Pattern Reconfigurable Mimo Antenna

PATTERN RECONFIGURABLE MIMO ANTENNA
A Project report submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for
the award of the degree of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
Submitted by
D.Venusree (317126512131) B.J.C.Meghana (317126512127)
B.Aakash (317126512128) P.V.S.Manidhar (317126512156)
Under the guidance of
Ms.M.Nirmala, M.Tech (Ph.D)
Assistant Professor
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
ANIL NEERUKONDA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND SCIENCES
(UGC AUTONOMOUS)
(Permanently Affiliated to AU, Approved by AICTE and Accredited by NBA & NAAC with
‘A’ Grade
Sangivalasa, Bheemili mandal, visakhapatnam dist.(A.P)
2020-2021
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
ANIL NEERUKONDA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND SCIENCES
(UGC AUTONOMOUS)
(Permanently Affiliated to AU, Approved by AICTE and Accredited by NBA & NAAC with
‘A’ Grade)
Sangivalasa, Bheemili mandal, visakhapatnam dist.(A.P)
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the project report entitled “PATTERN RECONFIGURABLE MIMO
ANTENNA” submitted by D.Venusree (317126512131), B.Aakash (317126512128),
B.J.C.Meghana (317126512127), P.V.S.Manidhar (317126512156) in partial fulfillment of
the requirements for the award of the degree of Bachelor of Technology in Electronics &
Communication Engineering of Andhra University, Visakhapatnam is a record of bonafide
work carried out under my guidance and supervision.
Head of the Department Project Guide
Dr.V.Rajya Lakshmi Ms.M.Nirmala
M.E, Ph.D, MIEEE, MIETE, MIE M.Tech (Ph.D)
Professor Assistant professor
Department of ECE Department of ECE
ANITS ANITS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I thank to my guide Ms.M.Nirmala, Assistant professor, Department of Electronics and
Communication Engineering, Anil Neerukonda Institute of Technology and Sciences
(ANITS), for spending her valuable time to review and analyze my project at every stage. I
consider myself extremely fortunate to have the opportunity of associating with her.
I express my deep sense of gratitude and respect to our beloved Head of the Department, Dr.
V. RAJYA LAKSHMI, Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, for his
inspiration, adroit guidance and constructive criticism and providing us with the required
facilities for the partial completion of the project work.
I am very much thankful to the Principal and Management, ANITS, Sangivalasa, for their
encouragement and cooperation to carry out this work. I express my thanks to all teaching
staff of Dept. of ECE for providing a great assistance in accomplishment of my project.
I also express my thanks to all the non-teaching staff of Dept. of ECE for giving all the
support and suggestions to partially complete my project.
I cannot forget the heartiest regard, the never ending heartfelt stream of care and love of my
parents, friends bestowed on me. It is power of their coordination that gives me strength,
courage and confidence to materialize my dreams throughout the project period.
Project students:
D.Venusree (317126512131)
B.Aakash (317126512128)
P.V.S. Manidhar (317126512156)
B.J.C.Meghana (317126512127)
ABSTRACT
Due to the fast development of wireless communication technology, reconfigurable antennas
with multiple-input and multiple-output (MIMO) in modern wireless applications with high-
data rate have drawn very close attention from researchers. The multiple radio channels
through multiple input multiple output (MIMO) technology result in high throughput in
wireless communication. MIMO is a technique where multiple antennas are used at both the
transmitter and the receiver to increase the link reliability and the spectral efficiency. By
placing multiple antenna elements at the transmitter and receiver ends of the wireless
communication system, MIMO can not only improve the capacity of channel, but also reduce
the effects of multi-path fading. The major problem faced by the MIMO systems is mutual
coupling due to the electromagnetic interference between antenna elements. In this proposed
project work, a reconfigurable MIMO antenna is designed. Microstrip patch is used, as it is a
low profile, simple and broadside radiator. This pattern reconfigurable MIMO antenna is
composed of two elements arranged opposite to each other, and two decoupling strips are
introduced to improve the isolation. The pattern reconfigurable characteristic is obtained by
changing the bias voltages of the PIN diodes embedded in the parasitic strips of the elements.
Moreover, the proposed antenna has a low profile compared to the antenna with similar
overlapped bandwidth. The implemented design is simulated using High Frequency Structure
Simulator (HFSS) Software. The applications of this proposed antenna are satellite high
performance aircraft, satellite and in missile applications.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER Page No.
I. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Antenna Basics 2
1.1.1 Definition of Antenna 2
1.1.2 Radiation mechanism 2
1.2 Antenna Parameters 6
1.2.1 Radiation pattern 6
1.2.2 Beam width 6
1.2.3 Radiation intensity 7
1.2.4 Directivity 7
1.2.5 Return loss 8
1.2.6 VSWR 8
1.2.7 Gain 8
1.2.8 Bandwidth 9
1.2.9 Effective Aperture 9
1.3 Types of Antennas 9
1.3.1 Low Frequency Antenna 9
1.3.2 MF/HF Antenna 10
1.3.3 Microwave Antenna 11
1.4 Applications 14
1.4.1 Frequency Spectrum 14
1.4.2 Microwave Frequency Applications 15
II. MICROSTRIP PATCH ANTENNA
2.1 Types of microstrip patch antenna 23
2.2 Feeding techniques 25
2.2.1 Inset feed 25
2.2.2 Feed with quarter wavelength transmission line 26
2.2.3 Coaxial feed or Probe feed 27
2.2.4 Coupled (indirect) feed 28
2.2.5 Aperture feed 29
2.3 Advantages 29
2.4 Applications 30
III. MIMO ANTENNA
3.1 MIMO definition 35
3.2 Advantages 35
3.3 Applications 36
3.4 Performance Characteristics 37
3.4.1 Envelope Correlation Co-efficient 37
3.4.2 Total Active Reflection Co-efficient 38
3.4.3 Diversity Gain 39
3.4.4 Mean effective gain 39
IV. RECONFIGURABLE ANTENNAS

4.1 Introduction 42
4.2 Classification of reconfigurable antennas 43
4.3 Types of reconfigurable antennas 43
4.3.1 Electrically reconfigurable antennas 43
4.3.2 Optically reconfigurable antenna 44
4.3.3 Mechanical/Physically reconfigurable antennas 45
4.3.4 Reconfigurable antennas based on smart materials 45
4.4 Applications 45
4.5 Advantages of reconfigurable antenna 50
4.6 Pin diode switching technique 51
4.6.1 HFSS modeling of pin diode 52
4.6.2 Lumped RLC boundary 53

V. ANTENNA DESIGN AND RESULTS
5.1 Single element rectangular microstrip patch antenna at 2.45GHz 56
5.1.1 Design equations 56
5.1.2 Single element RMSA 57
5.1.3 Design Layout 58
5.2 Modes of rectangular microstrip patch antenna 59
5.2.1 Mode1 59
5.2.2 Mode2 61
5.2.3 Mode3 64
5.2.4 Parametric Study 67
5.3 Two element MIMO Antenna 68
5.3.1 Design layout with and without decoupling strips 69
5.4 Modes of two element MIMO antenna 72
5.4.1 Radiation Patterns 73
LIST OF FIGURES Page No
Fig.1.1 different wire configurations producing radiation 3
Fig 1.2 Radiation from two wire antenna 4
Fig 1.3 Formation of electric field line for short dipole 5
Fig 1.4 Radiation pattern in 3D-plane of an antenna 6
Fig 1.5 Half power beam width 7
Fig 1.6 Yagi- Uda antenna 11
Fig 1.7 Loop antenna 11
Fig 1.8 Horn antenna 13
Fig 1.9 Parabolic antenna 13

Fig 1.10 Plasma antenna 14
Fig 1.11 satellite dish 16
Fig 1.12 parabolic antenna 18
Fig 1.13 dish antenna 18
Fig 1.14 maps of cosmic microwave background radiation 19
Fig 1.15 Microwave oven 20
Fig 2.1 Micro strip patch antenna 24
Fig 2.2 patch antenna with an Inset feed 25
Fig 2.3 patch antenna with a quarter wavelength matching section 26
Fig 2.4 Coaxial cable feed of patch antenna 27
Fig 2.5 coupled (indirect) inset feed 28
Fig 2.6 Aperture coupled feed 29
Fig 3.1 MIMO Antenna 34
Fig 4.1 Frequency reconfigurable antenna for cognitive radio system 47
Fig 4.2 Pattern reconfigurable antennas for MIMO systems 48
Fig 4.3 Reconfigurable antennas for satellite applications 49
Fig 4.4 Reconfigurable antennas for biomedical 50
Fig 4.5 Pin diode switching technique 51
Fig 4.6 Pin diode equivalent model 51
Fig 4.7 HFSS modeling of pin diode 52
Fig 4.8 Representation of single parallel combination 53
Fig 4.9 Representation of diodes 54
Fig 4.10 Display of lumped rlc for assigning values 54
Fig.5.1 Configuration of single antenna element 57
Fig 5.2 Design Layout of Rectangular Micro Strip Antenna 58
Fig.5.3 Current Distribution in Mode 1 Operation 59
Fig.5.4 Reflection Coefficient of Mode 1 60

Fig.5.5 VSWR of Mode 1 60
Fig.5.6 Gain of Antenna in Mode 1 61
Fig.5.7 Radiation pattern in Mode 1 61
Fig.5.18 Effect of length of parasitic strips on Reflection coefficient 67
Fig.5.19 Comparison of Reflection Coefficient of 3 Modes 67
Fig.5.20 Configuration of two element MIMO antenna 68
Fig.5.21 2 Element MIMO antenna without Decoupling strips 69
Fig.5.22 2 Element MIMO antenna with Decoupling strips 69
Fig.5.23 Current Distribution without Decoupling Strips 70
Fig.5.24 Current Distribution with Decoupling Strips 70
Fig.5.25 ECC Comparison For the Effect of Decoupling strips 70
Fig.5.26 S-Parameters Comparison for the Effect of Decoupling strips 71
Fig.5.27 TARC Comparison for the effect of Decoupling Strips 72
Fig.5.28 S-Parameter Comparison for Modes 1, 4 and 5 73
Fig.5.29 Radiation Pattern of Mode 1 74

LIST OF TABLES Page No
Table 1.1 Microwave frequency bands 11
Table 1.2 Frequency spectrum. 14
Table 5.1 Parameters of a single element patch antenna 57
Table 5.2 Operation of modes of antenna element 59
Table 5.3 Operation of modes of antenna element 72

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
1
INTRODUCTION
An Antenna is the interface between radio waves propagating through space and
electric currents moving in metal conductors, used with a transmitter or receiver.
In transmission, a radio transmitter supplies an electric current to the antenna's terminals, and
the antenna radiates the energy from the current as electromagnetic waves (radio waves).
In reception, an antenna intercepts some of the power of a radio wave in order to produce an
electric current at its terminals that is applied to a receiver to be amplified . Antennas are
essential components of all radio equipment.
1.1 ANTENNA BASICS
1.1.1 Definition of Antenna
There are several definitions of antenna. They are as follows:
• An Antenna is a device that converts electronic signals to electromagnetic waves and

vice versa effectively with minimum loss of signals.
• An Antenna is a transducer that converts radio frequency (RF) fields into alternating
current or vice versa. There are both receiving and transmission antennas for sending
or receiving radio transmissions.
1.1.2 Radiation Mechanism
The sole functionality of an antenna is power radiation or reception. The functioning of an

antenna depends upon the radiation mechanism of a transmission line. When transmitting and
receiving antenna is excited with an alternating voltage, then the initial move will be started
by the balanced motion of charges in the antenna. Resonant oscillations are produced by the
supplied energy.
Radiation mechanism in single-wire:
It is a fundamental single wire antenna. By the principle of radiation, the current must be
time-varying. For a single wire antenna:
1. If the charge is stationary, no current is developed. So no radiation is observed.
2. If the charge is moving with uniform velocity, then
i)No radiation occur for a straight wire which is infinity in extent
ii) Radiation is possible only if the wire is curved; bent, discontinuous, terminated or
truncated.
2
When a wire is energized using a source, the free electrons in wire are set into motion due to
the force of electrical lines.
The charges will be accelerated at the source end while they are decelerated due to the
reflection at the other end. As a result, radiation fields are created not only at the two ends but
also along the remaining part of the wire.
If the pulses of charge travelling along the wire are narrow, then radiation is stronger with a
wide frequency spectrum. But if the charge is oscillating, then the radiation of a single
frequency is produced.
Fig.1.1. different wire configurations producing radiation
Radiation Mechanism in two wire:
Let us consider a voltage source connected to a two-conductor transmission line which is

connected to an antenna. This is shown in Figure (a). Applying a voltage across the two
conductor transmission line creates an electric field between the conductors. The electric field
7 has associated with it electric lines of force which are tangent to the electric field at each
point and their strength is proportional to the electric field intensity. The electric lines of
force have a tendency to act on the free electrons (easily detachable from the atoms)
associated with each conductor and force them to be displaced. The movement of the charges
creates a current that in turn creates magnetic field intensity. Associated with the magnetic
field intensity are magnetic lines of force which are tangent to the magnetic field. We have
accepted that electric field lines start on positive charges and end on negative charges. They
3
also can start on a positive charge and end at infinity, start at infinity and end on a negative
charge, or form closed loops neither starting or ending on any charge. Magnetic field lines
always form closed loops encircling current-carrying conductors because physically there are
no magnetic charges. In some mathematical formulations, it is often convenient to introduce
equivalent magnetic charges and magnetic currents to draw a parallel between solutions
involving electric and magnetic sources. The electric field lines drawn between the two
conductors help to exhibit the Distribution of charge. If we assume that the voltage source is
sinusoidal, we expect the electric field between the conductors to also be sinusoidal with a
period equal to that of the applied source. The relative magnitude of the electric field
intensity is indicated by the density (bunching) of the lines of force with the arrows showing
the relative direction (positive or negative). The creation of time varying electric and
magnetic fields between the conductors forms electromagnetic waves which travel along the
transmission line, as shown in Figure 1.2(a). The electromagnetic waves enter the antenna
and have associated with them electric charges and corresponding currents. If we remove part
of b the antenna structure, as shown in Figure (b), free-space waves can be formed by
―connecting‖ the open ends of the electric lines (shown dashed). The free-space waves are
also periodic but a constant phase point P0 moves outwardly with the speed of light and
travels a distance of λ/2 (to P1) in the time of one-half of a period. It has been shown that
close to the antenna the constant phase point P0 moves faster than the speed of light but
approaches the speed of light at points far away from the antenna (analogous to phase
velocity inside a rectangular waveguide).
Fig.1.2 Radiation from two wire antenna
4
Radiation from a dipole:
Radiation from a Dipole Now let us attempt to explain the mechanism by which the electric
lines of force are detached from the antenna to form the free-space waves. This will again be
illustrated by an example of a small dipole antenna where the time of travel is negligible.
This is only necessary to give a better physical interpretation of the detachment of the lines of
force. Although a somewhat simplified mechanism, it does allow one to visualize the creation
of the free-space waves. Figure(a) displays the lines of force created between the arms of a
small center-fed dipole in the first quarter of the period during which time the charge has
reached its maximum value (assuming a sinusoidal time variation) and the lines have traveled
outwardly a radial distance λ/4. For this example, let us assume that the number of lines
formed is three. During the next quarter of the period, the original three lines travel an
additional λ/4 (a total of λ/2 from the initial point) and the charge density on the conductors
begins to diminish. This can be thought of as being accomplished by introducing opposite
charges which at the end of the first half of the period have neutralized the charges on the
conductors. The lines of force created by the opposite charges are three and travel a distance
λ/4 during the second quarter of the first half, and they are shown dashed in Figure (b). The
end result is that there are three lines of force pointed upward in the first λ/4 distance and the
same number of lines directed downward in the second λ/4. Since there is no net charge on
the antenna, then the lines of force must have been forced to detach themselves from the
conductors and to unite together to form closed loops. This is shown in Figure(c). In the
remaining second half of the period, the same procedure is followed but in the opposite
direction. After that, the process is repeated and continues indefinitely and electric field
patterns are formed.
Fig.1.3 Formation of electric field line for short dipole
5
1.2 BASIC ANTENNA PARAMETERS
To describe the performance of antenna, definitions of various parameters are necessary.

Some of the parameters are interrelated and not all of them need be specified for complete
description of the antenna performance. Like for cellular mobile communication a circular
polarized antenna is requires with high gain and for satellite communication in downlink a
high directive antenna is required. The parameter definitions of the antenna are from IEEE
Standard Definitions of Terms and Antennas
1.2.1 Radiation Pattern
An antenna radiation pattern or antenna pattern is defined as “a mathematical function or a

graphical representation of the radiation properties of the antenna as a function of space
coordinates.
Fig.1.4 Radiation Pattern in 3D-Plane of an antenna
1.2.2 Beam width
The beam width of an antenna is very important figure of merit and often is used as a
trade-off between it and the side lobe level; that is, as the beam width decreases, the side lobe
increases and vice versa.
Half-Power Beam Width (HPBW): It is an angular width (in degrees), measured on the major
lobe of an antenna radiation pattern at half-power points i.e the points at which the signal
power is half that of its peak value. In other words, The Half Power Beam width (HPBW) is
6
the angular separation in which the magnitude of the radiation pattern decreases by 50% (or -
3 dB) from the peak of the main beam.
Fig.1.5 Half power Beam width
The 3 dB points on the major lobe of the antenna are the half power points. These points are
at -3 dB from where the point of maximum amplitude. When a line is drawn between
radiation pattern’s origin and the half power points on the major lobe, on both the sides, the
angle between those two vectors is termed as HPBW, half power beam width.
First-Null Beam Width (FNBW): Angular separation between the first nulls of the pattern.
1.2.3 Radiation Intensity

Radiation Intensity in a given direction is defined as “the power radiated from an antenna per
unit solid angle.” In mathematical form it is expressed as
Where U = radiation intensity (W/unit solid angle)
= radiation density (W/ )
1.2.4 Directivity
Directivity of an antenna shows that how much the antenna is able to radiate in a particular
given direction. The ratio of the radiation intensity in a given direction from the antenna to
the radiation intensity averaged over all directions.
7
1.2.5 Return loss
Return loss is a measure of the effectiveness of power delivery from a transmission

line to a load such as an antenna. If the power incident on the antenna-under-test (AUT) is
and the power reflected back to the source is then the return loss can be defined as
1.2.6 VSWR
VSWR describes how much energy is reflected from the antenna because of
impedance mismatching. A perfectly impedance antenna would have VSWR equal to one [1].
VSWR than 2:1(equivalent to a return loss of a -9.5dB) is considered to be acceptable for
most wireless applications because the time delay of any reflections is typically small, thus
providing small amounts of error within the receiver.
Where, Γ is voltage reflection coefficient at the input terminals of the antenna.
1.2.7 Gain
Antenna Gain is also referred as Power gain or simply Gain. This combines of antenna
efficiency and directivity. For a transmitting antenna it shows how efficiently antenna is able
to radiate the given power into space in a particular direction. While in case of receiving
antenna it shows how well the antenna is to convert the received electromagnetic waves into
electrical power. When it is calculated with efficiency and directivity D it is referred as
Power Gain.
Power Gain = .D
When the directivity with a particular direction is given it is known as Directive Gain.
8
1.2.8 Bandwidth
The bandwidth of an antenna expresses its ability to operate over a wide frequency range. It
is often defined as the range over which the power gain is maintained to within 3dB of its
maximum value, or the range over which the VSWR is no greater than 2:1, whichever is
smaller. The bandwidth is usually given as a percentage of the nominal operating frequency.
The radiation pattern of an antenna may change dramatically outside its specified operating
bandwidth.
1.2.9 Effective Aperture
If an antenna is used to receive a wave with a power density S, it will produce a power in its
terminating impedance of Pr watts. The constant of proportionality between Pr and S is Ae,
the effective aperture of the antenna in square metres: Pr= AeS
For some antennas, such as horn or dish antennas, the aperture has an obvious physical
interpretation, being almost the same as the physical area of the antenna, but the concept is
just as valid for all antennas. The effective aperture may often be very much larger than the
physical area, especially in the case of wire antennas. Note however, that the effective
aperture will reduce as the efficiency of the antenna decreases.
The antenna gain G is related to the effective aperture as follows:
G= 4pi/(lamda)2Ae
The effective aperture is the ratio of the available power at the terminals of the antenna to the
power flux density of a plane wave incident upon the antenna, which is polarization matched
to the antenna. If there is no specific direction chosen, the direction of maximum radiation
intensity is implied.
1.3 TYPES OF ANTENNAS
We have different type of antennas based on frequency range. They are as follows:
1.3.1 Low Frequency Antennas

Low Frequency (LF) is the designation for radio frequencies(RF) in the range of 30-300
kHz. Low Frequency radio waves exibit low signal attenuation, making them suitable for
long-distance communications. Since the ground waves used in this band require vertical
polarization, vertical antennas are used for transmission. Due to the long wavelengths in the
9
band, nearly all LF antennas are electrically short, shorter than one quarter of the radiated
wavelength, so their low radiation resistance makes them inefficient, requiring very low
resistance grounds and conductors to avoid dissipating transmitter power. These electrically
short antennas need loading coils at the base of the antenna to bring them into resonance.
LF (longwave) broadcasting stations use mast antennas with heights of more than 150 meters
or T-aerials. The mast antennas can be ground-fed insulated masts or upper-fed grounded
masts. It is also possible to use cage antennas on grounded masts. LF transmitting antennas
for high power transmitters require large amounts of space.
Advantages:
• Communicates best with items containing metal.
• Signals have better penetration
Disadvantages:
• Large antennas must be used and many frequencies are susceptible to atmospheric
noise.
• Higher tag cost.
• Limited capability to read multiple tags.
Applications:
• Standard time signals
• Military
• Radio navigation signals
• Radio broadcasting
1.3.2 MF or HF Antennas
To communicate at longer ranges, you will normally need a satellite telephone or an
MF/HF marine radiotelephone. MF/HF antennas typically cover the frequency range of
1.5 to 30 MHz (0.1 to 30 MHz receiving).This frequency band is highly popular among
radio amateurs around the world. It exhibits very high ranges while through reflection
(or: bending) at the ionosphere, even over-ranges are possible (“over-the-horizon”).
Horizontally polarized long wire antenna is the most common type of antenna for
GMDSS MF-HF. Combined Medium Frequency and High Frequency(MF/HF) radios
can transmit over thousands of nautical miles as the signal can be ‘bounced’ off the
ionosphere to overcome line of sight issues. This makes them an ideal tool for ocean
going ships to communicate without the need to pay a service provider for ‘airtime’.
10
Fig.1.6 Yagi Uda Anetnna
Fig.1.7 Loop Antenna
Applications:
• AM radio transmission
• Navigation systems for ships and aircrafts
• Aviation industry
1.3.3 Microwave Antenna
A microwave antenna is a physical transmission device used to broadcast microwave
transmissions between two or more locations. The short wavelengths of microwaves
allow omnidirectional antennas for portable devices to be made very small, from 1 to 20
centimeters long.
Microwave Frequency bands
Table.1.1 Microwave frequency bands
Band Frequency Range (GHz)
L 1 to 2
S 2 to 4
C 4 to 8
X 8 to 10
Ku 12 to 18
K 18 to 26.5
Ka 26.5 to 40
11
Q 30 to 50
U 40 to 60
B 50 to 75
E 60 to 90
W 75 to 110
F 90 to 140
D 110 to 170
Uses:
• Radar
• Radio astronomy
• Communication intelligence
• Electronic warfare
Antenna Types
Horn Antenna:
It’s also referred to as a microwave horn. A horn antenna is comprised of a

waveguide, which has flared end walls on the outside forming a structure that looks like a
megaphone. The horns are used widely as antennas microwave frequencies above 300 MHz
and ultra-high frequencies. Horn antennas are used to approximate how much gain the other
antennas have. They are used as directive and calibrating antennas for equipment such as
microwave-radio meters, and automatic door openers. Some of the benefits of horn antennas
are broad bandwidth, low-standing wave ratio, and moderate directivity. Horn antennas have
a gain ranging up to 25db. They are used extensively at microwave frequency when you
require moderate power gain.
12
Fig.1.8 Horn antenna
Parabolic Antenna
This antenna uses a parabolic reflector. This is a parabolic-shaped and curved area
that is used to direct the radio waves. The antenna is shaped like a dish thus it is referred to as
a parabolic dish or dish antenna. One of the benefits of a parabolic antenna is that it has high
directivity. Parabolic antennas are applied as radio telescopes and for point-to-point
communication since they have high-end gain. Also, these antennas are used as radars. They
require the transmission of a narrow beam wave of radio to some equipment such as airplanes
and ships.
Fig.1.9 Parabolic antenna
13
Plasma Antenna
This is a kind of radio antenna that uses plasma rather than metal elements as a development
device. Metal elements were used in antennas in the past years. Plasma antenna uses ionized
gas for conduction.
The gas is ionized when reception or transmission occurs. The plasma antenna can operate up
to 90GHz frequency range. Thus, they can be applied in reception and transmission of
signals from radios.
Besides, the antenna has a cutoff of high frequency. It’s able to receive and transmit signals
of low and high-frequency and it does not interact with the signals with high frequency. Some
of the areas where plasma antennas are applied include 4G and radar systems, RFID,
electronic intelligence, and high-speed digital communications.
Fig.1.10 Plasma antenna
1.4 APPLICATIONS
1.4.1 Frequency Spectrum
Frequency spectrum of a signal is the range of frequencies contained by a signal.
The following table depicts the frequency bands and its uses –
Table.1.2 Frequency spectrum
Band Name Frequency Wavelength Applications

Extremely Low 30 Hz to 300 Hz 10,000 to 1,000 KM Power line
Frequency (ELF) frequencies
Voice Frequency (VF) 300 Hz to 3 KHz 1,000 to 100 KM Telephone
14
Band Name Frequency Wavelength Applications
Communications
Very Low Frequency 3 KHz to 30 KHz 100 to 10 KM Marine

(VLF) Communications
Low Frequency (LF) 30 KHz to 300 KHz 10 to 1 KM Marine
Communications
Medium Frequency (MF) 300 KHz to 3 MHz 1000 to 100 m AM Broadcasting
High Frequency (HF) 3 MHz to 30 MHz 100 to 10 m Long distance
aircraft/ship
Communications
Very High 30 MHz to 300 10 to 1 m FM Broadcasting
Frequency(VHF) MHz
Ultra High Frequency 300 MHz to 3 GHz 100 to 10 cm Cellular
(UHF) Telephone
Super High Frequency 3 GHz to 30 GHz 10 to 1 cm Satellite
(SHF) Communications,
Microwave links
Extremely High 30 GHz to 300 GHz 10 to 1 mm Wireless local
Frequency (EHF) loop
Infrared 300 GHz to 400 1 mm to 770 nm Consumer
THz Electronics
Visible Light 400 THz to 900 770 nm to 330 nm Optical
THz Communications
1.4.2 Microwave frequency applications
Microwave technology is extensively used for point-to-point telecommunications (i.e. non-

broadcast uses). Microwaves are especially suitable for this use since they are more easily
focused into narrower beams than radio waves, allowing frequency reuse; their comparatively
higher frequencies allow broad bandwidth and high data transmission rates, and antenna sizes
are smaller than at lower frequencies because antenna size is inversely proportional to the
transmitted frequency. Microwaves are used in spacecraft communication, and much of the
world's data, TV, and telephone communications are transmitted long distances by
15
microwaves between ground stations and communications satellites. Microwaves are also
employed in microwave ovens and in radar technology.
Communication
Fig.1.11 Satellite dish
A satellite dish on a residence, which receives satellite television over a Ku band 12–14 GHz
microwave beam from a direct broadcast communications satellite in a geostationary
orbit 35,700 kilometres (22,000 miles) above the Earth
Before the advent of fiber-optic transmission, most long-distance telephone calls were carried
via networks of microwave radio relay links run by carriers such as AT&T Long Lines.
Starting in the early 1950s, frequency-division multiplexing was used to send up to 5,400
telephone channels on each microwave radio channel, with as many as ten radio channels
combined into one antenna for the hop to the next site, up to 70 km away.
Wireless LAN protocols, such as Bluetooth and the IEEE 802.11 specifications used for Wi-
Fi, also use microwaves in the 2.4 GHz ISM band, although 802.11a uses ISM band and U-
NII frequencies in the 5 GHz range. Licensed long-range (up to about 25 km) Wireless
Internet Access services have been used for almost a decade in many countries in the 3.5–
4.0 GHz range. The FCC recently carved out spectrum for carriers that wish to offer services
in this range in the U.S. — with emphasis on 3.65 GHz. Dozens of service providers across
the country are securing or have already received licenses from the FCC to operate in this
band. The WIMAX service offerings that can be carried on the 3.65 GHz band will give
business customers another option for connectivity.
16
Metropolitan area network (MAN) protocols, such as WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability
for Microwave Access) are based on standards such as IEEE 802.16, designed to operate
between 2 and 11 GHz. Commercial implementations are in the 2.3 GHz, 2.5 GHz, 3.5 GHz
and 5.8 GHz ranges.
Mobile Broadband Wireless Access (MBWA) protocols based on standards specifications

such as IEEE 802.20 or ATIS/ANSI HC-SDMA (such as iBurst) operate between 1.6 and
2.3 GHz to give mobility and in-building penetration characteristics similar to mobile phones
but with vastly greater spectral efficiency.
Some mobile phone networks, like GSM, use the low-microwave/high-UHF frequencies
around 1.8 and 1.9 GHz in the Americas and elsewhere, respectively. DVB-SH and S-
DMB use 1.452 to 1.492 GHz, while proprietary/incompatible satellite radio in the U.S. uses
around 2.3 GHz for DARS.
Microwave radio is used in broadcasting and telecommunication transmissions because, due

to their short wavelength, highly directional antennas are smaller and therefore more practical
than they would be at longer wavelengths (lower frequencies). There is also
more bandwidth in the microwave spectrum than in the rest of the radio spectrum; the usable
bandwidth below 300 MHz is less than 300 MHz while many GHz can be used above
300 MHz. Typically, microwaves are used in television news to transmit a signal from a
remote location to a television station from a specially equipped van. See broadcast auxiliary
service (BAS), remote pickup unit (RPU), and studio/transmitter link (STL).
Most satellite communications systems operate in the C, X, Ka, or Ku bands of the microwave
spectrum. These frequencies allow large bandwidth while avoiding the crowded UHF
frequencies and staying below the atmospheric absorption of EHF frequencies. Satellite
TV either operates in the C band for the traditional large dish fixed satellite service or
Ku band for direct-broadcast satellite. Military communications run primarily over X or Ku-
band links, with Ka band being used for Milstar.
Navigation
Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) including the Chinese Beidou, the
American Global Positioning System (introduced in 1978) and the
Russian GLONASS broadcast navigational signals in various bands between about 1.2 GHz
and 1.6 GHz.
17
Radar
Fig.1.12 Parabolic Antenna
The parabolic antenna (lower curved surface) of an ASR-9 airport surveillance radar which
radiates a narrow vertical fan-shaped beam of 2.7–2.9 GHz (S band) microwaves to locate
aircraft in the airspace surrounding an airport.
Radar is a radiolocation technique in which a beam of radio waves emitted by a transmitter

bounces off an object and returns to a receiver, allowing the location, range, speed, and other
characteristics of the object to be determined. The short wavelength of microwaves causes
large reflections from objects the size of motor vehicles, ships and aircraft. Also, at these
wavelengths, the high gain antennas such as parabolic antennas which are required to produce
the narrow beam widths needed to accurately locate objects are conveniently small, allowing
them to be rapidly turned to scan for objects. Therefore, microwave frequencies are the main
frequencies used in radar. Microwave radar is widely used for applications such as air traffic
control, weather forecasting, navigation of ships, and speed limit enforcement. Long-distance
radars use the lower microwave frequencies since at the upper end of the band atmospheric
absorption limits the range, but millimeter waves are used for short-range radar such
as collision avoidance systems.
Fig.1.13 Dish Antenna
18
Some of the dish antennas of the Atacama Large Millimeter Array (ALMA) a radio telescope
located in northern Chile. It receives microwaves in the millimeter wave range, 31 –
1000 GHz.
Fig.1.14 Maps of Cosmic microwave background radiation
Maps of the cosmic microwave background radiation (CMBR), showing the improved
resolution which has been achieved with better microwave radio telescopes
Radio astronomy
Microwaves emitted by astronomical radio sources; planets, stars, galaxies, and nebulas are
studied in radio astronomy with large dish antennas called radio telescopes. In addition to
receiving naturally occurring microwave radiation, radio telescopes have been used in active
radar experiments to bounce microwaves off planets in the solar system, to determine the
distance to the Moon or map the invisible surface of Venus through cloud cover.
A recently completed microwave radio telescope is the Atacama Large Millimeter Array,
located at more than 5,000 meters (16,597 ft) altitude in Chile, observes the universe in
the millimeter and submillimetre wavelength ranges. The world's largest ground-based
astronomy project to date, it consists of more than 66 dishes and was built in an international
collaboration by Europe, North America, East Asia and Chile.
A major recent focus of microwave radio astronomy has been mapping the cosmic
microwave background radiation (CMBR) discovered in 1964 by radio astronomers Arno
Penzias and Robert Wilson. This faint background radiation, which fills the universe and is
almost the same in all directions, is "relic radiation" from the Big Bang, and is one of the few
sources of information about conditions in the early universe. Due to the expansion and thus
cooling of the Universe, the originally high-energy radiation has been shifted into the
19
microwave region of the radio spectrum. Sufficiently sensitive radio telescopes can detect the
CMBR as a faint signal that is not associated with any star, galaxy, or other object.
Heating and power application
Fig.1.15 Microwave oven
A microwave oven passes microwave radiation at a frequency near 2.45 GHz

(12 cm) through food, causing dielectric heating primarily by absorption of the energy in
water. Microwave ovens became common kitchen appliances in Western countries in the late
1970s, following the development of less expensive cavity magnetrons. Water in the liquid
state possesses many molecular interactions that broaden the absorption peak. In the vapor
phase, isolated water molecules absorb at around 22 GHz, almost ten times the frequency of
the microwave oven.
Many semiconductor processing techniques use microwaves to generate plasma for such
purposes as reactive ion etching and plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD).
Microwaves are used in stellarators and tokamak experimental fusion reactors to help break
down the gas into a plasma, and heat it to very high temperatures. The frequency is tuned to
the cyclotron resonance of the electrons in the magnetic field, anywhere between 2–200 GHz,
hence it is often referred to as Electron Cyclotron Resonance Heating (ECRH). The
upcoming ITER thermonuclear reactor will use up to 20 MW of 170 GHz microwaves.
Microwaves can be used to transmit power over long distances, and post-World War
II research was done to examine possibilities. NASA worked in the 1970s and early 1980s to
research the possibilities of using solar power satellite (SPS) systems with large solar
arrays that would beam power down to the Earth's surface via microwaves.
Less-than-lethal weaponry exists that uses millimeter waves to heat a thin layer of human
skin to an intolerable temperature so as to make the targeted person move away. A two-
second burst of the 95 GHz focused beam heats the skin to a temperature of 54 °C (129 °F) at
20
a depth of 0.4 millimetres (1⁄64 in). The United States Air Force and Marines are currently
using this type of active denial system in fixed installations.
Spectroscopy
Microwave radiation is used in electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR or ESR) spectroscopy,
typically in the X-band region (~9 GHz) in conjunction typically with magnetic fields of 0.3
T. This technique provides information on unpaired electrons in chemical systems, such
as free radicals or transition metal ions such as Cu(II). Microwave radiation is also used to
perform rotational spectroscopy and can be combined with electrochemistry as in microwave
enhanced electrochemistry.
21
CHAPTER 2
MICROSTRIP PATCH ANTENNA
22
MICROSTRIP PATCH ANTENNA
Microstrip antenna was first introduced in the 1950s. This concept had to wait for about 20
years to be realized after the development of the printed circuit board (PCB) technology in
the 1970s. Since then, microstrip antennas are the most common types of antennas with wide
range of applications due to their apparent advantages of light weight, low profile, low cost,
planar configuration, easy of conformal, superior portability, suitable for array with the ease
of fabrication and integration with microwave monolithic integrate circuits (MMICs).They
have been widely engaged for the civilian and military applications such as radio-frequency
identification (RFID), broadcast radio, mobile systems, global positioning system (GPS),
television, multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) systems, vehicle collision avoidance
system, satellite communications, surveillance systems, direction founding, radar systems,
remote sensing, missile guidance, and so on.
2.1 TYPES OF MICROSTRIP ANTENNA:
Microstrip patch antenna:
Microstrip patch antenna is one kind of microstrip antenna and it is most widely chosen
among other kinds because of its different shapes. In microstrip patch antenna (MSPA), the
patch is generally made of a conducting material such as copper or gold. The microstrip patch
antenna can have any shape but, rectangular, circular, triangular and elliptical are some
common shapes. The radiating patch and the feed lines are usually photoetched on the
dielectric substrate. The basic geometry of a microstrip patch antenna (MPA) consists of a
metallic patch which is either printed on a grounded substrate or suspended above a ground
plane. The antenna is usually fed either by a coaxial probe or a stripline. In the coaxial case,
the center conductor is directly connected to the patch and the outer conductor to the
ground. In the stripline case, energy is coupled to the patch in several ways: by direct
connection, by proximity coupling, and by aperture coupling. Microstrip patch antennas are
of different types such as rectangular microstrip patch antenna, circular microstrip patch
antenna, open circuit microstrip radiator, microstrip dipole antenna.
23
Fig.2.1 microstrip patch antenna
Where; L = Length of the patch

W = Width of the patch
t = Thickness of the substrate
h = Height of dielectric substrate
They are the original type of microstrip antenna described by Howell. The two metal sheets
together form a resonant piece of microstrip transmission line with a length of approximately
one-half wavelength of the radio waves. The radiating patch and the feed lines are usually
photo etched on the dielectric substrate. Microstrip patch antennas radiate primarily because
of the fringing fields between the patch edge and the ground plane. For good antenna
performance, a thick dielectric substrate having a low dielectric constant is desirable.
Microstrip slot/travelling antenna:
The microstrip patch antenna has a slot either on ground or patch known as microstrip slot
antenna. The slot antenna is just an opening created in conductor with a particular dimension
such that it radiates electromagnetic waves or receives EM waves. Microstrip slot antenna is
simple in structure. It consists of microstrip feed that couples electromagnetic waves through
the slot above and slot radiates them. slot antennas are an about λ/2 elongated slot, cut in a
conductive plate and excited in the centre. The impedance of the slot can be deduced by using
folded slot. Microstrip slot antennas are used in broad range of applications from wireless and
satellite communication system to medical system, primarily due to their
miniaturization,simplicity, inexpensive, conformability, light weight, low profile,
reproducibility and ease of integration with solid state device. By using high permittivity
24
substrate and by different shape of slot we can enhance the gain of antenna The slot antennas
can be fed by microstrip line , slot line and coplanar wave guides. Fractal patch antennas find
application for wide band of frequency transmission and reception. Decoupling slots are used
for dual band of operation and finds applications in WLAN.
2.2 FEEDING TECHNIQUES
We have to give input to microstrip patch antenna. Inorder to get impedance matching we
have different feeding techniques. Feeding techniques are classified in two categories. The
one is contacting and the other is non-contacting. There are four types of the feeding
techniques and they are:
• Inset feed
• Probe feed
• Coupled feed
• Aperture feed
2.2.1 Inset Feed
Previously, the patch antenna was fed at the end as shown here. Since this typically yields a
high input impedance, we would like to modify the feed. Since the current is low at the ends
of a half-wave patch and increases in magnitude toward the center, the input impedance
(Z=V/I) could be reduced if the patch was fed closer to the center. One method of doing this
is by using an inset feed (a distance R from the end) as shown in Figure 2.2.
Fig. 2.2 Patch Antenna with an Inset Feed.
25
Since the current has a sinusoidal distribution, moving in a distance R from the end will
increase the current by cos(pi*R/L) - this is just noting that the wavelength is 2*L, and so the
phase difference is 2*pi*R/(2*L) = pi*R/L.
The voltage also decreases in magnitude by the same amount that the current increases.
Hence, using Z=V/I, the input impedance scales as:
In the above equation, Zin(0) is the input impedance if the patch was fed at the end. Hence,
by feeding the patch antenna as shown, the input impedance can be decreased. As an
example, if R=L/4, then cos(pi*R/L) = cos(pi/4), so that [cos(pi/4)]^2 = 1/2. Hence, a (1/8)-
wavelength inset would decrease the input impedance by 50%. This method can be used to
tune the input impedance to the desired value.
2.2.2 Feed with a Quarter-Wavelength Transmission Line
The microstrip antenna can also be matched to a transmission line of characteristic

impedance Z0 by using a quarter-wavelength transmission line of characteristic impedance
Z1 as shown in Figure 2.3.
Fig.2.3 Patch antenna with a quarter-wavelength matching section.
26
This input impedance can be altered by selection of the , so that = and the antenna
is impedance matched. The parameter can be altered by changing the width of the quarter-
wavelength strip. The wider the strip is, the lower the characteristic impedance ( ) is for that
section of line.
2.2.3 Coaxial Cable or Probe Feed
Microstrip antenna can also be fed from underneath via a probe as shown in Figure 2.4. The
outer conductor of the coaxial cable is connected to the ground plane, and the center
conductor is extended up to the patch antenna.
Fig. 2.4 Coaxial cable feed of patch antenna.
The position of the feed can be altered as before (in the same way as the inset feed, above) to
control the input impedance.
27
The coaxial feed introduces an inductance into the feed that may need to be taken into
account if the height h gets large (an appreciable fraction of a wavelength). In addition, the
probe will also radiate, which can lead to radiation in undesirable directions.
2.2.4 Coupled (Indirect) Feeds
The feeds above can be altered such that they do not directly touch the antenna. For instance,
the probe feed in Figure 3 can be trimmed such that it does not extend all the way up to the
antenna. The inset feed can also be stopped just before the patch antenna, as shown in Figure
2.5.
Fig. 2.5 Coupled (indirect) inset feed.
The advantage of the coupled feed is that it adds an extra degree of freedom to the design.
The gap introduces a capacitance into the feed that can cancel out the inductance added by
the probe feed.
28
2.2.5 Aperture Feeds
Another method of feeding microstrip antennas is the aperture feed. In this technique, the
feed circuitry (transmission line) is shielded from the antenna by a conducting plane with a
hole (aperture) to transmit energy to the antenna, as shown in Figure 2.6.
Fig. 2.6 Aperture coupled feed.
The upper substrate can be made with a lower permittivity to produce loosely bound fringing
fields, yielding better radiation. The lower substrate can be independently made with a high
value of permittivity for tightly coupled fields that don't produce spurious radiation. The
disadvantage of this method is increased difficulty in fabrication.
2.3 ADVANTAGES OF MICROSTRIP ANTENNA:

Microstrip antenna have several advantages compared to conventional microwave antennas
and therefore many applications over the broad frequency range from 100MHz to
50GHz.some of the principle advantages are:
• Light weight, low volume, low profile planar configurations which can be made
conformal.
• These antennas have low scattering cross section.
• They operate at microwave frequencies where traditional antennas are not feasible to
be designed.
• This antenna type has smaller size and hence will provide small size end devices.
29
• The microstrip based antennas are easily etched on any PCB and will also provide
easy access for troubleshooting during design and development. This is due to the
fact that microstrip pattern is visible and accessible from top. Hence they are easy to
fabricate and comfortable on curved parts of the device. Hence it is easy to integrate
them with MICs or MMICs.
• As the patch antennas are fed along centerline to symmetry, it minimizes excitation of
other undesired modes.
• The microstrip patches of various shapes e.g. rectangular, square, triangular etc. are
easily etched.
• They are capable of supporting multiple frequency bands (dual, triple).
• They support dual polarization types viz. linear and circular both.
2.4 APPLICATIONS IN WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS

The Microstrip patch antennas are well known for their performance and their robust design,
fabrication and their extent usage. The advantages of this Microstrip patch antenna are to
overcome their de-merits such as easy to design, light weight etc., the applications are in the
various fields such as in the medical applications, satellites and of course even in the military
systems just like in the rockets, aircrafts missiles etc. the usage of the Microstrip antennas are
spreading widely in all the fields and areas and now they are booming in the commercial
aspects due to their low cost of the substrate material and the fabrication. It is also expected
that due to the increasing usage of the patch antennas in the wide range this could take over
the usage of the conventional antennas for the maximum applications. Microstrip patch antenna
has several applications. Some of these applications are discussed as below:
Mobile and satellite communication application:
Mobile communication requires small, low-cost, low profile antennas. Microstrip patch antenna meets
all requirements and various types of microstrip antennas have been designed for use in
mobile communication systems. In case of satellite communication circularly polarized
radiation patterns are required and can be realized using either square or circular patch with one
or two feed points.
Global Positioning System applications:
Nowadays microstrip patch antennas with substrate having high permittivity sintered material are
used for global positioning system. These antennas are circularly polarized, very compact and quite
30
expensive due to its positioning. It is expected that millions of GPS receivers will be used by the
general population for land vehicles, aircraft and maritime vessels to find their position
accurately.
Radio Frequency Identification (RFID):
RFID uses in different areas like mobile communication, logistics, manufacturing, transportation and
health care. RFID system generally uses frequencies between 30 Hz and 5.8 GHz depending
on its applications. Basically RFID system is a tag or transponder and a transceiver or reader.
Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access (WiMax): The IEEE 802.16 standard is
known as WiMax. It can reach upto 30 mile radius theoretically and data rate 70 Mbps. MPA
generates three resonant modes at 2.7, 3.3 and 5.3 GHz and can, therefore, be used in
WiMax compliant communication equipment.
Radar Application:
Radar can be used for detecting moving targets such as people and vehicles. It demands a
low profile, light weight antenna subsystem, the microstrip antennas are an ideal choice. The
fabrication technology based on photolithography enables the bulk production of microstrip
antenna with repeatable performance at a lower cost in a lesser time frame as compared to the
conventional antennas. Rectenna Application: Rectenna is a rectifying antenna, a special type of
antenna that is used to directly convert microwave energy into DC power. Rectenna is a
combination of four subsystems i.e. Antenna, ore rectification filter, rectifier, post rectification filter.
in rectenna application, it is necessary to design antennas with very high directive
characteristics to meet the demands of long-distance links. Since the aim is to use the rectenna to
transfer DC power through wireless links for a long distance, this can only be accomplished by
increasing the electrical size of the antenna.
Telemedicine Application:
In telemedicine application antenna is operating at 2.45 GHz. Wearable microstrip antenna is

suitable for Wireless Body Area Network (WBAN). The proposed antenna achieved a higher
gain and front to back ratio compared to the other antennas, in addition to the semi directional
radiation pattern which is preferred over the omni-directional pattern to overcome unnecessary
radiation to the user's body and satisfies the requirement for on-body and off-body applications.
A antenna having gain of 6.7 dB and a F/B ratio of 11.7 dB and resonates at 2.45GHz is
suitable for telemedicine applications.
31
Medicinal applications of patch:
It is found that in the treatment of malignant tumors the microwave energy is said to be
the most effective way of inducing hyperthermia. The design of the particular radiator which
is to be used for this purpose should possess light weight, easy in handling and to be rugged.
Only the patch radiator fulfils these requirements. The initial designs for the Microstrip radiator for
inducing hyperthermia was based on the printed dipoles and annular rings which were designed on S-
band. And later on the design was based on the circular microstrip disk at L-band. There is a simple
operation that goes on with the instrument; two coupled Microstrip lines are separated with a
flexible separation which is used to measure the temperature inside the human body. A
flexible patch applicator can be seen in the figure below which operates at 430 MHz.
32
CHAPTER 3
MIMO ANTENNAS
33
MIMO ANTENNA
Due to its advantages of high data rate and link reliability, the multiple-input multiple-output
(MIMO) technology has attracted lots of attention in modern wireless communications. By
placing multiple antenna elements at the transmitter and receiver ends of the wireless
communication system, MIMO can not only improve the capacity of channel, but also reduce
the effects of multi-path fading. It is well known that the channel capacity of a MIMO system
increases with the uncorrelated channels. To achieve the maximum channel capacity of
MIMO systems, it is necessary to minimize the channel correlation related to the mutual
coupling between antenna elements and the spatial correlation. Usually, the mutual coupling
between the elements is reduced by etching gaps or loading branches on the ground plane,
placing the elements orthogonally, loading parasitic strips and using neutralization lines. On
the other hand, the spatial correlation of a MIMO channel is governed by the radiation pattern
of the antenna. Therefore, one potential solution to increase the channel capacity is to adopt
the pattern reconfigurable antenna to the MIMO system.
Fig. 3.1 MIMO Antenna
34
3.1 MIMO DEFINITION
MIMO (multiple input, multiple output) is an antenna technology for wireless

communications in which multiple antennas are used at both the source (transmitter) and the
destination (receiver). In radio, multiple-input and multiple-output, or MIMO is a method
for multiplying the capacity of a radio link using multiple transmission and
receiving antennas to exploit multipath propagation. In modern usage, "MIMO" specifically
refers to a practical technique for sending and receiving more than one data signal
simultaneously over the same radio channel by exploiting multipath propagation.
3.2 ADVANTAGES
• The higher data rate can be achieved with the help of multiple antennas and
SM(Spatial Multiplexing) Technique. This helps in achieving higher downlink and
uplink throughput.
• The systems with MIMO offers high QoS(Quality of Service) with increased spectral
efficiency and data rates.
• MIMO based system minimize fading effects seen by the information travelling from
transmit to receive end. This is due to various diversity techniques such as time,
frequency and space.
• Beam steering –This provides two major benefits: First, beam steering can
directionally focus the RF energy on a single user, ignoring the remaining space. It is
also possible to track the user, reducing interference and boosting signal to noise
wherever the user is located. Secondly, beam steering can solve the problem of RF
multipath by discovering the best path and targeting RF energy toward that direction.
Even when transceivers are stationary, environmental changes affect the many paths
that an RF signal can take, so dynamically adjusting and selecting the best path
maintains best connectivity and increases range in high interference environments.
• Increased data capacity– MIMO can add data carrying

capacity without requiring additional bandwidth through spatial
multiplexing.
• MIMO offers the advantage of channelizing the space: Each spatial channel can
become independent, thus breaking. Although an arbitrary number of spatial channels
35
is not practical, the ability to increase data rate by 50%, or perhaps double, within the
same bandwidth use is a major advantage.
• Diversity– Because MIMO offers the ability to

distinguish transmission over multiple paths, it is possible to encode
the signal more efficiently if the effect of those paths is considered.
• Reliability and low susceptibility for tapping by unauthorized users.
• Increment in SNR and SINR.
• Complete scattering matrix for imaging
• Requires less antenna elements comparing with SAR.
• Lower bit rate error.
3.3 APPLICATIONS
• Fourth Generation (4G) LTE And LTE Advanced define very advanced air interfaces
extensively relying on MIMO techniques.
• LTE primarily focuses on single-link MIMO relying on Spatial Multiplexing and
space-time coding while LTE-Advanced further extends the design to multi-user
MIMO.
• In wireless local area networks (WLAN), the IEEE 802.11n (Wi-Fi), MIMO
technology is implemented in the standard using three different techniques: antenna
selection, space-time coding and possibly beam forming.
• MIMO is also used in Mobile radio telephone standards such as
recent 3GPP and 3GPP2. In 3GPP, High-Speed Packet Access plus
(HSPA+) and Long Term Evolution (LTE) standards take MIMO into account.
Moreover, to fully support cellular environments .
• MIMO wireless communications architectures and processing techniques can be
applied to sensing problems. This is studied in a sub-discipline called MIMO radar.
•
MIMO technology can be used in non-wireless communications systems. One
example is the home networking standard, which defines a power line
communications system that uses MIMO techniques to transmit multiple signals over
multiple AC wires (phase, neutral and ground).
• MIMO Systems and Applications can contribute to the concept of Green Radio
Communications, while supporting a reduction in the energy consumption.
36
• MIMO is used in Ad-Hoc network (A collection of wireless mobile nodes that self-
configure to form a network)
• MIMO is used in mobile Wi-Max to increase spectral efficiency.
• MIMO is used in RFID(Radio frequency identification) to increase read reliability
using space diversity and to increase read range and read throughput.
• MIMO enables the digital home i.e, MIMO delivers whole home coverage with the
speed and reliability to stream multimedia applications.
• MIMO can reliably connect cabled video devices, computer networking devices,
broadband connections, phone lines, music, storage devices, etc.
• MIMO is used in Pager, text messaging applications such as blackberry.
• MIMO is used in Narrowband applications where limited bandwidth, lower data rate
and higher performance is required
• MIMO is used in power line control and digital multi Tone systems(DMT).
3.4 PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS

These are some of the performance parameters for MIMO antenna.
3.4.1 Envelope correlation co-efficient (ECC)
Envelope Correlation Coefficient tells us how independent two antennas radiation patterns
are. So if one antenna was completely horizontally polarized and the other was completely
vertically polarized the two antenna would have a correlation of zero. Similarly, if one
antenna only radiated energy towards the sky, and the other only radiated towards ground,
these antennas would have an ECC of 0. Hence, Envelope Correlation Coefficient takes into
account the antennas radiation pattern shape, polarization, and even the relative phase of the
fields between the two antennas.
The good value of ECC is 0.5 and higher than 0.5 is considered bad and 0.3 or less is
considered pretty good for MIMO applications.
In general, correlation can be decreased via:
• Having distinct polarization – If antenna 1 is vertically polarized and antenna
2 is horizontally polarized they will have low correlation
• Increasing separation between antennas – When antennas are space further
apart, their far field patterns become uncorrelated. This is because the relative
phase between them is not constant. Hence, even if you used identical
37
antennas oriented in the same direction, they can have low ECC if they are
spaced far enough apart.
• Ensuring direction of peak radiation is distinct – If antennas are closely
spaced and have the same orientation, it is possible to lower ECC if the
direction of peak radiation can be offset.
It turns out that for highly efficient antennas, the ECC can be completely determined from the
antenna isolation. If antennas produce the same radiation pattern, then they will also have
tight coupling. This is because antennas have the same properties for transmit and receive, so
if antenna 1 is transmitting a radiation pattern, antenna 2 will see this pattern and receive
energy proportional to how correlated the antennas.
The formula for ECC in terms of isolation is as follows:
This shows that the envelope Correlation Coefficient can be measured with just a vector
network analyzer.
3.4.2 TOTAL ACTIVE REFLECTION COEFFICIENT (TARC):

The total active reflection coefficient (TARC) relates the total incident power to the total
outgoing power in an N-port microwave component. The TARC is mainly used for multiple-
input multiple-output (MIMO) antenna systems and array antennas, where the outgoing
power is unwanted reflected power. The name shows the similarities with the active
reflection coefficient, which is used for single elements. The TARC is the square root of the
sum of all outgoing powers at the ports, divided by the sum of all incident powers at the
ports of an N-port antenna. Similarly to the active reflection coefficient, the TARC is a
function of frequency, and it also depends on scan angle and tapering. With this definition
We can characterize multi-port antenna’s frequency bandwidth and radiation performance.
The TARC was successfully utilized for practical antenna design, covering wide range of
MIMO applications. Total active reflection coefficient (TARC) contains effect of mutual
coupling, which provides a more meaning measure of MIMO efficiency.
The TARC is a real number between zero and one, although it is typically presented
in decibel scale. When the value of the TARC is equal to zero, all the delivered power is
38
accepted by the antenna and when it is equal to one, all the delivered is coming back as
outgoing power (thus the all power is reflected, but not necessarily in the same port).
As with all reflection coefficients, a small reflection coefficient does not guarantee a high
radiation efficiency since the small reflected signal could also be due to losses.
3.4.3 DIVERSITY GAIN (DG):

Diversity gain is the increase in signal-to-interference ratio due to some diversity scheme, or
how much the transmission power can be reduced when a diversity scheme is introduced,
without a performance loss. Diversity gain is usually expressed in decibels, and sometimes as
a power ratio. An example is soft handoff gain. For selection combining N signals are
received, and the strongest signal is selected.
Diversity techniques are used to reduce the impact of fading by combining antenna elements
that experience different fading. Diversity performance can be characterized
by diversity order, which is the number of independently fading antenna elements.
In order to find the diversity gain, the power samples of the two branches are combined by
selection combining (SC) and maximal ratio combining (MRC). With SC the branch with the
highest power for each of the 3750 equal measurement situations is always selected
Diversity gain is proportional to the number of transmit antennas despite the multiplexing of
multiple users.
3.4.4 MEAN EFFECTIVE GAIN (MEG):
The mean effective gain (MEG) is one of the most important parameters for the
characterization of antennas in wireless channels. An analysis of some fundamental properties
of the MEG is provided and corresponding physical interpretations are given. Three points are
analyzed in detail: (i) closed-form expressions for MEG in a mixed environment with both
stochastic and deterministic components are provided, showing that the MEG can be written
as a sum of gains for the deterministic and stochastic components, (ii) it is shown that under
some assumptions, the propagation channel and the antenna are equivalent in the sense that the
impact of the channel cross-polarization ratio (XPR) and the antenna effective cross-polar
discrimination on the MEG are symmetrical, (iii) based on the fact that MEG depends on
random variables, such as the XPR and antenna rotations because of user’s movements, the
average, the minimum and maximum MEG of antennas are defined, respectively.
39
The mean effective gain (MEG), which is a single parameter describing the impact of the
antenna on the link budget, has emerged as the way of characterizing the communication
performance of handsets including the antennas in real propagation environments. Currently,
mainly due to practical reasons, the total radiated power (TRP) isotropic ally radiated by the
mobile terminal is used in the link budget calculations, together with an attenuation factor
accounting for the losses in the user’s body.
MEG is the average received power that in the Rayleigh fading environment completely
defines the first-order statistics of the signal envelope of the small-scale fading. Moreover,
MEG is a measure of how a deterministic device, the antenna, performs in the stochastic
channel. Finally, MEG is the natural extension of the communication link quality concept
introduced by Wheeler for single-path channels, to the more general case of multipath
channels. Wheeler defined the communication link quality as the ratio of the received power
to the transmitted power and made use of the Friis equation. A more general definition and
practical definition of MEG is defined relative a realistic reference antenna such as a half
wavelength dipole.
40
CHAPTER 4
RECONFIGURABLE ANTENNAS
41
RECONFIGURABLE ANTENNAS
A reconfigurable antenna is an antenna capable of modifying its frequency and radiation

properties dynamically, in a controlled and reversible manner.[2] In order to provide a
dynamic response, reconfigurable antennas integrate an inner mechanism (such as RF
switches, varactors, mechanical actuators or tunable materials) that enable the intentional
redistribution of the RF currents over the antenna surface and produce reversible
modifications of its properties. Reconfigurable antennas differ from smart antennas because
the reconfiguration mechanism lies inside the antenna, rather than in an external beam
forming network. The reconfiguration capability of reconfigurable antennas is used to
maximize the antenna performance in a changing scenario or to satisfy changing operating
requirements.
4.1 Introduction
Due to the rapid growth of wireless communications, and the high demand for the integration
of multiple wireless standards into a single platform, it is highly desirable that the operating
frequency, radiation pattern, and polarizations of antennas can be reconfigurable.
Reconfigurable antennas modify their operating frequency, impedance bandwidth,
polarization, and radiation pattern as per the operating requirements of the host system. They
can radiate multiple patterns at different frequencies and polarizations. Obtaining the desired
functionality for a reconfigurable antenna and integrating it into a complete system to achieve
an efficient and cost-effective solution is a challenging task for antenna designers. Converting
an antenna into a reconfigurable device by applying different techniques to change the
antenna’s internal structure has been challenging. Multiple factors need to be considered such
as achieving a good gain, good efficiency, stable radiation pattern, and a good impedance
match throughout all the antenna’s operation states. To achieve a good gain, stable radiation
pattern, and a good impedance throughout the operation states, the reconfigurable antenna
designers must focus on the following questions: (i) Which antenna property (e.g. Frequency,
radiation pattern, or polarization) must be modified? (ii) How are the radiating elements of
the antenna structure reconfigured to achieve the required property? (iii) Which
reconfiguration technique can minimize the negative effects on the antenna performances? A
reconfigurable antenna provides the same.
42
A reconfigurable antenna provides the same functionality as that given by multiple single-
purpose antennas. This offers saving in costs, weight, volume, and maintenance/repair
resources. The following subsections present the definition of the critical parameters for
antenna development.
4.2 Classification of Reconfigurable Antennas
Based on the operational properties dynamically adjusted, e.g. frequency of operation,

radiation pattern, polarization or a combination of any of these properties, reconfigurable
antennas can be classified as follows:
1. Frequency Reconfigurable Antennas: These antennas can be developed by two

mechanisms: electrical or mechanical. The electrical mechanism employs discrete
tuning and continuous tuning methods. Discrete tuning can be achieved by radio
frequency (RF) switches and continuous tuning can be achieved by varactor diodes.
The mechanical mechanism employs the impedance loading tunable materials such
as liquid crystals, meta surface to achieve the frequency reconfiguration.
2. Pattern Reconfigurable Antennas: These antennas use movable/rotatable structure
like meta surface or including switchable in reactively loaded capacitive elements for
the intentional modification of the spherical distribution of radiation pattern.
3. Polarization Reconfigurable Antennas: These antennas use switching between
different polarizations, i.e. from linear polarization to left hand circular polarization
(LHCP) and right hand circular polarization (RHCP), using multi modes structure or
meta surface. To reduce the polarization mismatch, losses in portable devices,
switching between horizontal, vertical and circular polarizations are needed.
4. Compound Reconfigurable Antennas: These antennas use simultaneous tuning of
several antenna parameters, e.g. frequency and radiation pattern, for independent
reconfiguration of operating frequency, radiation pattern and polarization, via a
parasitic pixel layer.
4.3 Types of Reconfigurable Antennas
4.3.1 Electrically Reconfigurable Antennas

Electronic switching components such as RF-MEMS, PIN diodes, varactor diodes or FETs
are used in electrically reconfigurable antennas for surface current distributions by altering
the antenna radiating structures or radiating edges. The integration of switches into the
43
antenna structure makes it easier for designers to reach the desired reconfigurable
functionality. The electrical mechanism employs discrete tuning and continuous tuning
methods. These can be achieved by using p-i-n (PIN) diodes, varactor diodes, and field-
effect-transistors (FETs). For operating these electronic components in the antenna circuit,
direct-current (DC) source and biasing circuits are needed. An electrical reconfigurable
antenna thus relies on a DC electrical source and electronic switching components which
have an adverse effect on the operation and performance of the antenna.
4.3.2 Optically Reconfigurable Antennas
Optically reconfigurable antenna comes under the class of radiating elements that has the
capability of changing the radiation properties with the use of switches which may be optical
activation of silicon switches of reactive elements. The metal wires that may interfere with
the antenna’s radiation characteristics can be eliminated in case of optically controlled
devices. The use of additional metallic microstrip or wired biasing lines makes the antenna
complex and interference among the required radiation pattern makes the major issues in case
of DC controlled microstrip antennas, can be overcome using optically controlled
reconfigurable antenna. Resonant Frequency of an antenna can also be achieved by optically
controlled switches. It is more preferable than electrical switches as optical control has more
advantage over electrical control. Even at high microwave frequencies, the optical signal
isolates the controlling optical signal from the controlled microwave signal. Optically
controlled devices have the switching speed of 0.1-1 MHz. The reconfiguration in the
frequency response from single-band to dual- band can be achieved by the use of
photoconductive switches. Frequency agility of the antenna can be implemented by using the
optical properties of P3HT (3-hexylthiophene), which is an organic semiconductor polymer
that shows semiconductor properties based on organic components. Due to some advantages
such as easy fabrication, mechanical flexibility, and tunable optical properties having good
spectral overlap with optical wavelength irradiation and high charge-carrier mobility in
addition with low band gap, organic semiconductor polymer is more preferred in many
applications. Stability and solubility are two important features of organic semiconductor
polymer that signifies it is stable in ambient condition and soluble in common organic
solvents. The bandgap of P3HT is very small, approximately 1.9 eV and the absorption peak
in the visible spectrum ranges from 450 to 600 nm. P3HT can be used as a patch material in
case of an antenna that can be optically controlled. When the light source illuminates the
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organic polymer, then an electron-hole plasma region is induced as in a semiconductor
material the photon energy is greater than the bandgap energy. This results a change in the
resonant properties of the antenna. When laser light is incident on a semiconductor material
such as silicon, gallium arsenide, an optical switch is formed and results in excitation of
electrons from valence to conduction band for creating a conduction channel. Optically
reconfigurable antenna is a type of antenna where we can achieve antenna reconfiguration by
integrating a switch into it. In the absence of biasing lines, optical switches compensate the
lossy behaviour and uses laser light for their activation . The main job is related with the
switches that can be activated on the antenna structure.
4.3.3 Mechanical/Physically Reconfigurable Antennas
Antennas can also be reconfigured by physically altering the antenna radiating structure. The
tuning of the antenna is achieved by a structural modification of the antenna radiating parts .
The importance of this technique is that it does not rely on any switch mechanisms, biasing
lines or optical fiber /laser diode integration. On the other hand, this technique depends on the
limitation of the device to be physically reconfigured.
4.3.4 Reconfigurable Antennas Based on Smart Materials

Antennas are also made reconfigurable through a change in the substrate characteristics by
using materials such as liquid crystals, dielectric fluids, ferrites or meta surfaces. The change
in the material is achieved by a change in the relative electric permittivity or magnetic
permeability. In fact, a liquid crystal is a nonlinear material whose dielectric constant can be
changed under different voltage levels, by altering the orientation of the liquid crystal
molecules. As for a ferrite material, a static applied electric/magnetic field can change the
relative material permittivity/permeability. In meta surfaced antenna, the meta surface is
placed directly atop the patch antenna and is rotated. This change the equivalent relative
permittivity of the structure by which the resonant frequency of the antenna can be tuned.
Frequency tuning can also be achieved using controllable electrical properties materials like
barium-strontium-titanate (BST), yttrium iron garnet (YIG), liquid crystals, artificial fluids
and dielectric fluids.
4.4 Applications
The advancements in wireless communication applications require new generation of
reconfigurable antennas which can adjust to the environments and adopt reconfigurable
45
capabilities as per the surrounding conditions. The reconfigurable antennas are used in
cognitive radio system, MIMO systems, satellite communication, biomedical application,
military and industrial applications. Some of the applications are presented here.
Frequency Reconfigurable Antenna for a Cognitive Radio System
Due to the rapid growth in the communication system the demand of frequency band increase
that leads to scarcity in the RF spectrum. Mainly, the scarcity of RF spectrum arises due to
the inefficient spectrum allocation. As the frequency bands are used more, the cognitive radio
(CR) comes into account. To overcome the future communication problems cognitive radios
are used which improves the spectrum usage efficiently. CR has the capability to use the
unoccupied space in a wide frequency range by sensing and detecting the available channels
before initializing communication. The development of the CR puts a great challenge to
antenna design. In general, the introduction of CR and allocation of spectrum offers new
challenges to the frequency reconfigurable antenna as the antenna can tune the frequency
without sacrificing the gain and radiation properties. There is one way to overcome this
solution that integration of reconfigurable filter to the antenna structure which is known as
filtenna which can be integrated at the feeding line or also on the ground plane of the antenna.
Most of the reconfiguration mechanisms are integrated into the ultra-wide band (UWB)
antenna in order to operate in multiband. It can be done by using some switches such as ideal
switches, optical switches, p-i-n diodes, varactor diodes, linear actuators and also stepper
motors are used for rotation of patches. The p-i-n diode switches acts as resistances to the
flow of current and requires large amount of DC power for its operation to achieve low
insertion loss and it uses complex biasing network. Photodetector switches like laser diodes
do not require any biasing line to increase its performance, with ome limitations and is
operated in fixed bands. The cognitive radio applications can be achieved by a compact
filtennas with large tunable frequency bands. In, a planar ultra-wide band monopole antenna
with a tunable T-shaped and H-shaped band pass filter helps to achieve tenability where the
T-shaped filter is composed of a microstrip resonator with a stub and the H-shaped filter
consists of two microstrip resonators connected with each other. The common tuning
technique used for both the filters are stub and also a varactor to get miniaturization. As
varactor signifies variable capacitance, this implies that with increase in variable capacitance,
there is a decrease in the even resonant mode of the resonator without affecting the dominant
odd mode. The operating band for T-shaped and H-shaped filtennas are 1.68 and 1.73 GHz.
Cognitive Radio covers 32.9% of the frequency tuning range from 4.26 to 5.94 GHz and
46
36.7% frequency tuning that ranges from 3.85 to 5.58 GHz. A cognitive radio can monitor
the channel and idle frequencies of the channel can be determined. Basically, idle frequency
deals with the white space or unused space. The idle frequency is very useful in
reconfigurable antenna. After identification of the unused space the reconfigurable antenna
have the ability to tune its operation according to the requirement and thus increase the
efficiency. Basically, the operation of cognitive radio can be represented in a cycle. The
cognitive cycle is shown in Figure. The first step involves sensing the antenna and observing
the antenna activity. Then the cognitive radio determines the suitable part for communication.
After that the communicating antenna achieves the required mode of operation. The last and
final step involves the process achieving cognition. This can be done by learning from the
previous channel activity. The advantage of the cognitive radio is that it allows the device to
self-decide and self-configure. The cognitive radio can self-realize the selected mode of
communication.
Fig.4.1 Frequency Reconfigurable Antenna for a Cognitive Radio System
Pattern Reconfigurable Antennas for MIMO Systems

Reconfigurable antennas are used to improve the performance of multi-input multi-output
(MIMO) wireless communication system. A MIMO system employs multiple antennas at
both the transmitter and the receiver front ends to send different information simultaneously,
thereby increasing the communication spectral efficiency in a multipath environment. A
MIMO system can adjust the modulation level, coding rate, and the transmission signalling
schemes according to the varying channel conditions and user’s need. The use of radiation
pattern/polarization reconfigurable antennas in a MIMO environment improves the channel
reliability, capacity and figure of merit of system performance. Reconfigurable antenna
arrays are also an attractive solution for MIMO systems to maintain good communication
links, especially for handled devices where space is an important constraint As an example,
we present a design and evaluation of pattern reconfigurable antennas for MIMO
47
applications. Using two electrically steerable passive array radiator (ESPAR) antennas, the
effect of uniform beam steering on MIMO system performance is evaluated. The MIMO-
ESPAR system reduces the bit error rate (BER) in certain pattern combinations and improves
the channel capacity. This ESPAR antenna design consists of one driven monopole in the
centre, surrounded by a ring of six uniformly spaced parasitic monopoles. A pair of ESPAR
antennas is fabricated on one substrate. The ESPAR patterns and beam angles with respect to
test environment is shown in Figure. MIMO based antenna has several advantages such as it
ensures a reliable communication between end users and increases the efficiency of spectrum.
Fig.4.2 Pattern Reconfigurable Antennas for MIMO Systems
Reconfigurable Antennas for Satellite Application

The data back bone of the future in metropolitan areas is not much developed, can be
overcome by satellite communication system. Recently, Google announced the Loon project
that involves the flying balloons used to provide the internet connection everywhere and to
every person throughout the world. The flying balloon costs less but its life time is very short
whereas the satellite costs more with life time of many years. Satellite antenna requires a
steerable antenna pattern. It is used for the alignment of the antenna of low-earth-orbit
satellite towards a geo-stationary satellite. The different applications for beam-steering and
forming antennas on a satellite platform is shown in Figure . In case of satellites and balloons
both the nodes should be pointed to each other to form a backbone network and provides a
networking platform for the users. Figure shows the communication between low-earth orbit
with the station i.e. geo-stationary orbit or on ground. Beam steering is required at the nodes
of the antenna. It helps in adapting the position of the antenna beam relative to them. It shows
low weight and less complexity. Loon project shows highly meshed network that gives high
48
complexity. Mechanical alignment of a conventional antenna is one of the implementation of
antenna system with adjustable beam. It is bulk and heavy with drawbacks in terms of cost
and reliability. The microwave components such as phase shifters tunable filters can
overcome the above problems. These components can be realized as: (1) electronically tuned
systems (2) mechanically tuned systems (3) functional materials. Basically, the used
technologies are based on semiconductors as it has a high-volume market and shows
acceptable performance. Liquid crystals are well known for its display technology shows a
mesophase between the solid crystalline and liquid phase. The LC is in a viscous liquid phase
showing anisotropic material properties. Liquid crystal can be used for inter-satellite links
from LEO to GEO. The LC layer thickness reduces with increase in the frequency, results in
a much faster tuning of phase shifter.
Fig.4.3 Reconfigurable Antennas for Satellite Application
Reconfigurable Antennas for Biomedical
Linear or circular polarization reconfigurable antennas have many advantages which are
enhancement of communication channel, reduction of the multipath interference and
polarization coding. In most of the cases, the operating bandwidths are narrow like in case of
microstrip patch radiators. Basically, the polarization mismatch occurs in transmitter which
can be compensated by polarization diversity in receiver antenna, the deterioration in the
signal transmission would be affected by the multi-path distortion and polarization
mismatching. Polarization diversity is mostly used in the antennas to improve the quality of
the wireless links. One of the most important examples is body-centric wireless
communication system (BWCS) as shown in Figure. Inductive link (short range) and far-field
Radio-frequency link (long range) is two important approaches of BWCS. The inductive link
uses coils and it has advantages of long distance communication and high data rate for
information transformation. On-body and Off- body are two wireless devices which are
49
operated in linear mode and can be realized by PIFAs. Due to free movement of human body
the orientation of these devices are arbitrary, which may cause multi-path fading. To
overcome multi-path fading and polarization mismatch, the external receiver antenna requires
features like polarization diversity. The polarization reconfigurability can be achieved using
PIN diodes in multi slot antenna. In the multi-slot antenna, pin diodes are used to switch
between four polarization modes which are 0⁰, ± 45⁰ and 90⁰ at frequencies between 2.2 GHz
and 2.6 GHz. The design results in broadside radiation with wide bandwidth and
characterized with stable gain for all the modes. In , the antenna with polarization diversity
minimizes polarization mismatching and induces capability of compensating the effect of
multipath distortion, which will able to scan different polarizations. One possible scenario of
body-centric wireless communication system (BWCS) with polarization reconfigurable
antenna is shown in Figure. A patient has several on body and implantable devices to
communicate with an external antenna or receiver which is connected with a data processing
equipment. Medical doctors can receive various real time information of the patient through
body centric wireless communication system (BWCS) network.
Fig.4.4 Reconfigurable Antennas for Biomedical
4.5 Advantages of Reconfigurable Antennas

Reconfigurable antennas can support more than one wireless standard, and deliver the same
performance as that of multiple antennas. Hence, reconfigurable antennas have the following
advantages: (i) low cost, low volume, simple integration, and good isolation between
different wireless standards, (ii) low front-end processing that means no need for front-end
filtering and good out-of-band rejection, (iii) best candidate for software-defined radios
which can adapt to new surroundings, and (iv) change functionality as per the mission
changes, act as a single element or as an array, providing narrow band or wideband as per the
requirements. The cost of the reconfigurable antennas can be linked to different parameters as
summarized below: (i) design of the biasing network for activation/deactivation of the
50
elements in the antenna structure, (ii) required power consumption of active components, (iii)
generation of harmonics and intermodulation products, and (iv) fast tuning of the antenna
radiation characteristics to assure a correct functioning of the system.
4.6 PIN diode switching technique
Reconfigurability in the antenna can be obtained by incorporating a variety of switching

techniques as discussed. In this project, the PIN diode switching technique is employed to get
the reconfigurability among the bands. PIN diode offers fast switching speed i.e., 120nsec
compared to other techniques.
A PIN diode is formed by doping a silicon wafer with P and N semiconductor materials in the
opposite side. The region between P type and N type i.e., the un-doped region is called the
intrinsic region. The pictorial and symbolic representation of the PIN diode is shown in Figure
4.5.1.
Anode P N Cathode Anode Cathode

Intrinsic
(a) (b)
Fig.4.5 PIN diode (a) pictorial representation (b) symbolic representation
The symbolic representation of the PIN diode shown in Figure.4.5.1 (b) looks like the normal
PN diode representation. At low frequencies, PIN diode works as normal PN diode and at high
frequencies (microwave frequencies), it works as a variable resistor.
(a) (b)
Fig.4.6 PIN diode equivalent circuit model (a) ON state (b) OFF state
The equivalent model of forward (ON) and reverse bias (OFF) conditions of a PIN diode at
high frequencies.
51
The diode forward condition is modeled with the series connection of the resistor (RS)
and the inductor (L). In reverse bias condition, it is the combination of the inductor (L) in
series with the parallel connection of the resistor (RP) and capacitor (CT).
In this project, BAR64-02 pin diode is used. It is operated in the range of 1MHz to
6GHz. In forward bias, the diode allows current flow by offering a low resistance of RS=2.1Ω.
In reverse bias, it offers high resistance value i.e., RP=3.1kΩ and does not allow the current
flow. In this case, it behaves as a parallel plate capacitor with capacitance value CT=0.23pF.
The value of packaging inductance is the same for both cases and its value is L=0.6nH.
The incorporation of diodes in the antenna design affects the antenna’s performance.
The downshift in resonant frequency is due to the capacitance of the diode and the reduction in
gain is due to the OFF state resistance of the diode.
To obtain the proper functioning of the antenna, the C value must be reduced. In this
project, the capacitance value of the diode is reduced from 0.23pF to 0.02pF and it may be
obtained by varying the biasing voltage.
4.6.1. HFSS modelling of PIN diode
In High Frequency Structure Simulator (HFSS) software, the diode functioning is represented
with the help of 2-D rectangular boxes. The symbolic representation of diode in HFSS and
the corresponding ON & OFF states.
Rectangle
Metal Strips
Lumped
Current flow (b) (c)
RLC
direction
Boundary
Fig 4.7 HFSS modelling of PIN diode (a) symbolic representation (b) ON state (c) OFF state
Usually, diodes are placed in the slot structures or in the gaps between the metal contacts.
Here the diode is represented by using two rectangles and the current flow direction is
represented by an arrow mark from one metal contact to another metal contact. The R, L, and
C values to the rectangles are assigned using lumped RLC boundary and the detailed
52
description of the lumped RLC boundary is discussed in next section. When the diode is in
ON condition, it allows the current flow from one metal contact to another metal contact. In
OFF condition, the diode does not allow the current flow and works as a parallel plate
capacitor.
4.6.2. Lumped RLC boundary
Lumped RLC boundary represents the parallel connection of R, L, and C values and it is used
to assign the R, L, and C values to the rectangles to make them as diode equivalents.
(a) (b)
Fig.4.8 (a) Representation of single resistor or parallel combination of lumped components (b)
Representation of a series combination of lumped components
A single value or parallel combination of lumped elements is obtained by using a single

rectangle as shown in Figure 4.6.2 (a) where as to obtain a series combination of any lumped
elements; two rectangles must be required as shown in Figure 4.6.2 (b).
In this project work, two rectangles are used to form the diode equivalent as shown in
Figure 4.6.3. The value assignment to the one rectangle is common for both ON and OFF
cases where as the value assignment to the other rectangle is varied in ON and OFF cases.
53
LumpRLC2
(a)(a) (b)
Fig.4.9 Representation of diode (a) OFF state (b)ON state
To one rectangle, inductance value (L=0.6nH) is assigned and it is common for both
cases i.e., ON and OFF.
Fig.4.10 Display of lumped RLC boundary for assigning L value
To the other rectangle, parallel combination of CT and RP (CT=0.15pF and RP=5kΩ ) are
assigned in OFF case and RS value (RS=3Ω) is assigned in ON case
54
CHAPTER 5
ANTENNA DESIGN AND RESULTS
55
ANTENNA DESIGN AND RESULTS
This chapter describes the analysis of different modes of the single element rectangular micro
strip patch antenna (RMSA). This chapter also describes about multiple-input-multiple-output
MIMO RMSA. The performance of the antenna is analyzed by measuring various parameters
viz., reflection coefficient, voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR), and current distribution, etc.
5.1 SINGLE ELEMENT RECTANGULAR MICROSTRIP PATCH ANTENNA AT

2.45GHz
5.1.1 DESIGN EQUATIONS OF RECTANGULAR MICRO STRIP ANTENNA
This section explains the design evolution of the proposed single element Rectangular micro
strip patch antenna. The following Equations are used to design the proposed antenna.
The width of the patch (W)
………………….. (1)
Where,
C is velocity of light
f0 is Resonant Frequency
ԑr is Relative Dielectric Constant
Effective dielectric constant (ԑeff)
…………………….. (2)
h is height of the substrate

Effective length (Leff)
………………………… (3)
Length Extension (ΔL)
………………… (4)
Actual length of patch (L):
………………………. (5)
56
5.1.2 SINGLE ELEMENT RMSA
The Single Element Rectangular Micro strip Patch Antenna using FR-4 Epoxy as a substrate
with dielectric constant =4.4 and thickness h=1.6mm is designed. The operating frequency of the
antenna is considered as 2.45GHz. The desired specifications considered for the design are S11< -
10dB & VSWR< 2. The design is shown in the below fig.5.1.
Fig.5.1 Configuration of single antenna element
The dimensions of the Single element rectangular micro strip patch antenna are mentioned in
below table 5.1.
Table 5.1 Parameters of a single element patch antenna
PARAMETER VALUE (in mm)
Length of the Substrate (L) 80
Width of the Substrate (W) 45
Length of the Ground (lg) 11
Width of the Ground (wp) 25
Length of the Patch (lp) 30
Width of the Patch (wg) 11.5
Length of the Feed (lf) 12
Width of the Feed (wf) 2.98
57
wm 10
lm1 2
lm2 3
p1 13.26
p2 3
g 1
5.1.3 DESIGN LAYOUT
Fig 5.2 Design Layout of Rectangular Micro Strip Antenna
Fig.5.2 shows the geometry of the antenna element. It is composed of a rectangular monopole
and two sets of parasitic meandering strips symmetrically placed on both sides of the
monopole.
Four PIN diodes S1, S2, S3 and S4 are inserted in the parasitic strips, and the complexity of
the bias circuit is reduced through mounting two 12nH inductors between the adjacent strips.
By changing the bias voltages of the diodes, the set of parasitic strips operates as a director or
a reflector, and thus the radiation pattern of the element can be reconfigured.
S1 and S2 Diodes are considered as A-group Diodes and S3 and S4 Diodes are considered as
B-group Diodes.
The antenna element is designed to operate at 2.45 GHz and simulated with HFSS.
58
5.2 MODES OF RMSA ANTENNA
By varying the conditions of the diodes based on their switching conditions we have 3 modes.
The nature of the 3 modes are described in the below table 5.2
Table 5.2 Operation of modes of antenna element
MODE A-group Diodes(s1,s2) B-group Diodes(s3,s4)
Mode 1 Off Off
Mode 2 On Off
Mode 3 Off On
5.2.1 Mode 1
As described in the table 5.2, in mode 1 both A-group Diodes and B-group Diodes are in off
conditions.
Fig.5.3 Current Distribution in Mode 1 Operation
As the both group diodes are off, antenna radiates in both direction and no radiated energy is
absorbed by the parasitic strips, So the radiation pattern will be bi-directional.
59
Fig.5.4 Reflection Coefficient of Mode 1
Fig.5.5 VSWR of Mode 1
As shown in the above fig.5.4 and fig.5.5 the reflection coefficient value of Mode 1 is S11= -
12.9596 dB which is less than -10 dB and the VSWR value is equal to 1.5804 which is less
than 2 at 2.45GHz . So both VSWR and reflection coefficient are obtained in the desired
range.
60
Fig.5.6 Gain of Antenna in Mode 1
Fig.5.7 Radiation pattern in Mode 1
As Shown in the gain plot, the radiation obtained is bi-directional and in radiation pattern
plot, In E-field where phi=0° the maximum radiation is in the direction of 0° and -180° and In
H-field where phi=90° the maximum radiation is in the direction of 90° and -90°.
5.2.2 MODE 2
As described in the table 5.2, in mode 2 A-group Diodes are on and B-group Diodes are in
off condition.
61
In mode 2, the current is mainly concentrated on the left strips as the diodes on the left are on.
So the radiation released is absorbed by the strips on the left side leaving the direction of
radiation pattern one side only i.e. to the right side.
62
As shown in the above fig.5.9 and fig 5.10, the reflection coefficient value of Mode 2 is S11=
-24.7123 dB which is less than -10 dB and the VSWR value is equal to 1.1234 which is less
than 2 at 2.45GHz . So both VSWR and reflection coefficient are obtained in the desired
range.
As shown in the above fig.5.11, the radiation pattern is on single direction and is maximum in
the positive x- direction
63
In radiation pattern plot, In E-field where phi=0° the maximum radiation is in the direction of
-170° and In H-field where phi=90° the maximum radiation is in the direction of 90°.
5.2.3 MODE 3
As described in the table 5.2, in mode 3 A-group Diodes are off and B-group Diodes are in
on.
64
Mode 3 works opposite to Mode 2. The radiation released is absorbed by the strips placed on
the right side of the patch as the strips are in on condition and there is no absorption of
radiation in the left side, So current flows only on the right side strips.
As shown in the above fig.5.14 and fig 5.15, the reflection coefficient value of Mode 3 is
S11= -21.4704 dB which is less than -10 dB and the VSWR value is equal to 1.1844 which is
65
less than 2 at 2.45GHz . So both VSWR and reflection coefficient are obtained in the desired
range.
As shown in the above figure 5.16 the radiation pattern is on single direction and is maximum
in the negative x- direction
In radiation pattern plot, In E-field where phi=0° the maximum radiation is in the direction of
-170° and In H-field where phi=90° the maximum radiation is in the direction of -90°.
66
5.2.4 PARAMETRIC STUDY
5.2.4.1 Effect of length of parasitic strips on Reflection Coefficient
Fig.5.18 Effect of length of parasitic strips on Reflection coefficient
The above figure shows the comparison between strips of different lengths. Lengths of the
parasitic strips have a significant effect on the performance of the antenna element. Three
parasitic strips of lengths 72.5 mm, 75 mm and 77.5 mm are taken into consideration and
their respective reflection coefficients are -13.2759 dB, --14.0230 dB and -14.3964dB. It is
clear that the impedance matching becomes better as the length of strips increases. The front-
to-back ratio is more when the parasitic strip length is 75 mm.
5.2.4.2 Comparison of Reflection Coefficient of 3 Modes
Fig.5.19 Comparison of Reflection Coefficient of 3 Modes
67
As shown in the above figure 5.19, the 3 modes of an antenna are radiating nearly at same
frequency i.e. at 2.45GHz which is same as the desired frequency selected.
5.3 TWO ELEMENT MIMO ANTENNA
Fig.5.20 Configuration of two element MIMO antenna
Fig.5.20 shows the configuration of the pattern reconfigurable MIMO antenna. It consists of
two antenna elements, which are arranged opposite to each other along the y-axis. Two
decoupling strips are introduced between the ground planes to improve the isolation.
The parameters of the elements are the same as those of the element in Fig.5.1. The distance
between the patches of the elements is 12 mm. The optimal size of the decoupling strips is as
follows: ld1=2 mm, ld2=6 mm and wd =28 mm, respectively.
68
5.3.1 DESIGN LAYOUT WITH AND WITHOUT DECOUPLING STRIPS
Fig.5.21 2 Element MIMO antenna without Fig.5.22 2 Element MIMO antenna with
Decoupling strips Decoupling strips
As shown in the above fig.5.21 and fig.5.22, Decoupling strips were introduced to absorb the
radiation and current released by one such that it has no effect on the other antenna
parameters. It also improves the parameters like ECC, TARC and S-Parameter with
Decoupling when compared to antenna without Decoupling.
69
Fig.5.23 Current Distribution without Fig.5.24 Current Distribution with
Decoupling Strips Decoupling Strips
The above fig.5.23 and fig.5.24 shows the current Distribution of the antenna elements
without Decoupling strips and with decoupling strips.
Fig.5.25 ECC Comparison For the Effect of Decoupling strips
70
Envelope Correlation Coefficient tells us how independent two antennas' radiation patterns
are. Envelope Correlation Coefficient takes into account the antennas' radiation pattern shape,
polarization, and even the relative phase of the fields between the two antennas.
ECC= (mag(conjg(S(1,1))*S(1,2)+conjg(S(2,1))*S(2,2)))^2/((1-mag(S(1,1))^2-
mag(S(2,1))^2)*(1-mag(S(2,2))^2-mag(S(1,2))^2))
Generally, ECC value of 0.5 is ok, higher than 0.5 is considered bad, and 0.3 or less is
considered pretty well for MIMO applications.
So as shown in fig.5.25, Solid line represents MIMO antenna with Decoupling Strips which
has an ECC value ideally equal to 0 at 2.45GHz frequency which is good and less when
compared to the MIMO antenna without Decoupling Strips.
Fig.5.26 S-Parameters Comparison for the Effect of Decoupling strips
S-parameters describe the input-output relationship between in an electrical system. S-

Parameters are used to describe the relationship between different ports. As shown in above
fig.5.26, S11, S12 value with decoupling is less than S11, S12 value without Decoupling.
71
Fig.5.27 TARC Comparison for the effect of Decoupling Strips
TARC Stand for total active reflection coefficient. It relates the total incident power to the
total outgoing power in an N-port Microwave Component. The TARC is mainly used for
multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) antenna systems and array antennas, where the
outgoing power is unwanted reflected power. The TARC is the square root of the sum of all
outgoing powers at the ports, divided by the sum of all incident powers at the ports of an N-
port antenna. The value of the TARC should be less than -10dB.
TARC= (mag( S(1,1)+S(1,2))^2+ mag( S(2,1)+S(2,2))^2)^0.5/2^0.5
As shown in figure 5.27, the TARC value with Decoupling Strips is -13.6870, which is less
than that of the value without Decoupling Strips.
5.4 MODES OF TWO ELEMENT MIMO ANTENNA
By varying the conditions of the diodes based on their switching conditions we have 9 modes.
The nature of the 9 modes are described in the below table 5.3
Table 5.3 Operation of modes of antenna element
MODE S1,S2 S3,S4 S5,S6 S7,S8
Mode 1 Off Off Off Off
Mode 2 On Off On Off
Mode 3 Off On Off On
72
Mode 4 Off Off On Off
Mode 5 Off Off Off On
Mode 6 On Off Off Off
Mode 7 Off On Off Off
Mode 8 On Off Off On
Mode 9 Off On On Off
S-PARAMETER COMPARISON FOR MODES 1, 4 AND 5
Fig.5.28 S-Parameter Comparison for Modes 1, 4 and 5
As shown in fig.5.37, It shows the comparison of S-Parameters of Mode1, 4 and 5. We can

observe that these 3 modes are radiating at a same frequency i.e. at 2.45 GHz with a value a
-22.7109dB.
5.4.1 RADIATION PATTERNS

Even though the return loss and isolation components of Modes 1, 4 and 5 are similar, the 9
modes give different radiation patterns at different maxima.
73
MODE 1
Fig.5.29 Radiation Pattern of Mode 1
As Shown in the fig.5.29, the solid lines represent the Data at port 1 and the dotted lines
represent data at Port 2
At port 1, In E-field where phi=0° the maximum radiation is in the direction of -160° and In
H-field where phi=90° the maximum radiation is in the direction of -90° and +90.
At port 2, In E-field where phi=0° the maximum radiation is in the direction of +160° and
In H-field where phi=90° the maximum radiation is in the direction of +90° and -90°
Therefore, the elements operate in a bidirectional pattern, and thus the antenna exhibits a bi-
directional behaviour.
MODE 2

74
H-field where phi=90° the maximum radiation is in the direction of +90°.
At port 2, In E-field where phi=0° the maximum radiation is in the direction of +145° and In
Therefore, the elements operate in a directional pattern in the direction of negative and
positive x-axis at both ports.
MODE 3
H-field where phi=90° the maximum radiation is in the direction of -90°.
As similar to Mode 2, the elements operate in a directional pattern in the direction of negative
and positive x-axis at both ports.
75
MODE 4
Therefore, the antenna provides a bidirectional pattern at port 1 and a directional pattern
along the positive and negative x-axis at port 2.
MODE 5
76
It is similar to Mode 4 and the antenna provides a bidirectional pattern at port 1 and a
directional pattern along the positive and negative x-axis at port 2.
MODE 6
Therefore, the pattern is directional at port 1 and bidirectional at port 2.
77
MODE 7
It is similar to Mode 6 and the pattern is directional at port 1 and bidirectional at port 2.
MODE 8
78
Therefore, a directional pattern along the positive and negative x-axis at ports 1 and 2 is
generated.
MODE 9
This mode is opposite to Mode 8. So, a directional pattern along the positive and negative x-
axis at ports 2 and 1 is generated.
From the radiation patterns of 9 Modes, Here Mode 1 is Bi-directional, Mode 2 and 3 are uni-
directional giving same patterns but in opposite Direction, Similarly Mode 4 and 5, Mode 6
and 7, Mode 8 and 9 Works in same way. We observe that the radiation Patterns were
changing and hence we conclude that the MIMO antenna shows Pattern Re-configurability.
79
CONCLUSION
A low-profile planar MIMO antenna with the pattern reconfigurable characteristic is
demonstrated. The antenna consists of two monopole elements arranged opposite to each
other, and the isolation between the elements is improved through introducing two
decoupling strips. The pattern reconfigurable property is achieved by controlling the states of
the PIN diodes embedded in the parasitic strips of the elements.
80
REFERENCES
[1] Kumar, Naveen, and Rajesh Khanna. "A compact multi‐band multi‐input multi‐output
antenna for 4G/5G and IoT devices using theory of characteristic modes." International
Journal of RF and Microwave Computer‐Aided Engineering 30.1 (2020): e22012.
[2] A. Iqbal, O. A. Saraereh, A. W. Ahmad and S. Bashir, "Mutual Coupling Reduction

Using F-Shaped Stubs in UWB-MIMO Antenna," in IEEE Access, vol. 6, pp. 2755-2759,
2018, doi: 10.1109/ACCESS.2017.2785232.
[3] Nirmala, M., M. Bharathi, and N. Deepika Rani. "Isolation Improvement of Multiband
Fractal MIMO Antenna for Wireless Applications." 2020 IEEE India Council International
Subsections Conference (INDISCON). IEEE, 2020.
[4]Jabire, A. H., Ghaffar, A., Li, X. J., Abdu, A., Saminu, S., Sadiq, A. M., & Jajere, A. M.
(2020, October). Design of a Compact UWB/MIMO Antenna with High Isolation and Gain.
In 2020 IEEE Microwave Theory and Techniques in Wireless Communications
(MTTW) (Vol. 1, pp. 72-75). IEEE.
[5] Rasool, M., Rashid, I., Rauf, A., Masood, A., Bhatti, F. A., & Ijaz, B. (2021). A multi-
slotted 2-element quadband MIMO antenna for 4G and 5G applications. Journal of
Electromagnetic Waves and Applications, 1-16.
[6] Zheng, Wen Chao, et al. "Dual-band dual-polarized compact bowtie antenna array for
anti-interference MIMO WLAN." IEEE transactions on antennas and propagation 62.1
(2013): 237-246.
[7] Rhee, C., Kim, Y., Park, T., Kwoun, S. S., Mun, B., Lee, B., & Jung, C. (2014). Pattern-
reconfigurable MIMO antenna for high isolation and low correlation. IEEE Antennas and
Wireless Propagation Letters, 13, 1373-1376.
[8] Kumar, P., Urooj, S., & Malibari, A. (2020). Design and Implementation of Quad-
Element Super-Wideband MIMO Antenna for IoT Applications. IEEE Access, 8, 226697-
226704.
[9] Mondal, P., Dhara, D., & Harish, A. R. (2020, July). Throughput Enhancement of
$2\times 2$ MIMO system Using a Novel Wideband Neutralization Line. In 2020 IEEE
International Symposium on Antennas and Propagation and North American Radio Science
Meeting (pp. 1671-1672). IEEE.
[10] Khan, M. I., & Khattak, M. I. (2020). Designing and analyzing a modern MIMO‐UWB
antenna with a novel stub for stop band characteristics and reduced mutual
coupling. Microwave and Optical Technology Letters, 62(10), 3209-3214.
81

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PATTERN RECONFIGURABLE MIMO ANTENNA

A Project report submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for

the award of the degree of

ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

D.Venusree (317126512131) B.J.C.Meghana (317126512127)

B.Aakash (317126512128) P.V.S.Manidhar (317126512156)

Under the guidance of

Ms.M.Nirmala, M.Tech (Ph.D)

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

ANIL NEERUKONDA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND SCIENCES

Sangivalasa, Bheemili mandal, visakhapatnam dist.(A.P)

Head of the Department Project Guide

Dr.V.Rajya Lakshmi Ms.M.Nirmala

M.E, Ph.D, MIEEE, MIETE, MIE M.Tech (Ph.D)

Professor Assistant professor

Department of ECE Department of ECE

P.V.S. Manidhar (317126512156)

CHAPTER Page No.

3.1 MIMO definition 35

3.4 Performance Characteristics 37

3.4.1 Envelope Correlation Co-efficient 37

3.4.2 Total Active Reflection Co-efficient 38

3.4.3 Diversity Gain 39

3.4.4 Mean effective gain 39

IV. RECONFIGURABLE ANTENNAS

4.2 Classification of reconfigurable antennas 43

4.3 Types of reconfigurable antennas 43

4.3.1 Electrically reconfigurable antennas 43

4.3.2 Optically reconfigurable antenna 44

4.3.3 Mechanical/Physically reconfigurable antennas 45

4.3.4 Reconfigurable antennas based on smart materials 45

4.5 Advantages of reconfigurable antenna 50

4.6 Pin diode switching technique 51

4.6.1 HFSS modeling of pin diode 52

4.6.2 Lumped RLC boundary 53

5.1 Single element rectangular microstrip patch antenna at 2.45GHz 56

5.1.1 Design equations 56

5.1.2 Single element RMSA 57

5.1.3 Design Layout 58

5.2 Modes of rectangular microstrip patch antenna 59

5.2.4 Parametric Study 67

5.3 Two element MIMO Antenna 68

5.3.1 Design layout with and without decoupling strips 69

5.4 Modes of two element MIMO antenna 72

5.4.1 Radiation Patterns 73

LIST OF FIGURES Page No

Fig.1.1 different wire configurations producing radiation 3

Fig 1.2 Radiation from two wire antenna 4

Fig 1.3 Formation of electric field line for short dipole 5

Fig 1.4 Radiation pattern in 3D-plane of an antenna 6

Fig 1.5 Half power beam width 7

Fig 1.6 Yagi- Uda antenna 11

Fig 1.7 Loop antenna 11

Fig 1.8 Horn antenna 13

Fig 1.9 Parabolic antenna 13

Fig 1.11 satellite dish 16

Fig 1.12 parabolic antenna 18

Fig 1.13 dish antenna 18