Chapter 2

Physical Principles of Sensing

- A sensor converts generally nonelectrical effects into electrical
signals→ one and often several transformation steps are required
- Many stimuli cannot be directly converted into electricity, thus
multiple conversion steps would be required
Ex: how many conversions in fiber-optic sensor to detect displacement
of opaque object???

- There are several physical effects which result in the direct

generation of electrical signals in response to nonelectrical influences
like thermoelectric (Seebeck) effect, piezoelectricity, and photo effect
 2.1. ELECTRIC CHARGES, FIELDS, POTENTIALS

- In dry climates—the possibility of the generation of sparks by friction

involved in walking across the carpet.
- It is a so-called triboelectric effect: a process of an electric charge
separation due to object movements, friction of clothing fibers, air
turbulence, atmosphere electricity…
- Triboelectric effect is a result of a mechanical charge redistribution like
rubbing a glass rod with silk strips electrons from the surface of the rod,
thus leaving an abundance of positive charges
- Influence just an extremely small number of electrons as compared with
the total electronic charge in an object
Ex: a 3.1g US penny has 2.9x1022 atoms. An electron charge is -4.6x10-
18C→combined charge of all electrons is 1.3x105C.

It can produce 0.91A current for 100W bulb lighting in 40h

- There is not physical contact between two charges but q0 is subjected
to a repelling force (electric force)→there exists a field (electric field in
the vicinity of charged object
- Is it scalar or vector field???
 
E=
2 0

E= 
2 0 r E= (for isolated object)
0
 1 qa 1 p
Magnitude of electric field E= . 3 = . 3
4 0 r 4 0 r

Torque  = pE
- Work (WAB) which is done against the field to move the charge from
A to B defines the voltage between these two points
WAB
VB − VA = −
q0
- For convenience, point A is chosen very far away from all charges
(theoretically at an infinite distance) and the electric potential at that
point is considered to be zero
W
V =−
q0
 2.2. CAPACITANCE

- Connect two isolated conductive arbitrary shape plate objects to

opposite poles of a battery→the plates will receive equal amounts of
opposite charges
- Disconnect the battery. If the plates are totally isolated and exist in a
vacuum, they will remain charged theoretically infinitely long →
capacitor
- C=q/V: capacitance
Depends on the shapes and relative position of the plates and on on the
medium
- Capacitance is a very useful physical phenomenon in a sensor design
- Can be used to measure distance, area, volume, pressure, force,…
 Cylindrical capacitor
2 0l
C=
b
ln
a
Plate capacitor:
o A
C=
d

- Varying either l, A or d will change the capacitance, which can be

measured quite accurately by an appropriate circuit → capacitive
sensor
- Capacitance will increase in the presence of dielectric in the media
It is a result of molecular polarization under effect of external electric
field
 q
V = V0   C =  =  C0
V0
 0 A
C= =  0G
d
* Water level sensor
 C h = C1 + C 2 =  0 G1 +  0 G2
2 0
Ch =  H − h (1 −  ) 
b
ln
a
- If the water is at or below the level h0

2 0
Ch = H
b
ln
a

- Dielectric constant of water is temperature dependent, hence the

capacitive sensor will be combined with a temperature sensor
* Displacement capacitive sensor

dC − A −C
=  0 r 2 =
dx x x
V0 ( j ) (E x0 ) j
=
X 1 ( j ) j + 1

 = RC = R r 0 A x0
- It is frequency response of a high pass filter
 2.3. MAGNETISM

- Discovered in prehistoric times in certain specimens of an iron ore

mineral known as magnetite (Fe3O4)
- Like two electrically charged rods, two magnets have opposite ends
but always come in pairs
- Magnetic field does not change its nature if it is produced by a
different device (e.g., electric current passing through a conductor)
Faraday Law
- The induced voltage, or electromotive force (e.m.f), is equal to the rate
at which the magnetic flux through the circuit changes
dB
e=−
dt

For a N-turn solenoid, or other coils

d B d (BA)
V = −N = −N
dt dt
- The induced voltage depends on
+ Moving the source of the magnetic field (magnet, coil, wire, etc.)
+ Current variance in the coil/wire which produces the magnetic field
+ Changing the orientation of the magnetic source with respect to the
pickup circuit
+ Changing the geometry of a pickup circuit, (e.g., by stretching it or
squeezing, or changing the number of turns in a coil)
+ Inductance of coil
v
L=−
di dt
* Displacement sensor

d B d dx
V =− = − N (BLx ) = nBl = nBlv
dt dt dt
* Displacement inductive sensor

Linear variable
differential transformer
Self-inductance Mutual inductance
(LVDT)
Inductive sensor: not affected by dielectric constant of environment but
magnetic field of proximal magnetic materials
Self-inductance sensor:
- Changing geometric form or moving magnetic core within the coil
leads to alteration in coil’s self inductance
- The self inductance is not linearly proportion to the displacement
- Low power requirement and large inductance variation → attractive
for telemetry applications
Mutual inductance sensor:
- Using two separate coils and variation in their mutual magnetic
coupling to measure displacement.
- Induce voltage in the secondary coil is nonlinear function of coil
separation and depends on
+ Geometric form and number of turns of the coils
+ Frequency and amplitude of excitation voltage
- To get maximal output signal, frequency is selected so that the
secondary coil resonates
- Applications: to measure dimensions of internal organ like cardiac,
kidney, major blood vessels or measure infant respiration
Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT):
- Compose of 1 primary coil and 2 secondary coils connected in series
- High-permeability alloy moving causes changing in secondary coil
coupling
- The secondary coils are oppositely connected to archieve wider range
of linearity
- Require more complex signal processing instrumentation
 2.4. RESISTANCE

- Electric field within a conducting

material: E = V/l
- Electric current or rate of electric
charge flowing
i = dq/dt

- Regardless cross section of the material, whether it is homogeneous or

not, the current is always the same for a given electric field
(like water flow through a combination of serially connected pipes of
different diameter, flow velocities are different, but flow rates is the
same)
- Resistivity: express the material ability to let the current pass through
R =V i
Depend on material’s type as well as geometric dimension
l
R=
a
l: length
a: cross section
ρ: specific resistivity
Potentiometer:
Pros and cons
▪ May be excited by dc or ac voltage

▪ Output is a linear function of displacement (within 0.01% of full

scale)
▪ Resolution depends on the wire spacing

▪ Friction and inertial components should be low to minimize dynamic

distortion
Strain gages:
Strain a fine wire within its elastic
limit
Suppose the wire has resistance R,
length L, cross section A and
resistivity ρ
dL d
dR = − A −2 LdA + L D D = −  L L
A A
R L A  R L 
= − + = (1 + 2 ) +
R L A  R L 
Gage factor G is given
R R  
G= = (1 + 2 ) +
L L L L
* Unbonded strain-gage pressure sensor

R
v0 = vi
R0

R1=B, R2=A, R3=D, R4=C

Rx, Ry to balance the
Wheatstone bridge
* Bonded strain-gage

Resistance-wire Foil type Helical-wire

type type
 2.5. PIEZOELECTRIC EFFECT

- The generation of electric charge by a crystalline material upon

subjecting it to stress
Charges are opposite signs at opposite material surface
- It is reversible phenomena
What can applied voltage to the material cause ???
- A quartz cell is electrically neutral under the no-stress conditions.
- When an external force, Fx, is applied along the x-axis, the
hexagonal lattice becomes deformed.
- That leads to relative movement between negative and positive
charges then induces amounts of opposite sign charges at opposite cut
surface of the quartz
- Determine induced charges by
determining voltage across metal
electrodes on opposite sides
Location of applied force can be exactly
located using complex electrodes
Induced charge: q=kf
Output voltage
kf kfx
v= =
C  r 0 A
 2.6. HALL EFFECT

- In a flat conductive strip having

current I placed in magnetic field B
có dòng điện I chạy qua đặt trong từ
trường B will appear a transverse
potential difference perpendicular
with B and I
VH = hiB sin 
h: Hall coefficient
- H: Hall coeffecient
Transverse electric potential gradient per unit magnetic field intensity
per unit current density
Depends on the plate material, its geometry (active area), and its
temperature
1
H=
Ncq
- Depending on the material crystalline structure, charges may be
either electrons (negative) or holes (positive)→ the Hall effect may be
either negative or positive
-
 2.7. SEEBECK AND PELTIER EFFECTS

- In 1821, Seebeck,, accidentally joined semicircular pieces of bismuth

and copper while studying the thermal effects on galvanic
arrangements and observed magnetic disturbance➔describe that effect
as “thermomagnetism”
- A conductor having nonuniform temperature T along its length
A temperature gradient between any arbitrary points defines an
electromotive force (e.m.f.) between these points
- Emf exits between junctions at
different temperatures of 2
different metals
- Combination of 2 separate
effects

Peltier effect: emf by junctions of 2 different metals at different

temperatures, is proportional to temperature difference
Thomson effect: emf by temperature gradient along each conductor is
proportional to square of temperature difference
* Thermocouple/thermopile)
- Law1: homogeneous circuit
There can’t maintain electric
current in single metal circuit
- Law 2: intermediate metal
Combined emf, in a circuit
consisting unlike metals at
the same temperature ,is 0
- Law 3: intermediate
temperature 1
E(T1,T3)=E1(T1,T2)+E2(T2,T3)
E = aT + bT 2 ......
2
*Thermistor
- Material’s resistivity changes
according to change of temperature T
In a short range, can be expressed
 =  0 1 +  (T − T0 )

- Pt thermistor

(
R = R0 1.0036 + 36,79.10 −4 T )
(
R = R0 1 + 39,08.10 −4 T − 5,8.10 −7 T 2 )
 2.8. SOUND WAVES

- Alternate physical compression and expansion of medium (solids,

liquids, and gases) with certain frequencies
- The medium contents oscillate in the direction of wave propagation
→ longitudinal mechanical waves
- Associated with the hearing range of a human ear, sound is from 20
to 20,000 Hz; infrasound : below 20 Hz and ultrasound: above 20,000
Hz
- The range would be wider for other animals like dogs
 2.8. SOUND WAVES

p
Bulk modulus of elasticity of medium B=− = 0v 2
V V
B E (1 −  )
Sound speed v= v=
0  (1 +  )(1 − 2 )
Displacement from the equilibrium position
2
y = ym cos (x − vt )

Pressure variations in sound waves

( )
p = k 0 v 2 y m sin (kx − t )
 P
Acoustic impedence Z= Z = 0v

P2
Sound intensity I = P =
Z
I
Sound level  = 10 log 10
I0
p
 = 20 log 10
p0
 2.9. TEMPERATURE AND THERMAL PROPERTIES
OF MATERIALS

Refer to Chapter 3 in “Handbook of Modern Sensors”

 2.10. HEAT TRANSFER

Refer to Chapter 3 in “Handbook of Modern Sensors”

 2.11. LIGHTS

Refer to Chapter 3 in “Handbook of Modern Sensors”

 2.12. DYNAMIC MODELS OF SENSOR ELEMENTS

- To determine a sensor’s dynamic response, apply a variable stimulus

to its input and observe the output values
Stimulus may have any shape form depending on a practical need
- Mathematical models
Zero order S (t ) = Gs(t )

dS (t )
First order a1 + a 0 S (t ) = s(t )
dt
d 2 S (t ) dS (t )
Second order a2 2
+ a1 + a0 S (t ) = s(t )
dt dt
2.12.1. Mechanical Elements

Mechanical model of an accelerometer (left) and a free-body diagram of mass (right)

dx d 2x d 2 y
Mf = −kx − b f = 2 − 2
dt dt dt
d 2x dx d2y
M 2 + b + kx = M 2
dt dt dt
2.12.2. Thermal Elements

dT
C = Q
dt
T1 − T2
Q =
R
dTh
C = Q1 − Q0 dTh Th Q1 Ta
dt + = +
dt RC C RC
Th − Ta
Q0 =
R
2.12.3. Electrical Elements
- Kirchhoff’s first law: The total
current flowing toward a junction
is equal to the total V1 − V2 dV2
current flowing from that junction i2 = =C
- Kirchhoff’s second law: In a R3 dt
closed circuit, the algebraic sum of i1 − i2 − i3 = 0
the voltages across each part of the
circuit is equal to the applied e − V3 1
i1 = =  (V3 − V1 )dt
e.m.f. R1 L
V − V2 dV V1
i2 = 1 =C 2 i3 =
R3 dt R2

V3 V1 − V2 V1 dV2 1 e
+ +2 +C −  (V3 − V1 )dt =
R1 R3 R2 dt L R1
2.12.4. Analogies
- Dynamic behavior of mechanical, thermal, and electrical elements is
analogous → possible to convert one into another
Ex: to take mechanical elements or thermal components, convert them
into an equivalent electric circuit, and analyze the circuit using
Kirchhoff’s laws
- Useful in a practical assessment of a sensor and for the
analysis of its mechanical and thermal interface with the object and
the environment