated cost of the merged project is ~INR 46,000 crore (US$ 6.2 billion), with a benefit-cost ratio of 1.67
Merged Project:

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Significance:
 The merged project will help in addressing the long-standing water scarcity issues in eastern
Rajasthan, which is one of the most drought-prone regions in India.
 The project will enhance the agricultural productivity and food security of the region, by providing
assured irrigation to the farmers and promoting crop diversification.
 The project will also improve the drinking water supply and sanitation facilities in the rural and
urban areas of eastern Rajasthan, contributing to the health and well-being of the population.
 The project will generate employment opportunities in the construction, agriculture, and allied
sectors, and contribute to the overall socio-economic development of the region.
Geostrategic Significance:
 The Chambal River basin is a critical water resource for the states of Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan,
and Uttar Pradesh, supporting the livelihoods of millions of people and the economy of the region.
 The river basin is also a major tributary of the Yamuna River, which is a crucial water source for
the National Capital Region (NCR) of Delhi and the downstream states.
 The sustainable management of the Chambal River basin, through projects like the ERCP and the
Parbati-Kalisindh-Chambal River Link, is essential for ensuring water security, food security, and
environmental sustainability in the region.
 The merged project also has the potential to promote regional cooperation and integration among
the riparian states, by facilitating the sharing of water resources and benefits.
Global Context:
 The Chambal River basin is part of the larger Ganges-Yamuna river system, which is one of the
most populous and agriculturally productive regions in the world.
 The sustainable development and management of the Ganges-Yamuna river system, including its
tributaries like the Chambal River, is critical for achieving the Sustainable Development Goals
(SDGs) in the region, particularly SDG 6 (Clean Water and Sanitation) and SDG 2 (Zero Hunger).
 The Chambal River basin is also a global biodiversity hotspot, home to several endangered and
endemic species of flora and fauna, including the gharial, the Gangetic river dolphin, and the Indian
skimmer (Rynchops albicollis).
 The conservation and restoration of the Chambal River ecosystem, through integrated river basin
management and ecosystem-based adaptation, is important for maintaining the ecological
integrity and resilience of the region in the face of climate change and anthropogenic pressures.
 The merged project also highlights the global trend of river interlinking and inter-basin water
transfers, as a strategy for addressing water scarcity and regional imbalances in water availability.
However, such projects also raise concerns about the environmental, social, and economic costs
and benefits, and the need for participatory and transparent decision-making processes.
BEDTI-VARADA PROJECT
Environmental groups in Karnataka have criticized the project to link the Bedti and Varada rivers,
calling it 'unscientific' and potentially harmful to the ecosystem.

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Bedti River:
A west-flowing river originating from the Western Ghats in the Hubli-Dharwad district of Karnataka.
 Flows through the districts of Uttara Kannada and Udupi before draining into the Arabian Sea near
the town of Gangavali.
 The river has a total length of ~170 km and a catchment area of ~3,574 sq km.
 The river is known for its scenic beauty, with several waterfalls and rapids along its course,
including the famous Magod Falls and the Jog Falls.
Varada River:
 An east-flowing river originating from the Western Ghats in the Shimoga district of Karnataka.
 Flows through the districts of Shimoga, Haveri, and Bellary before joining the Tungabhadra River
(a major tributary of the Krishna River) near the town of Galaganath.
 The river has a total length of ~220 km and a catchment area of ~5,198 sq km.
 The river is an important source of irrigation and drinking water for the region, with several minor
irrigation projects and lift irrigation schemes along its course.
Bedti-Varada Link Project:
 A proposed river interlinking project to transfer surplus water from the Bedti River basin to the
water-deficit areas of the Varada River basin.
 The project aims to provide drinking water to the drought-prone areas of Haveri, Gadag, and Bellary
districts, benefiting a population of ~15 lakh people.
 The project involves the construction of a 103 km long tunnel, with a discharge capacity of ~20
cumecs, from the proposed Pattanahalla dam on the Bedti River to the proposed Kendigere dam
on the Varada River.
 The estimated cost of the project is ~INR 3,500 crore (US$ 470 million), with a benefit-cost ratio
of 1.56.
Concerns and Criticisms:
 Environmental groups have raised concerns about the potential ecological impacts of the project,
including the submergence of forest areas, loss of biodiversity, and disruption of the natural flow
regime of the rivers.
 The Western Ghats, where the project is located, is a global biodiversity hotspot and a UNESCO
World Heritage Site, home to several endemic and endangered species of flora and fauna.
 The project area also falls within the eco-sensitive zone of the Bhimgad Wildlife Sanctuary, which
is known for its rich bird diversity and is an important elephant corridor.
 Critics have also questioned the technical feasibility and economic viability of the project, given
the long tunnel length and the high costs involved.
 There are also concerns about the social impacts of the project, including the displacement of local
communities and the loss of livelihoods dependent on the river ecosystem.

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Significance:
 The Bedti-Varada Link Project highlights the competing demands for water resources in the
Western Ghats region, between the water-surplus west-flowing rivers and the water-deficit east-
flowing rivers.
 The project also raises questions about the trade-offs between meeting the drinking water and
irrigation needs of the population and maintaining the ecological integrity and ecosystem services
of the rivers.
 The concerns and criticisms of the project underscore the need for a more holistic and integrated
approach to river basin planning and management, taking into account the environmental, social,
and economic dimensions of sustainability.
Geostrategic Significance:
 The Western Ghats are a critical water tower for peninsular India, sustaining the flows of several
major rivers like the Godavari, Krishna, and Cauvery, and supporting the livelihoods and well-being
of millions of people downstream.
 The conservation and sustainable management of the Western Ghats ecosystem is crucial for
ensuring water security, food security, and climate resilience in the region, as well as for
maintaining the biodiversity and cultural heritage of the region.
 The Bedti-Varada Link Project, if implemented, could have significant implications for the water
balance and ecosystem health of the Western Ghats, with potential cascading effects on the
downstream regions and communities.
 The project also highlights the need for greater regional cooperation and coordination among the
states sharing the Western Ghats ecosystem, for the equitable and sustainable development of
the region.
Global Context:
 The Western Ghats are one of the eight "hottest hotspots" of biological diversity in the world, and
are home to over 7,400 species of flowering plants, 1,814 species of non-flowering plants, 139
mammal species, 508 bird species, 179 amphibian species, and 288 freshwater fish species.
 The ecosystem services provided by the Western Ghats, such as water regulation, soil conservation,
carbon sequestration, and climate moderation, are estimated to be worth over US$ 20 billion per
year.
 The Western Ghats are also a key source of livelihood for over 50 million people, who depend on
the forests, rivers, and agro-ecosystems for their sustenance and well-being.
 The Bedti-Varada Link Project is part of the larger discourse on the trade-offs and synergies
between infrastructure development and ecosystem conservation, in the context of growing water
scarcity and climate change.
 The project also highlights the global challenge of balancing the water needs of different sectors
and regions, while ensuring the sustainability and resilience of the river systems and the dependent
communities.
 The concerns and criticisms of the project reflect the growing global awareness and activism
around the environmental and social impacts of large-scale infrastructure projects, and the need
for more participatory and accountable decision-making processes.

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GLACIAL LAKE ATLAS OF GANGA RIVER BASIN RELEASED
The Department of Water Resources, River Development, and Ganga Rejuvenation (DoWR, RD & GR)
released the Glacial Lake Atlas of Ganga Basin in June 2023, along with the launch of the NHP-Bhuvan
portal.

About the Glacial Lake Atlas:

 The atlas is based on the inventory of glacial lakes in part of the Ganga River basin, from its
origin to the foothills of the Himalayas, covering a catchment area of ~2,47,109 sq km.
 The study area includes parts of India and the transboundary region, covering the states of
Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, and Bihar.
 The atlas has been prepared by the National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC), Indian Space
Research Organisation (ISRO), under the National Hydrology Project (NHP).
 The atlas provides a comprehensive inventory and mapping of the glacial lakes in the Ganga
River basin, using remote sensing and GIS techniques.
 The atlas includes information on the location, size, type, and potential hazards of the glacial
lakes, as well as their spatial and temporal changes.

Significance:
 The Glacial Lake Atlas of Ganga Basin is a pioneering effort to assess the status and dynamics of
glacial lakes in the Ganga River basin, which is one of the most populous and economically
important river basins in the world.
 The atlas will provide valuable information and insights for water resource planning, disaster risk
management, and climate change adaptation in the region.
 The inventory of glacial lakes will help in identifying the potential glacial lake outburst flood (GLOF)
hazards, and in developing early warning systems and mitigation measures.
 The atlas will also support the research and monitoring of the cryosphere in the Ganga River basin,
which is critical for understanding the impacts of climate change on the water resources and
ecosystem of the region.
 The atlas is expected to contribute to the implementation of the National Mission for Sustaining
the Himalayan Ecosystem (NMSHE) and the National Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG), which are
flagship programs of the Government of India.
Geostrategic Significance:
 The Ganga River basin is a transboundary basin, shared by India, Nepal, and Bangladesh, and is
home to over 500 million people.
 The Ganga River and its tributaries are the lifeline of the region, supporting the livelihoods, culture,
and spirituality of the people, as well as the economy and ecology of the basin.
 The glaciers and glacial lakes in the upper Ganga River basin are the critical water towers of the
region, sustaining the flows and regulating the hydrology of the river system.

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 The melting of the glaciers and the formation and expansion of glacial lakes, due to climate
change, pose significant risks to the water security, food security, and disaster resilience of the
region.
 The Glacial Lake Atlas of Ganga Basin is a strategic tool for transboundary cooperation and
integrated river basin management in the Ganga River basin, facilitating the sharing of data,
knowledge, and best practices among the riparian countries.
Global Context:
 The Hindu Kush Himalayan (HKH) region, which includes the Ganga River basin, is known as the
"Third Pole" of the world, harboring the largest ice mass outside the polar regions.
 The HKH region is also a global biodiversity hotspot, home to over 35,000 species of plants and
animals, and providing ecosystem services to over 240 million people in the mountains and 1.65
billion people downstream.
 The glaciers and glacial lakes in the HKH region are highly sensitive to climate change, with the
region warming faster than the global average, and experiencing more frequent and intense
extreme weather events.
 The Glacial Lake Atlas of Ganga Basin is a model for other river basins in the HKH region and
beyond, for assessing and managing the risks and opportunities associated with glacial lakes and
GLOFs.
 The atlas also contributes to the global efforts on cryosphere monitoring and assessment, such as
the Global Land Ice Measurements from
Space (GLIMS) initiative and the Randolph Glacier Inventory (RGI).
 The development and application of the atlas aligns with the global agenda on sustainable
development, climate action, and disaster risk reduction, as reflected in the Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs), the Paris Agreement, and the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk
Reduction.
About the Ganga River Basin:
 The Ganga River basin is the largest river basin in India, covering an area of ~10,16,124 sq km,
and spanning 11 states.
 The basin is bounded by the Himalayas in the north, the Aravalli range in the west, the Vindhya and
Satpura ranges in the south, and the Brahmaputra basin in the east.
 The Ganga River originates from the Gangotri Glacier in the Uttarakhand Himalayas, and flows
eastwards through the states of Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, and West Bengal,
before draining into the Bay of Bengal.
 The major tributaries of the Ganga River include the Yamuna, Ramganga, Ghaghra, Gandak, Kosi,
and Son rivers, which join the main stem at different points along its course.
 The Ganga River basin is one of the most fertile and densely populated regions in the world,
supporting a rich diversity of agriculture, industry, and urban centers.
 The basin is also a cradle of civilization, with a long history of human settlement, cultural evolution,
and spiritual significance, as reflected in the numerous pilgrimage sites and heritage monuments
along the river.

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Significance:
 The Ganga River basin is a critical water resource for India, providing water for irrigation, domestic
use, industry, and energy production.
 The basin accounts for over 25% of India's water resources, and over 40% of its total irrigated area.
 The Ganga River and its tributaries also support a rich biodiversity, including several endangered
species such as the Gangetic dolphin, the gharial, and the Indian skimmer.
 The basin is a major source of livelihood for millions of people, through activities such as
agriculture, fishing, tourism, and navigation.
 The Ganga River is also a cultural and spiritual icon of India, revered as a goddess and a source of
purification and salvation by millions of Hindus.
Geostrategic Significance:
 The Ganga River basin is a strategic resource for India, not only for its water and economic value,
but also for its geopolitical significance.
 The basin is a transboundary resource, shared by India, Nepal, and Bangladesh, and is a key factor
in the regional cooperation and diplomacy among these countries.
 The basin is also a potential flashpoint for regional conflicts and tensions, due to the competing
demands and interests of the riparian states, and the impacts of upstream activities on
downstream users.
 The sustainable management and development of the Ganga River basin is a national priority for
India, as reflected in the National Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG) and the Namami Gange
program.
 The basin is also a focus of international cooperation and investment, with several multilateral and
bilateral agencies and initiatives supporting the conservation and development of the basin, such
as the World Bank, the European Union, and the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA).
Global Context:
 The Ganga River basin is one of the 10 most populous river basins in the world, and is a microcosm
of the global challenges and opportunities for sustainable development.
 The basin is a hotspot of climate change, with increasing temperatures, changing precipitation
patterns, and rising sea levels, affecting the water availability, food security, and disaster risks in
the region.
 The basin is also a hotspot of environmental degradation, with increasing pollution, deforestation,
and biodiversity loss, impacting the health and well-being of the ecosystem and the people.
 The Ganga River basin is a priority for global action on water and sustainable development, as
reflected in the Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 6 on clean water and sanitation, and the SDG
15 on life on land.
 The conservation and sustainable management of the Ganga River basin is a shared responsibility
of the local, national, and international community, requiring a multi-stakeholder and integrated
approach, based on the principles of equity, efficiency, and sustainability.
 The Glacial Lake Atlas of Ganga Basin is a valuable contribution to this global effort, providing a
scientific basis and a decision-support tool for the management of the glacial lakes and the
associated risks and opportunities in the basin.

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INDUS RIVER SYSTEM
The Indus River system is one of the most significant and disputed river systems in South Asia, as it
flows through the countries of China, India, and Pakistan. The river has been the subject of several
water-sharing agreements and conflicts between these countries, given its strategic and economic
importance.

The Indus River System:

The river flows in
The Indus River a north-westerly The major The Indus River
The river system
originates from direction tributaries of the system has a
is fed by both
the glaciers of through the The total length Indus River total drainage
glacial melt and
the Kailash Ladakh and of the Indus include the area of
monsoon rains,
Range in the Gilgit-Baltistan River is ~3,200 Jhelum, Chenab, ~11,65,000 sq
with the peak
Tibetan Plateau, regions of India km, making it Ravi, Beas, and km, of which
flows occurring
near Lake and Pakistan, one of the Sutlej rivers, ~56% lies in
during the
Mansarovar, at before entering longest rivers in which join the Pakistan, ~34%
summer months
an elevation of the plains of Asia. main stem at in India, ~5% in
(June-
~5,500 m above Punjab and different points China, and ~5%
September).
sea level. Sindh in along its course. in Afghanistan.
Pakistan.

Significance:
 The Indus River system is the lifeline of Pakistan, providing water for irrigation, domestic use, and
hydropower generation.
 The river system accounts for ~75% of the total water resources of Pakistan, and supports ~90%
of its agriculture and food production.
 The Indus River system also has a significant cultural and historical value, as it was the cradle of
the ancient Indus Valley Civilization, one of the earliest and most advanced civilizations in the
world.
 The river system is also a source of livelihood and sustenance for millions of people in the region,
through activities such as fishing, boating, and tourism.
 The Indus River system is also a rich repository of biodiversity, with several endemic and
endangered species of flora and fauna, such as the Indus River dolphin, the brown bear, and the
snow leopard.
Geostrategic Significance:
 The Indus River system is a strategic resource for the countries of China, India, and Pakistan, given
its role in the water security, food security, and energy security of the region.

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 The river system is also a potential source of regional cooperation and conflict, given the competing
demands and interests of the riparian countries, and the impacts of upstream activities on
downstream users.
 The Indus Waters Treaty (IWT) of 1960, brokered by the World Bank, is the main agreement
governing the sharing of the Indus waters between India and Pakistan. Under the IWT, India has
the exclusive rights to use the eastern rivers (Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej), while Pakistan has the
exclusive rights to use the western rivers (Indus, Jhelum, and Chenab), with some limited
allowances for India to use the western rivers for non-consumptive purposes, such as hydropower
generation and navigation.
 However, the IWT has been facing increasing challenges and tensions in recent years, due to the
changing hydrological, climatic, and political conditions in the region, as well as the growing water
scarcity and demand in both countries.
 The Indus River system is also a strategic concern for China, as it is part of the larger Tibetan
Plateau, which is the source of several major rivers in Asia, including the Brahmaputra, the
Mekong, and the Yangtze. China's activities and plans in the upper reaches of these rivers, such as
dam construction and water diversion, have raised concerns and tensions with the downstream
countries, including India.
Global Context:
 The Indus River system is one of the most important and stressed river systems in the world, facing
multiple challenges such as climate change, population growth, urbanization, and environmental
degradation.
 The river system is a case study of the global water crisis, with increasing water scarcity, water
quality deterioration, and water-related disasters, affecting the lives and livelihoods of millions of
people.
 The Indus River system is also a test case for transboundary water cooperation and conflict
resolution, as it involves multiple countries with different interests, capacities, and governance
systems.
 The Indus Waters Treaty is often cited as a successful example of international water diplomacy
and cooperation, having survived several wars and crises between India and Pakistan, and
providing a framework for dialogue and dispute resolution.
 However, the treaty is also facing increasing criticism and calls for revision, in light of the changing
realities and needs of the region, as well as the emerging challenges and opportunities for water
management and development.
 The sustainable management and development of the Indus River system requires a multi-
stakeholder and integrated approach, based on the principles of equity, efficiency, and
sustainability, and taking into account the social, economic, and environmental dimensions of
water.
 The Indus River system is also a priority for global action on water and sustainable development,
as reflected in the Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 6 on clean water and sanitation, and the
SDG 13 on climate action.
 The conservation and sustainable use of the Indus River system is a shared responsibility of the
local, national, and international community, requiring increased cooperation, investment, and
innovation in water governance, infrastructure, and technology.

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 SOIL

Soil Composition and Horizons:

•Soil is a mixture of rock debris and organic materials that develop on the Earth's surface. The major
factors affecting soil formation are relief, parent material, climate, vegetation, other life forms, time,
and human activities.

Soil consists of the following layers called horizons:

•O Horizon: Contains a high percentage of soil organic matter.

•A Horizon: Darkened by the accumulation of organic matter.
•E Horizon: Formed through the removal (eluviation) of clays, organic matter, iron, or aluminum.
Usually lightened in color due to these removals.
•B Horizon: Transformed substantially by soil formation processes such as color and structure
development, deposition (illuviation) of materials, carbonate or gypsum loss, brittleness, high
density, or intense weathering.
•C Horizon: Minimally affected or unaffected by soil formation processes.
•R Horizon: Bedrock.
•The chief components of soil are Inorganic matter (40%), Organic matter (10%), Soil water (25%),
and Soil air (25%) approximately. The actual amounts depend on the soil type.
•Soil organisms include protozoans, mites, nematodes, rotifers, blue-green or green algae, soil
bacteria, fungi, arthropods like mites, myriapods, spiders, insect larvae, and collembola.

Soil Classification in India:

•Based on genesis, color, composition, and location, the soils of India are classified into:
•Alluvial soils
•Black soils
•Red and Yellow soils
•Laterite soils
•Arid soils
•Saline soils
•Peaty soils
•Forest soils

Alluvial Soils:

•Coverage: 40% of India's total area, widespread in northern plains and river valleys.
•Formation: Depositional soils transported and deposited by rivers and streams. Khadar (new
alluvium) is deposited by annual floods, while Bhangar (older alluvium) is deposited away from flood
plains.
•Crops: Rich in humus, supports wheat, rice, maize, sugarcane, pulses, oilseed, etc.
•Fertility and Minerals: Rich in humus, potash, organic matter; poor in phosphorous.

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 Black Soils (Regur Soil/Black Cotton Soil):

•Coverage: Deccan Plateau - Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, parts of Tamil Nadu.
•Characteristics: Clayey, deep, impermeable; swell when wet, shrink and develop cracks when dry (self-ploughing).
Retain moisture for long periods.
•Crops: Suitable for cotton, sugarcane, potato, oilseeds, groundnuts, pulses, soybean.
•Fertility and Minerals: Rich in lime, iron, magnesia, alumina, potash; lack phosphorous, nitrogen, organic matter.

Red and Yellow Soils:

•Coverage: Eastern and southern Deccan Plateau, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, southern parts of middle Ganga plain.
•Formation: Develop on crystalline igneous rocks in low rainfall areas. Red color due to iron diffusion, yellow when
hydrated.
•Crops: Fine-grained soils support cotton, wheat, pulses, oilseeds, potato, tobacco.
•Fertility and Minerals: Fine-grained soil is fertile; coarse-grained less fertile. Poor in nitrogen, phosphorous,
humus.

Laterite Soils:

•Coverage: Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh, hilly areas of Odisha and Assam.
•Formation: Develop in high temperature and rainfall areas due to intense leaching by tropical rains.
•Crops: Not suitable for cultivation without manures and fertilizers. Cashew nuts grown in some regions.
•Fertility and Minerals: Poor in organic matter, nitrogen, phosphate, calcium; rich in iron oxide and potash.

Arid Soils:

•Coverage: Western Rajasthan, exhibiting characteristic arid topography.

•Characteristics: Red to brown, sandy, saline. Kankar layer restricts water infiltration.
•Crops: Not very fertile, mostly barren. Support bajra, millets in some areas.
•Fertility and Minerals: Lack moisture, humus; deficient in nitrogen, varying phosphate; calcium increases with
depth.

Saline Soils (Usara Soils):

•Characteristics: Contain larger proportions of sodium, potassium, magnesium; infertile, do not support
vegetation. More salts due to dry climate and poor drainage.
•Coverage: Arid and semi-arid regions, waterlogged and swampy areas. Western Gujarat, eastern coast deltas,
Sundarbans (West Bengal), Rann of Kutch.

Peaty Soils:

•Coverage: Areas of heavy rainfall and high humidity with good vegetation growth. Northern Bihar, southern
Uttarakhand, coastal West Bengal, Odisha, Tamil Nadu.
•Characteristics: Heavy, black, high organic matter (up to 40-50%). Rich humus content.
•Crops: Extremely fertile, support wheat, rice, pulses.

Forest Soils:

•Coverage: Forest areas with sufficient rainfall. Loamy and silty in valleys, coarse-grained on upper slopes.
•Characteristics: Denudation and acidic with low humus in snow-bound Himalayan areas. Fertile in lower valleys.
•Crops: Suitable for wheat, tea, coffee, barley, maize, tropical and temperate fruits.

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SOIL DEGRADATION
 According to the National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning (as of May 2024), around
150 million hectares (30%) of India's soil is degraded. Of this, 29% is lost to the sea, 61% is
transferred from one place to another, and 10% is deposited in reservoirs.
 Globally, soil degradation affects approximately 33% of land, with Africa and Asia being the most
affected regions (UNCCD, 2023).
NUTRIENT DEFICIENCY IN SOIL
 A Centre for Science and Environment (CSE) report 'The State of Biofertilizers and Organic
Fertilizers in India' (2024) found that 85% of soil samples are deficient in organic carbon, with
levels being "very low," "low," or "medium."
 Organic carbon deficiency is widespread across India, with 24 states and UTs having at least half
of their soil samples deficient. Haryana, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Mizoram,
and Andaman and Nicobar Islands have the most deficient soils.
 Nitrogen deficiency: 97% of samples (45% very low, 36% low, 16% medium). 32 states/UTs have
nitrogen deficiency in at least half of their samples.
 Phosphorus deficiency: 83% of samples (17% very low, 31% low, 35% medium).
 Potassium deficiency: 71% of samples (5% very low, 14% low, 52% medium).
 Indian soils are also deficient in micronutrients like boron, iron, sulfur, zinc, with lesser deficiencies
in copper and manganese.
 Globally, nutrient depletion is a major issue, with an estimated 60% of agricultural soils being
deficient in essential nutrients (FAO, 2023).
Factors Affecting Soil Fertility:
 Soil composition: A complex mixture of minerals, water, air, organic matter, and microorganisms.
Microbes provide essential nutrients for crop growth.
 Biological components: Bacteria, fungi, algae protect plants from pathogens and enhance soil
fertility.
 Chemical components: Presence of macro and micronutrients.
 Physical components: Soil texture, structure, water holding capacity.
Significance of Soil:
 Food security: Healthy soils are essential for sustainable agriculture and ensuring food security for
the growing global population.
 Carbon sequestration: Soils are the largest terrestrial carbon sink, playing a crucial role in
mitigating climate change.
 Biodiversity: Soils support a vast diversity of life, including microorganisms, insects, and plants,
which are essential for ecosystem functioning.
 Water management: Soils regulate water flow, filtration, and storage, impacting water availability
and quality.
 Economic importance: Soil health directly impacts agricultural productivity, farmer livelihoods, and
the broader economy.

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Recent Developments and Initiatives : India:
 National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA): Promotes integrated farming, organic
farming, and soil health management.
 Soil Health Card Scheme: Provides soil nutrient status and recommendations to farmers.
 Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY): Promotes organic farming and soil health.
 National Project on Management of Soil Health and Fertility: Focuses on sustainable soil health
management.
Global:
 UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs): SDG 2 (Zero Hunger) and SDG 15 (Life on Land)
emphasize sustainable soil management.
 FAO's Global Soil Partnership: Promotes sustainable soil management and raising awareness
about soil importance.
 International Year of Soils (2015): Raised global awareness about the importance of soils for food
security and ecosystem functions.
 Global Soil Biodiversity Initiative: Promotes the conservation and sustainable use of soil
biodiversity.
OCEANOGRAPHY MOVEMENT OF OCEANS – WAVES, TIDES, CURRENTS OCEAN WAVES
 Ocean waves are disturbances in the ocean surface, formed by wind, gravity, earthquakes, and
submarine landslides.
 Waves range in length from a fraction of a centimeter (ripples) to half the circumference of Earth
(tides).
 Waves can travel great distances before reaching the coast, originating from a hemisphere away.
Recent Developments :
 A study revealed that waves are surging to greater heights, with surf reaching at least 13 feet (4
meters) more frequently off the coast of California, likely due to climate change impacts on ocean
conditions.
 Climate change is expected to alter wave patterns and heights globally, with potential implications
for coastal erosion, infrastructure, and marine ecosystems (IPCC, 2023).
OCEAN TIDES
 Tides are brief, episodic changes in ocean surface height caused by the gravitational pull of the
moon and sun, as well as Earth's spinning.
 High tide occurs when the crest of the wave reaches a location; low tide corresponds to the trough.
 The difference in height between high and low tide is called the tidal range.
Recent Developments and Initiatives :
 World Oceans Day 2024 was observed with the theme "Planet Ocean: Tides are Changing,"
highlighting the impacts of climate change on ocean tides and the need for action.
 Research continues to explore the potential impacts of sea-level rise on tidal dynamics and coastal
communities (Ocean Science Journal, 2024).

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OCEAN CURRENT POWER
 Ocean current power technology harnesses the kinetic energy of ocean currents to generate
electricity.
 It has advantages over other renewable energy sources, such as being more predictable and
consistent than solar or wind power.
Recent Developments :
 Several countries, including the UK, USA, Japan, and Australia, are investing in ocean current power
research and development (International Energy Agency, 2024).
 The world's largest ocean current power project, the "Ocean Energy 1," became operational off the
coast of Scotland in 2024, with a capacity of 500 MW.
Significance: of Ocean Currents:
 Energy security: Ocean current power offers a renewable, low-carbon energy source, contributing
to energy security and climate change mitigation.
 Economic opportunities: The development of ocean current power technology creates new
industries, jobs, and economic growth in coastal regions.
 International cooperation: Collaborative research and development of ocean current power foster
international partnerships and knowledge sharing.
TEMPERATURE & SALINITY OF OCEANS OXYGEN MINIMUM ZONES (OMZs)
 OMZs are areas in oceans where oxygen saturation is at its lowest, typically found at depths of
200-1000 meters.
 They are prevalent along the western coasts of continents and play a role in controlling carbon and
nitrogen cycling in oceans.
 OMZs are expanding globally due to factors like climate change, nutrient pollution, and changes in
ocean circulation (Science Advances, 2023).
Impacts of Expanding OMZs:
 Biodiversity loss: OMZs create "dead zones" inhospitable to most marine life, leading to decreased
biodiversity.
 Fisheries: Expanding OMZs can reduce fish habitats and populations, impacting fisheries and food
security.
 Greenhouse gas emissions: OMZs can enhance the production of nitrous oxide, a potent
greenhouse gas, contributing to climate change.
INDIAN OCEAN GEOID LOW (IOGL)
 The IOGL is a vast "gravity hole" in the Indian Ocean, spanning over two million square miles,
located about 600 miles below the Earth's surface.
 It is caused by variations in the density and mass distribution within the Earth, creating differences
in gravitational attraction.
 The IOGL is not a perfect sphere due to the irregularity in Earth's gravitational field.

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Significance of IOGL:
 Geodynamics: Studying the IOGL helps understand Earth's interior structure and dynamics.
 Geodesy: The IOGL affects the shape of Earth and is crucial for accurate measurements in geodesy
and satellite navigation.
 Sea-level change: Variations in Earth's gravity field, like the IOGL, can influence regional sea-level
change patterns.
INDIAN OCEAN DIPOLE (IOD)
 The IOD is an ocean-atmosphere interaction similar to the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) but
in the Indian Ocean.
 A positive IOD phase is characterized by cooler than normal waters in the eastern Indian Ocean
and warmer than normal waters in the western Indian Ocean.
 The IOD impacts rainfall patterns in the Indian subcontinent, East Africa, and Australia.
Recent IOD Events and Impacts :
 A strong positive IOD event in 2023 contributed to above-average rainfall in parts of India,
offsetting some of the negative impacts of the co-occurring El Niño.
 Consecutive positive IOD years (2022 and 2023) led to flooding in East Africa, displacing
thousands and affecting agriculture and food security (OCHA, 2024).
 The IOD's influence on the Indian monsoon and its potential to counteract El Niño effects is an
active area of research (Journal of Climate, 2024).
Significance: of IOD:
 Agriculture and food security: The IOD's impact on rainfall patterns affects agricultural productivity
and food security in the Indian Ocean rim countries.
 Disaster management: Understanding and forecasting IOD events is crucial for mitigating the
impacts of floods, droughts, and other climate-related disasters.
 Regional cooperation: Monitoring and sharing IOD information fosters regional cooperation among
Indian Ocean countries for better climate adaptation and resilience.
HIGH SALINITY IN THE DEAD SEA
 The Dead Sea, located at the border of Israel and Jordan, is the Earth's lowest point and is known
for its high salinity.
 Its salinity is approximately 10 times that of the Mediterranean Sea and 3 times that of Utah's
Great Salt Lake.
 The high salinity is due to the Dead Sea being landlocked in the Earth's lowest valley, creating a
natural basin for mineral accumulation, and intense evaporation due to the arid climate.
Significance of the Dead Sea:
 Tourism: The Dead Sea's unique properties, including its high salinity allowing for effortless
floating, attract tourists from around the world.
 Mineral extraction: The Dead Sea is a rich source of minerals like potash, bromine, and
magnesium, which are extracted for various industrial applications.

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 Health and wellness: The mineral-rich waters and mud of the Dead Sea are believed to have
therapeutic properties, attracting visitors for health and wellness tourism.
Challenges Facing the Dead Sea:
 Shrinking water levels: The Dead Sea is rapidly shrinking due to reduced inflows from the Jordan
River and high evaporation rates, leading to environmental and economic concerns.
 Sinkholes: As the Dead Sea recedes, thousands of sinkholes have formed along its shores, posing
risks to infrastructure and human safety.
 Regional cooperation: Sustainable management of the Dead Sea requires cooperation among the
bordering countries, Israel, Jordan, and Palestine, amidst political tensions.
SEAFLOOR SPREADING SEAFLOOR SPREADING SLOWED: STUDY
 A study analyzing data from the last 19 million years found that seafloor spreading rates have
slowed down by approximately 35% globally (Nature Geoscience, 2024).
 Seafloor spreading is a geological process that creates new oceanic crust at mid-ocean ridges
through the upwelling and cooling of magma.
 Slower spreading rates have implications for plate tectonics, seawater chemistry, and marine
ecosystems.
Implications of Slowed Seafloor Spreading:
 Plate tectonics: Slower spreading rates may influence the movement and interaction of tectonic
plates, affecting earthquake and volcanic activity along plate boundaries.
 Seawater chemistry: Reduced spreading rates can alter the exchange of elements between the
oceanic crust and seawater, impacting ocean chemistry and biogeochemical cycles.
 Marine ecosystems: Changes in seafloor spreading and associated hydrothermal activity can affect
the distribution and composition of deep-sea ecosystems that rely on chemosynthetic energy
sources.
ATLANTIC OCEAN WIDENING
 The Atlantic Ocean, the world's second-largest ocean, is widening due to seafloor spreading at the
Mid-Atlantic Ridge.
 The North American and Eurasian plates are moving apart, allowing magma to rise and create new
oceanic crust.
 The widening of the Atlantic Ocean has implications for plate tectonics, ocean circulation, and the
distribution of marine life.
Impacts of Atlantic Ocean Widening:
 Plate tectonics: The widening of the Atlantic Ocean influences the movement and interaction of
the North American, South American, Eurasian, and African plates.
 Ocean circulation: Changes in the width and depth of the Atlantic Ocean can affect the circulation
patterns of currents like the Gulf Stream, with implications for regional climate and marine
ecosystems.
 Marine biodiversity: The creation of new oceanic crust and hydrothermal vent systems along the
Mid-Atlantic Ridge supports unique deep-sea ecosystems and contributes to marine biodiversity.

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PACIFIC OCEAN SHRINKING
 The Pacific Ocean, the world's largest ocean, is shrinking due to the subduction of the Pacific Plate
beneath other tectonic plates.
 As the Pacific Plate moves deeper into the Earth's mantle, the ocean above it contracts, leading to
a gradual reduction in the size of the Pacific Ocean.
 The shrinking of the Pacific Ocean has implications for plate tectonics, earthquake and volcanic
activity, and the evolution of ocean basins.
Consequences of Pacific Ocean Shrinking:
 Plate tectonics: The subduction of the Pacific Plate drives the movement and deformation of the
surrounding tectonic plates, contributing to the formation of subduction zones, volcanic arcs, and
mountain ranges.
 Earthquake and volcanic activity: Subduction zones along the margins of the Pacific Plate, such as
the "Ring of Fire," are associated with frequent earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.
 Evolution of ocean basins: The long-term shrinking of the Pacific Ocean influences the
configuration and connectivity of ocean basins, affecting ocean circulation, climate patterns, and
the distribution of marine species.
Significance: of Seafloor Dynamics:
 Maritime boundaries: Changes in the size and shape of ocean basins due to seafloor spreading
and subduction can affect the delineation of maritime boundaries and exclusive economic zones
(EEZs) between countries.
 Resource exploration: The formation of new oceanic crust and the exposure of deep-sea mineral
deposits through seafloor spreading create opportunities for resource exploration and extraction.
 Scientific research: Studying seafloor dynamics provides insights into Earth's geological history,
plate tectonics, and the evolution of marine ecosystems, fostering international scientific
collaboration.
HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACTS ON THE WATER CYCLE
 Climate change is significantly altering the global water cycle, leading to increased variability and
extremes in precipitation patterns.
 Rising temperatures increase the atmosphere's capacity to hold moisture, resulting in more
intense rainfall events and increased evaporation.
 These changes are affecting the frequency and severity of droughts, floods, and other water-related
hazards.
Key Impacts of Climate Change on the Water Cycle:
 Intensified rainfall events: Warmer atmospheres can hold more moisture, leading to more frequent
and intense heavy rainfall events, increasing the risk of flooding.
 Prolonged droughts: Higher evaporation rates and changes in precipitation patterns contribute to
more severe and prolonged droughts in many regions.
 Glacier and ice sheet melt: Rising temperatures are accelerating the melting of glaciers and ice
sheets, altering the timing and magnitude of water availability in downstream regions.

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 Sea-level rise: The thermal expansion of oceans and the melting of land-based ice are causing
global sea-level rise, threatening coastal communities and ecosystems.
Recent Developments and Initiatives :
 The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) released the "State of Global Water Resources
2023" report, highlighting the severe impacts of climate change on the water cycle and the need
for urgent adaptation measures.
 The United Nations 2023 Water Conference focused on the sustainable management of water
resources in the face of climate change, with countries committing to accelerate action on water-
related goals.
 Major international initiatives, such as the Global Commission on Adaptation's Water Action Track
and the Alliance for Global Water Adaptation, are working to enhance water resilience and support
adaptation efforts worldwide.
Significance: of Water Cycle Changes:
 Water security: Alterations in the water cycle pose significant challenges to water security,
affecting the availability and quality of water resources for human consumption, agriculture, and
ecosystems.
 Transboundary water management: Changes in the timing and distribution of water resources can
exacerbate tensions and conflicts over shared water resources between countries, requiring
enhanced transboundary cooperation and water diplomacy.
 Migration and displacement: Water scarcity, droughts, and floods can drive migration and
displacement, creating social, economic, and political pressures in affected regions and receiving
communities.
 Food security: Impacts on agricultural productivity and the reliability of water supplies for irrigation
threaten food security, particularly in regions heavily dependent on rain-fed agriculture.
 Infrastructure and economic impacts: Extreme water-related events can damage infrastructure,
disrupt economic activities, and strain public budgets, hindering sustainable development efforts.
Conclusion: As of May 2, 2024, the fields of soil geography, oceanography, and hydrology continue to
advance our understanding of the complex interactions between Earth's systems and the impacts of
human activities and climate change. The Significance: of these domains is increasingly recognized,
as they have far-reaching implications for food security, water resources, energy, and sustainable
development.

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 OTHER
CENTRE IDENTIFIED 30 CRITICAL MINERALS

Background:

•In a significant move to ensure India's economic development and national security, the
Indian government released a list of '30 critical minerals' in 2023. These minerals are
deemed essential for the country's growth and security.

Definition of Critical Minerals:

•A mineral is classified as critical when the risk of supply shortage and the associated
impact on the economy is relatively higher compared to other raw materials. The report
defines critical minerals as "those minerals which are essential for economic
development and national security, and their lack of availability or concentration of
existence, extraction, or processing in few geographical locations may lead to supply
chain vulnerability and disruption".

Selected Elements:

•The 30 minerals identified as most critical for India were selected based on their high
economic importance, high supply risk, or both parameters being high. The list includes:
•Antimony, Beryllium, Bismuth, Cobalt, Copper, Gallium, Germanium, Graphite, Hafnium,
Indium, Lithium, Molybdenum, Niobium, Nickel, PGE, Phosphorous, Potash, REE,
Rhenium, Silicon, Strontium, Tantalum, Tellurium, Tin, Titanium, Tungsten, Vanadium,
Zirconium, Selenium, and Cadmium.
•Two minerals on the list, Phosphorous and Potash, are critical as fertilizer minerals.
•Import Dependence: India is 100% import-dependent on ten minerals from the list:
lithium, cobalt, nickel, vanadium, niobium, germanium, rhenium, beryllium, tantalum,
and strontium.

Global Context: Many countries have identified critical minerals essential for their economic and
strategic interests. For example:
 The United States has listed 35 critical minerals, including rare earth elements, cobalt, and lithium.
 The European Union has identified 30 critical raw materials, focusing on their economic
importance and supply risk.
 Australia has designated 24 critical minerals, emphasizing their role in clean energy technologies
and defense applications.

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Indian Context: India's demand for critical minerals is expected to increase significantly in the
coming years, driven by the growth in renewable energy, electric vehicles, and high-tech industries.
Some key points:
 India has set a target of achieving 450 GW of renewable energy capacity by 2030, which will
require substantial amounts of critical minerals like lithium, cobalt, and rare earth elements.
 The government has launched initiatives like the National Electric Mobility Mission Plan and the
Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of Electric Vehicles (FAME) scheme to promote electric
vehicles, further increasing the demand for critical minerals.
 India's electronics and semiconductor industry is also growing rapidly, requiring minerals like
gallium, indium, and rare earth elements.
To address the supply risks and reduce import dependence, India is taking steps to explore and
develop domestic resources of critical minerals. The government has launched the National Mineral
Exploration Trust (NMET) to boost exploration activities and has signed agreements with countries like
Australia and the United States for cooperation in critical mineral supply chains.
INDIA JOINS US-LED CRITICAL MINERAL CLUB

•In a significant development, India joined the Mineral Security

Partnership (MSP) in 2023, a US-led collaboration aimed at
Background:
catalyzing public and private investment in critical mineral supply
chains globally.
•The MSP is a multi-country partnership that includes Australia,
Canada, Finland, France, Germany, Japan, the Republic of Korea,
About Mineral
Sweden, the United Kingdom, the European Commission, Italy,
Security Partnership
and now India. The partnership focuses on the supply chains of
(MSP):
critical minerals such as Cobalt, Nickel, Lithium, and the 17 rare
earth elements.
•The primary goal of the MSP is to ensure that critical minerals
are produced, processed, and recycled in a manner that supports
the ability of countries to realize the full economic development
benefits of their geological endowments. The partnership aims to
Goal and Objectives:
catalyze investment from governments and the private sector to
develop strategic opportunities across the full value chain while
adhering to the highest environmental, social, and governance
standards.

Geostrategic Significance:
The MSP is seen as a strategic move to counter China's dominance in the critical minerals supply
chain. China has created extensive processing infrastructure for rare earth minerals and has acquired
mines in Africa for elements like Cobalt. By joining the MSP, India aims to secure its supply of critical
minerals and reduce its dependence on China.
Indian Context: India's joining of the MSP is a significant step towards ensuring the country's energy
security and promoting sustainable development. Some key points:

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 India has set ambitious targets for electric vehicle adoption and renewable energy deployment,
which require a stable supply of critical minerals.
 The country has limited domestic reserves of many critical minerals and heavily relies on imports,
making it vulnerable to supply disruptions.
 By joining the MSP, India can leverage the expertise and resources of partner countries to develop
its critical mineral supply chains and attract investments in exploration, mining, and processing.
Global Context: The demand for critical minerals is projected to grow exponentially in the coming
decades, driven by the transition to clean energy and the increasing adoption of digital technologies.
Some key global trends:
 The International Energy Agency estimates that the demand for critical minerals could increase by
up to six times by 2040, depending on the pace of the energy transition.
 The global rare earth elements market is expected to reach $20.6 billion by 2025, growing at a
CAGR of 10.7% from 2020 to 2025.
 Countries and regions like the United States, European Union, and Japan have launched initiatives
to secure their critical mineral supply chains and reduce dependence on China.
India's joining of the MSP is a strategic move that aligns with the country's economic and security
interests while contributing to global efforts to develop sustainable and resilient critical mineral supply
chains.
KERALA FORMS ORGANIC FARMING MISSION TO BOOST AGRICULTURE
Background:
In a significant step towards promoting sustainable agriculture, the Kerala Government has
established an Organic Farming Mission to encourage the adoption of organic and climate-smart
farming practices in the state.
About the Mission:
The Organic Farming Mission aims to increase the area under organic farming to 5,000 hectares in
the next five years, with an annual target of 1,000 hectares. The Kerala Agriculture Department will
designate at least 10% of the area in state-run farms for organic farming practices, and selected
beneficiaries/farms under the organic farming schemes are required to continue this practice for at
least five years.
Key Initiatives:
The mission will implement a comprehensive organic farming protocol in alignment with national and
international standards. It will focus on adding value to organic products and ensuring that farmers
have access to high-quality seeds and production equipment/materials. Various organizations like
Krishikoottam collectives, Karshika Karma Sena, Kudumbasree, Krishisree Centre, and Agro Service
Centers will facilitate this process.
Organic Farming: Organic farming is an agricultural method that focuses on cultivating crops while
minimizing the use of synthetic pesticides, fertilizers, genetically modified organisms (GMOs), and
growth regulators. It relies on natural substances and processes to maintain soil fertility, control pests
and diseases, and foster crop growth.

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National Initiatives for Organic Farming: India has launched several initiatives to promote organic
farming, including:
1. National Programme for Organic Production (NPOP): Sets standards for organic production,
accredits certifying agencies, and regulates the organic food market in India.
2. Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY): Promotes traditional indigenous practices along with
organic farming and provides financial assistance to farmers.
3. Mission Organic Value Chain Development for North Eastern Region (MOVCDNER): Develops
organic value chains in the northeastern states through capacity-building, research, certification,
and infrastructure development.
4. National Project on Organic Farming (NPOF): Encourages organic farming by providing financial
assistance and supporting infrastructure development.
Indian Context: India has the largest number of organic farmers globally, with over 1.5 million farmers
practicing organic farming as of 2022. The country's organic food market is expected to reach $10.73
billion by 2027, growing at a CAGR of 20.5% from 2021 to 2027. Some key points:
 India's organic farming area has increased from 0.42 million hectares in 2010-11 to 2.78 million
hectares in 2020-21.
 The government has set a target of bringing 4% of the country's net sown area under organic
farming by 2025.
 States like Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, and Sikkim have taken
significant steps to promote organic farming.
Global Context: The global organic food market is expected to reach $437.36 billion by 2026,
growing at a CAGR of 14% from 2021 to 2026. Some key global trends:
 The United States is the largest organic food market, followed by the European Union and China.
 Countries like Germany, France, and Italy have a strong organic food market and have
implemented policies to support organic farming.
 The demand for organic products is driven by increasing consumer awareness about health and
environmental concerns and the growing preference for clean-label and natural products.
Kerala's Organic Farming Mission is a significant step towards promoting sustainable agriculture and
aligns with the national and global trends of increasing organic farming and organic food consumption.
INDO-US COOPERATION IN AGRICULTURE
Background:
India and the United States have a long history of cooperation in the agriculture sector, dating back to
the 1950s and 1960s when the Rockefeller and Ford Foundations played a crucial role in supporting
India's Green Revolution and agricultural development.
Green Revolution in India:
The Green Revolution, launched under the guidance of geneticist M. S. Swaminathan in the 1960s,
transformed India's agriculture into a modern industrial system through the adoption of technology
such as high-yielding variety (HYV) seeds, mechanized farm tools, irrigation facilities, pesticides, and
fertilizers. The primary aim was to introduce HYVs of cereals to alleviate poverty and malnutrition.

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Benefits of the Green Revolution: The Green Revolution had undoubtedly positive effects on overall
food security in India, leading to increased agricultural production, especially in Haryana, Punjab, and
Uttar Pradesh. The key benefits include:
 Increased area under farming
 Double-cropping (planting two crops annually)
 Adoption of HYV seeds
 Increased use of inorganic fertilizers and pesticides
 Improved irrigation facilities
 Improved farm implements and crop protection measures
Indo-US Cooperation: India and the United States have continued to strengthen their cooperation in
the agriculture sector over the years. Some key areas of collaboration include:
1. Agricultural Research: The US-India Agricultural Knowledge Initiative (AKI), launched in 2005,
promotes collaboration in agricultural research, education, and extension.
2. Food Security: The US has supported India's efforts to improve food security through initiatives like
the Feed the Future program, which aims to reduce poverty and hunger.
3. Trade: India and the US have a significant trade relationship in the agriculture sector, with India
being a major exporter of agricultural products like spices, rice, and cotton to the US.
4. Capacity Building: The US has provided technical assistance and capacity-building support to India
in areas like agricultural market development, food safety, and food processing.
Indian Context: Agriculture plays a vital role in India's economy, employing over 50% of the workforce
and contributing around 18% to the country's GDP as of 2022. Some key points:
 India is the world's largest producer of milk, pulses, and spices and the second-largest producer of
fruits and vegetables.
 The government has launched initiatives like the Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY) and
the Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchai Yojana (PMKSY) to support farmers and improve agricultural
productivity.
 India aims to double farmers' income by 2022 through various interventions in the agriculture
sector.
Global Context: The global agriculture market is expected to reach $12.1 trillion by 2025, growing at
a CAGR of 5.5% from 2020 to 2025. Some key global trends:
 The demand for food is increasing due to population growth and changing dietary preferences,
putting pressure on agricultural resources.
 Climate change is affecting agricultural productivity and leading to increased frequency of
droughts, floods, and other extreme weather events.
 There is a growing emphasis on sustainable agriculture practices and the adoption of technology
like precision farming and vertical farming.
Indo-US cooperation in agriculture has played a significant role in India's agricultural development and
continues to be an important aspect of the bilateral relationship. As India and the US face common
challenges like food security and climate change, strengthening this cooperation will be crucial for
promoting sustainable agriculture and ensuring global food security.

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REGENERATIVE AGRICULTURE & ITS INCREASING NEED
Background:
 Regenerative agriculture has been gaining attention from stakeholders as an effective approach
to building resilience in agroecosystems. This holistic approach to agriculture focuses on the
interconnection of farming systems, including soil health, food quality, biodiversity improvement,
water quality, and air quality.
Principles of Regenerative Agriculture: Regenerative agriculture is based on several key principles:
1. Minimize soil disturbance through conservation tillage
2. Diversify crops to replenish nutrients and disrupt pest and disease life cycles
3. Retain soil cover using cover crops
4. Integrate livestock, which adds manure to the soil and serves as a source of carbon sinks
Indigenous Origins: Regenerative agriculture is not a new concept; it was practiced by Indigenous
communities centuries ago, long before the advent of industrial agriculture. These traditional farming
practices were based on a deep understanding of the land and the interconnectedness of various
elements in the ecosystem.
Indian Context: In India, regenerative agriculture is gaining traction as a means to address the
challenges of soil degradation, water scarcity, and climate change. Some key points:
 The government has launched initiatives like the National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture
(NMSA) and the Soil Health Card Scheme to promote sustainable agriculture practices.
 Organizations like the Centre for Sustainable Agriculture (CSA) and the Regenerative Agriculture
Alliance of India (RAAI) are working to promote regenerative agriculture practices among farmers.
 States like Andhra Pradesh and Telangana have launched programs to promote regenerative
agriculture and organic farming.
Global Context: Regenerative agriculture is being recognized globally as a key strategy for achieving
the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and mitigating climate change. Some key global trends:
 The global regenerative agriculture market is expected to reach $11.8 billion by 2027, growing at
a CAGR of 17.5% from 2020 to 2027.
 Countries like the United States, Australia, and the United Kingdom have launched initiatives to
promote regenerative agriculture practices and support farmers in the transition.
 Multinational companies like General Mills, Danone, and Unilever have committed to sourcing
ingredients from regenerative agriculture systems.
Benefits of Regenerative Agriculture: Regenerative agriculture offers several benefits for both the
environment and the farming community:
1. Soil Health: Regenerative practices help to build soil organic matter, improve soil structure, and
enhance nutrient cycling.
2. Climate Resilience: Regenerative agriculture can help to mitigate climate change by sequestering
carbon in the soil and reducing greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture.
3. Biodiversity: Diversifying crops and integrating livestock can help to improve biodiversity on the
farm and in the surrounding ecosystem.

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4. Water Conservation: Practices like cover cropping and conservation tillage can help to improve
water infiltration and reduce runoff, conserving water resources.
5. Farmer Livelihoods: Regenerative agriculture can help to improve farmer livelihoods by reducing
input costs, increasing crop yields, and enhancing the resilience of farming systems.
As the world faces the challenges of climate change, soil degradation, and food insecurity,
regenerative agriculture offers a promising solution for building resilient and sustainable food
systems. By drawing on traditional knowledge and modern science, regenerative agriculture can help
to create a more sustainable and equitable future for all.
ANNUAL MEET ON COTTON CROP
Background:
The two-day Annual Group Meeting 2022-23 of the All India Coordinated Research Project (AICRP) on
cotton crop was held at Punjab Agricultural University (PAU), Ludhiana, in 2023.
All India Coordinated Research Project (AICRP):
The AICRP is a landmark in the history of agricultural research in India, extended to fruit crops during
the Fourth Five Year Plan. Under this system, both central research institutes and State Agricultural
Universities (SAUs) work together to find solutions to various problems in agriculture.
Cotton Farming Patterns:
Cotton is a Kharif crop that comes from the natural fibers of cotton plants, which are native to tropical
and subtropical regions. Being renewable and biodegradable, cotton is the most environmentally
friendly raw material for the textile industry compared to its synthetic alternatives.
Key points about cotton farming:
 Cotton plants have a large growing period, which can extend up to 200 days.
 Growing cotton starts between December and March.
 These plants require a relatively high temperature (21-30°C) over a long growing season.
 Cotton is a less water-intensive crop as it is a xerophyte, which can grow in dry, arid environments.
Varieties of Cotton: India is the only country to grow all four species of cultivated cotton:
1. Gossypium arboreum
2. Gossypium herbaceum (Asian cotton)
3. Gossypium barbadense (Egyptian cotton)
4. Gossypium hirsutum (American Upland cotton)
G. hirsutum represents 94% of the hybrid cotton production in India, and all the current Bt cotton
hybrids are G. hirsutum. India is the only country that grows cotton as hybrids and was the first to
develop hybrid cotton back in 1970.
Bt Cotton: Bt crops are transgenic crops that produce the same toxin as the bacterium Bacillus
thuringiensis in the plant cell, thereby protecting the crops from pests. The bacterium secretes specific
proteins known as "cry proteins" that are toxic to insects.
Indian Context: India is the largest producer of cotton in the world, accounting for about 26% of the
global cotton production as of 2022. Some key points:

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 Cotton is cultivated in about 12.5 million hectares in India, with an average productivity of 460
kg/hectare.
 The major cotton-producing states in India are Gujarat, Maharashtra, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh,
Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Haryana, Rajasthan, and Punjab.
 The government has launched initiatives like the Technology Mission on Cotton (TMC) and the
Cotton Technology Mission (CTM) to improve cotton productivity and quality.
Global Context: The global cotton market is expected to reach $98.4 billion by 2027, growing at a
CAGR of 4.7% from 2020 to 2027. Some key global trends:
 China is the largest consumer of cotton, followed by India and the United States.
 The demand for organic cotton is increasing due to growing consumer awareness about
sustainable and eco-friendly products.
 The COVID-19 pandemic has disrupted the global cotton supply chain, leading to reduced demand
and lower prices.
Challenges and Opportunities: The cotton sector in India faces several challenges, including:
 Yield stagnation and declining productivity
 Increasing cost of cultivation
 Pest and disease outbreaks
 Climate change and water scarcity
However, there are also opportunities for growth and innovation in the sector, such as:
 Adoption of high-yielding and pest-resistant varieties
 Promotion of sustainable and organic farming practices
 Value addition through processing and branding
 Strengthening of the cotton supply chain and market linkages
The AICRP on cotton plays a crucial role in addressing these challenges and opportunities through
collaborative research and development efforts. By bringing together researchers from central
institutes and SAUs, the project aims to develop innovative solutions for improving cotton productivity,
quality, and sustainability in India.
HYBRID SEEDS IN INDIA
Background:
The use of hybrid seeds in India has increased significantly, with private companies gaining a larger
share of the country's seed market. While hybrid seeds have contributed to increased agricultural
productivity, there are concerns that they could threaten the country's crop diversity and the hardy
traditional varieties suited to grow in their native climate.
Origin of Hybrids in India:
The origin of hybrids in India can be traced back to the Green Revolution in the 1960s, when the
government's primary effort was to increase agricultural productivity. The National Seed Corporation
was set up to develop, store, and distribute high-yielding variety (HYV) seeds. Until the 1980s, the

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public sector had firm control over the seed market and supplied open-pollinated variety (OPV) seeds
to farmers.
What are Hybrid Seeds?
A hybrid is created by crossing two different varieties of the same plant. Crossing involves taking the
pollen from the male flower of one plant and transferring it to the female flower parts of a different
plant. Once the ovary of the female flower is pollinated, it will begin to swell and form a fruit. The seeds
that develop inside that fruit are hybrid seeds.
Hybrid seeds are listed as F1 types, as opposed to open-pollinated (OP) types. Open-pollinated seeds
result from a simple sharing of pollen between two like parent plants.
Indian Context: The use of hybrid seeds in India has increased significantly in recent years, driven by
factors like increased productivity, resistance to pests and diseases, and higher market demand.
Some key points:
 Hybrid seeds account for about 60-65% of the total seed market in India as of 2022.
 The major crops for which hybrid seeds are used in India include cotton, maize, rice, pearl millet,
sorghum, and vegetables.
 The government has launched initiatives like the National Seed Plan (NSP) and the National Seed
Policy (NSP) to promote the use of quality seeds, including hybrids.
Global Context: The global hybrid seed market is expected to reach $99.1 billion by 2027, growing at
a CAGR of 8.5% from 2020 to 2027. Some key global trends:
 North America is the largest market for hybrid seeds, followed by Europe and Asia-Pacific.
 The demand for hybrid seeds is increasing due to factors like population growth, increasing food
demand, and the need for higher crop yields.
 The adoption of hybrid seeds is also driven by the increasing use of precision agriculture
technologies and the need for sustainable farming practices.
Challenges and Concerns: While hybrid seeds have contributed to increased agricultural productivity,
there are concerns about their impact on crop diversity and traditional varieties:
 Hybrid seeds can lead to the loss of traditional varieties that are well-suited to local climates and
have unique genetic traits.
 The use of hybrid seeds can also lead to increased dependence on external inputs like fertilizers
and pesticides, which can have negative environmental and health impacts.
 There are also concerns about the concentration of the seed market in the hands of a few large
companies, which can limit farmers' choices and increase their vulnerability to price fluctuations.
Way Forward: To address these challenges and concerns, there is a need for a balanced approach
that promotes the use of hybrid seeds while also preserving crop diversity and supporting traditional
varieties. Some key steps that can be taken include:
 Strengthening of public sector research and development efforts to develop locally adapted hybrid
varieties.
 Promotion of participatory plant breeding approaches that involve farmers in the development and
selection of hybrid varieties.

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 Support for the conservation and promotion of traditional varieties through initiatives like
community seed banks and participatory seed selection.
 Regulation of the seed market to ensure fair competition and protect farmers' interests.
By taking a holistic approach that balances the benefits of hybrid seeds with the need for crop diversity
and sustainability, India can ensure a resilient and sustainable agricultural future.
PEARL MILLET CULTIVATION ZONES IN INDIA
Background: According to a recent study, India's core pearl millet or bajra production zone has shifted
to 18 districts spread across eastern Rajasthan and Haryana between 1998 and 2017.
Pearl Millet and Zone Distribution in India: India classifies pearl millet cultivation zones based on
rainfall patterns and soil types. The zones are classified as follows:
 Zone 'A1': The arid regions of Rajasthan, which receive less than 400 millimeters (mm) of rainfall.
 Zone 'A': Semi-arid regions in north and central India, including southern Rajasthan, Haryana,
Gujarat, and Uttar Pradesh, which receive more than 400 mm of rainfall per year.
 Zone 'B': Semi-arid regions with heavy soils in southern India and central western India with over
400 mm of rainfall.
International Year of Millets: The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the United Nations have
recognized 2023 as the International Year of Millets or IYM2023 to raise awareness about the health
and nutritional benefits of millets.
Key Findings of the Study: The study revised the classification of Zone 'A' into three subzones:
 Zone 'G': Covers Gujarat.
 Zone 'AE1': Covers eastern Rajasthan and Haryana.
 Zone 'AE2': Covers 12 districts spread across Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh.
Zone 'AE1', which is now India's core pearl millet production area, accounting for 39% of the total
production, saw an increase in production of 46 kilograms per hectare due to an increase in rainfall.
Technological investments in irrigation, fertilization, and new varieties that favored intensified
cultivation practices also contributed to the increase in production.
Zone 'AE2' saw an average increase of 1,860 kg per hectare in bajra production between 1998 and
2017.
The study also noted that climate change is contributing to more rainfall in Zone 'G', covering seven
districts in Gujarat, leading to farmers changing their cultivation patterns and switching from pearl
millet to cash crops.
The Pearl Millet: Pearl millet, also known as bajra, is one of the three major millets cultivated in India,
along with jowar and ragi. It is mainly cultivated in the semiarid tropics, almost exclusively by
subsistence and small-scale commercial farmers.
Key points about pearl millet:
 Scientific name: Pennisetum glaucum
 Optimal temperature requirement: Pearl millet grows best at temperatures between 27 to 32
degrees Celsius (81 to 90 degrees Fahrenheit).

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  Temperature Tolerance: Pearl millet is known for its ability to withstand high temperatures,
even exceeding 40 degrees Celsius (104 degrees Fahrenheit).
Indian Context: India is the largest producer of pearl millet in the world, accounting for about 50% of
the global production as of 2022. Some key points:
 Pearl millet is cultivated in about 7.5 million hectares in India, with an average productivity of
1,200 kg/hectare.
 The major pearl millet-producing states in India are Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Uttar
Pradesh, and Haryana.
 The government has launched initiatives like the Initiative for Nutritional Security through
Intensive Millet Promotion (INSIMP) to promote the cultivation and consumption of millets.
Global Context: The global pearl millet market is expected to reach $9.9 billion by 2027, growing at
a CAGR of 4.3% from 2020 to 2027. Some key global trends:
 Africa is the largest producer and consumer of pearl millet, followed by India and the United
States.
 The demand for pearl millet is increasing due to its nutritional benefits and its potential as a
climate-resilient crop.
 Pearl millet is also gaining popularity as a gluten-free and nutrient-dense alternative to wheat
and other grains.
Challenges and Opportunities: The pearl millet sector in India faces several challenges, including:
 Yield stagnation and declining productivity
 Increasing cost of cultivation
 Climate change and rainfall variability
 Lack of market linkages and value addition
However, there are also opportunities for growth and innovation in the sector, such as:
 Development of high-yielding and drought-resistant varieties
 Promotion of sustainable and organic farming practices
 Value addition through processing and product development
 Strengthening of market linkages and export opportunities

Raj Malhotra’s IAS, 1st Floor, Dainik Bhaskar Building, Sector 25 D, Chandigarh (Ph - 7087000437)
Page 90

H.NO. 3, 2nd Floor, Indrapuri Bhanwarkua (Opposite Gurjar Hospital) Indore, Madhya Pradesh (Ph - 78310 78309)
20-B, Bada Bazar Marg, Old Rajinder Nagar Market, New Delhi-110060 (Ph - 9814711661)
 Raj Malhotra’s IAS, 1st Floor, Dainik Bhaskar Building, Sector 25 D, Chandigarh (Ph - 7087000437)
Page 91

H.NO. 3, 2nd Floor, Indrapuri Bhanwarkua (Opposite Gurjar Hospital) Indore, Madhya Pradesh (Ph - 78310 78309)
20-B, Bada Bazar Marg, Old Rajinder Nagar Market, New Delhi-110060 (Ph - 9814711661)