Chapter 2.

The Atmosphere
and Solar Radiation
• Atmosphere layers
• Components of the atmosphere
• Solar radiation
• Different lights as affected by solar radiation
A. Atmosphere Layers
Definition: An atmosphere is a layer of gasses
that envelop an astronomical object, held in
place by the gravity of the object.
• A planet retains an atmosphere when the
gravity is great and the temperature of the
atmosphere is low.
• A stellar atmosphere is the outer region of a
star, which includes the layers above the
opaque photosphere; stars of low temperature
might have outer atmospheres containing
compound molecules.
• Typically, the atmosphere reaches up
to 1600 kilometres from the surface of
the globe. However, 32 km from the
earth’s surface is where 99 percent of
the atmosphere’s entire mass is
contained.
The atmosphere is comprised of three spheres
1. Lithosphere: It comprises of land.
2. Hydrosphere: It comprises of water.
3. Atmosphere: It comprises of gases.
Composition of the Atmosphere
• The atmosphere is a mixture of many gases (Table 1). It
also contains solid and liquid particles, collectively
called as aerosols.
• Four major gases namely: nitrogen, oxygen, argon and
carbon dioxide accounts for more than 99 per cent of
dry air. Nitrogen alone constitutes nearly 4/5th and
oxygen nearly 1/5th by volume. Argon is chemically
inert, as are neon, helium, krypton and xenon.
1. Nitrogen: It is an important gas in atmosphere, which
constitute about 78 per cent by volume. It does not easily
enter into chemical reaction with other substances, but it
is an important constituent of many organic compounds.
Its main function in the atmosphere is to regulate
combustion by diluting oxygen.
2. Oxygen: It is the second most abundant gas in
atmosphere. It is also one of the important
constituents necessary for life on earth. It is
essential for combustion when any substance
burns it is consumed.

3. Carbon dioxide: It is a natural constituent of the

atmosphere. It constitutes only about 0.03 per
cent by volume.
• It is an efficient absorber of radiant energy in
certain wavelengths of the infrared region. It is
also important for photosynthesis in green plants,
which fix carbon from carbon dioxide in presence
of light and release oxygen.
4. Ozone: It is found in very minute quantities
near the earth surface. This gas is produced in the
lower environment in smog through the
photochemical reaction.
• Nitrogen oxide, a product of combustion
dissociates by the action of solar radiation and
free oxygen atom, thus released combines with
oxygen molecule (O+O2 → O3).
• The greatest concentration of ozone is found
between 20 and 25 kilometers in stratosphere
(Fig. 2.1). Ozone is a corrosive and toxic gas and
cause irritation when formed in the lower
atmosphere. It is also formed by lightening
discharges.
5. Water vapour: It is one of the most variable gases in
the atmosphere, which is present in small amounts but it
is very important.
• The water vapour content of air varies from 0.02 per
cent in dry climate to nearly 4 per cent by volume in the
humid tropical climate.
• Like carbon dioxide, water vapour plays important role
in insulating action of atmosphere.
• It absorbs not only long wave terrestrial radiation but
also a part of incoming solar radiation.
• Water vapour is the source of all forms of condensation
and precipitation.
• Latent heat of condensation is ultimate driving force for
most of the weather systems.
Table 1. Dry air composition in lower atmosphere
Structure of atmosphere
• The atmosphere is divided into two
spheres based on the proportion of gases:
1. Homosphere: The gaseous proportion of
the atmosphere remains fairly constant in
this sphere is called homosphere. The
altitude of this sphere is nearly 80 km.
2. Heterosphere: The part of atmosphere
above homosphere is called heterosphere
where, the proportion of gases changes with
altitude. On the basis of temperature
variation with height above the earth
surface, the atmosphere is divided into four
atmospheric layers (Fig. 2.2).
Troposphere
• Troposphere literally means region of turbulence,
derived from Greek word tropos means 'mixing or
turbulence'.
• It is the lower layer of the atmosphere
• It extends to an elevation of 16-18 km over equator
and 8 kilometers over poles above the earth surface. It
tends to be higher in summer than in winter.
• The most important feature of the layer is that there
is decrease in temperature with altitude to a minimum
of –50 or –60oC with mean lapse rate of 6.5oC/km and
3.5oF/1000 feet.
• The transition zone where the decrease in
temperature with altitude ceases is called tropopause
or it is the layer where troposphere ends.
• Wind velocities increase with height above the earth
surface.
• Various types of clouds, thunder storms as well as
cyclones and anticyclones occur in this layer of
atmosphere.
• Nearly 80 per cent of atmospheric mass is confined
in this layer of atmosphere.
Stratosphere
• It begins at tropopause, and extends upto a height of 50 km above
the earth surface.
• The lower stratosphere is isothermal (No change in temperature
with elevation) in character.
• This atmospheric layer is characterised by increase in temperature
with altitude. This increase in temperature is associated with
absorption of ultra violet radiation by ozone gas.
• Ozone is present in stratosphere, which absorbs ultraviolet
radiation. Its concentration is maximum at 20-25 km altitude.
• The increase in temperature with altitude ceases near its outer
limit, called as stratopause. Stratopause is not much cooler than at
sea level.
• Cirrus clouds, called the mother of pearl clouds, occasionally from in
the lower stratosphere.
• The air in this sphere is very dry, i.e. less than 0.01 gm of water
vapour/kg of air.
• Nacreous clouds are the clouds in stratosphere, which display entire
spectrum of colours when light above the earth shadow illuminates
them.
Mesosphere
• Mesosphere starts from stratopause and extends
upto 80 km above the earth surface.
• In this layer, again temperature decreases with
elevation and drops to a minimum of – 92oC at
mesopause, this is the upper limit of mesosphere.
• The lowest temperature point in atmosphere is at
mesopause.
• Most of the meteors burn out, as they enters in
mesosphere, due to increasing friction in this layer.
• Noctilucent clouds are high level clouds (70-90
km) can only be seen during twilight period. They
are best seen when the sun is between 5-8° below
horizon. It may be for this reason that these clouds
are observed most often at high latitudes, where
there are long twilight periods.
Thermosphere
• The uppermost layer of atmosphere is thermosphere.
• Above the mesopause, the temperature increases rapidly at first and then
more slowly with height. This increase in temperature may be associated with
absorption of 'X' rays in the lower part of thermosphere, called as
Ionosphere.
• Ionosphere is characterised by ionization of gases by the action of highly
energetic 'X' rays coming from sun. It extends upto 400 km above the earth
surface.
• Radio waves are reflected by ionized particles present in ionosphere.
• The temperature increases to 2000oC at about 500 km altitude. But one
would not feel that hot that is implied by 2000oC in thermosphere, simply
because, although the individual particles have kinetic energies that are
representative of such a high temperature, there are few gas particles at such
altitudes that the total energy transmitted to a body through collisions is
indeed quite smaller compared to the energy transmitted by much colder
molecules at sea level.
• Above 500-600 km, the density of particles is so low that collisions among
them are in frequent and some of particles may escape from gravitational pull
of earth. This zone marks transition between earth surface's atmosphere and
thin interplanetary gas is called exosphere.
• The aurora borealis in northern and counter part aurora australis,
apparently result from excitation of the ionosphere by streams of high-energy
particles from the sun.
• The aurora has been observed to increase with increase in sun spot activity.
C. Solar Radiation
The solar energy is the main source of
energy for the processes occurring at
the earth surface and in its
atmosphere. The amount of energy
received from other celestial bodies is
negligible in comparison to the solar
energy. The energy in the form of
radiation that strikes the earth is called
insolation or the solar radiation that
comes to the earth is called as
incoming solar radiation and the
energy in the form of radiation that
leaves the earth surface is called out
going radiation.
Definitions
1. Solar radiation: The solar energy
that reaches the earth surface in the
form of electromagnetic wave is
called solar radiation. It is also called
short wave radiation. Ninety nine per
cent solar radiations lies within the
wavelength range of 0.15 to 4.0 μm
(Fig. 2.3).
2. Radiant flux: It is the amount of energy radiated, transmitted or
absorbed per unit time. Its unit is watt (Joule/sec).
3. Radiant flux density or radiation intensity: It may be defined as
radiant flux per unit area. Its unit is watt/m2.
4. Irradiance: It is the radiation intensity incident on a surface.
5. Emittance: Radiant flux density emitted by a surface.
6. Radiance: Radiation intensity (I) emitted in a particular direction
divided by apparent area(A) of the source in the same direction.
Radiance = I/A
7. Isohel: It is the line joining the places having equal duration of
sunshine hours.
Solar constant
The average amount of solar radiation reaching the outer limits of the
atmosphere is known as the solar constant or it may be defined as the
radiation energy per unit time per unit area on surface, which is held
perpendicular to sun rays at outer limit of atmosphere at mean
distance between sun and earth. The mean value of solar constant is
1.98 cal/cm2/minute or 1398 watt/m2. You may also found in literature
the value of solar constant equal to 2.0 langley per minute.
• Solar constant = _ Total radiation________
Area of spherical cell
= _56×1026 cal min-1
4 π r2
where: r = 150 million km (mean distance between sun & earth)
= _56×1026 cal min-1
4 π (1.5×1013 cm)2
= 1.98 cal cm-2 min-1
Solar radiation spectrum
Radiation originates from the visible surface of the sun called photosphere in
wavelengths determined by its surface temperature of about 6000°K.
• The range of wavelengths of solar radiation is called as solar radiation
spectrum. It may also be defined as the spread of solar energy over a broad
band of wavelengths.
• Solar spectrum is part of the electromagnetic spectrum (Fig. 2.4) of radiant
energy that also includes X-rays, gamma rays and longer radio waves.
• It comprises mainly ultraviolet, visible and infra-red wave lengths (Table 2).
The radiation having wavelength in the range of 0.15 to 0.4 μm, known as
ultraviolet radiations.
• It constitutes about 9% of the total solar radiation and divided into three
parts:
Ultraviolet (UV)
1. UVA: This radiation has the longest wave length (0.32
to 0.40 μm) of the ultraviolet
radiations. It can cause some damage to living cells. It is
transmitted to earth surface
and not absorbed in stratosphere.
2. UVB: The wavelength range, 0.28 to 0.32 μm of
ultraviolet radiation is named as
UVB. It is absorbed in stratosphere by ozone. Depletion
of ozone in stratosphere results in a significant increase
in UVB that reaches the earth surface. It causes
damage to living cells.
3. UVC: It has the shortest wavelength (0.15 to 0.28 μm)
of ultra violet radiation.
Negligible UVC reaches the earth surface as all the UVC
is absorbed by ozone. It is
lethal and kills the living cell.
Visible
• The radiation which lies in the
wavelength range 0.4 to 0.7 μm
of solar spectrum is known as
visible radiation. These
radiations are visible to human
eye and constitute about 41 per
cent of total solar radiation.
This part of solar radiation is
most important for
photosynthesis in green plants.
Therefore, it is also named as
PAR i.e. photosynthetically
active radiation.
Infra-red
These radiations lie between 0.7
to 4.0 μm wavelengths. This part
of radiation spectrum constitutes
about 50 per cent of total solar
radiation. These radiations are
not much important for crop
plants. These are simply
absorbed by plants, transmitted
into heat and released into
atmosphere through reradiation
and evapotranspiration.
Albedo
It may be defined as the ratio of solar radiation reflected by a surface to the
total amount of radiation incident on it, usually expressed in per cent. The
albedo of surface is the percentage of the incident radiation reflected by it, is
also known as reflection coefficient. The reflection coefficient in case of solar
radiation is termed as albedo. Albedo of earth as a whole also known as
planetary albedo or global albedo. Its value is 34 per cent, but it varies with
latitude, season and nature of surface. The mean albedo of various surfaces
(Table 3).

Reflected solar radiation by a surface

Albedo = ____________________________________× 100
Total solar radiation incident on the surface
Long wave radiation
The radiations having the wavelength longer than 4.0 μm wavelengths, known as long wave radiation.
The radiation emitted by earth surface is long wave radiation. Pyrgeometer is used to measure long
wave radiation.
Short wave radiation
The radiations having the wave length less than or equal to 4.0 μm are termed as short wave
radiation. Solar radiation is also known as short wave radiation as 99 per cent of solar radiation lies
between 0.15 and 4.0 μm wave length. Solar radiation (Rs) is measured with the help of pyranometer.
It can be computed using the formula:

Rs = RA (a+b _n_)
N
Where,
RA = Solar radiation at outer limit of atmosphere,
a & b = Constants (a=0.32 & b=0.46 for Hisar),
n=Actual sun shine hours,
N=Maximum possible sun shine hours.
Exercise: Calculate the value of short wave radiation and long wave radiation using the given data:

• Mean air temperature = 25°C, radiation intensity outside the atm (RA) = 625.7 ly/day or 10.7 mm/day, mean relative humidity =
80%, albedo = 20%; actual sun shine hours = 11.8, actual vapour pressure = 6.0 mm of Hg and maximum possible sunshine
hours = 12.0

• Solution

• Rs = RA (a + b __n__)

• = 625.7 (0.32+0.46 (11.8/12.0) = 625.7 (0.32+0.46×0.98)

• = 625.7 (0.32+0.45) = 625.7×0.77=481.1 ly/day

• σ T4 = 2.0×10-9 × (298)4 = 2.0×7.886 = 15.77 mm/day

• RL = 15.77 (0.55–0.092×4.07) (0.1+0.9×11.8/12.0)

• = 2.73 mm/day = 155.1 ly/day

Sky radiation
The radiations which come to the earth surface through indirect path
are known as sky radiation. Sky radiation is also known as diffuse
radiation and it constitute about 23 per cent of total short wave
radiation.
Units
Watt/m2 (1 watt = 1 joule/sec)
Langley/minute (1 Langley = 1 cal cm-2)
Lux (1 kilo lux = 92.9 foot candle = 4.0 watt m-2)
1 μmole/sec/m2= 1 μE/sec/m2
One radiation unit can be converted into other radiation unit as in
Table 4.
Radiation and heat budget
Radiation is the way of transfer by which solar energy reaches the earth
surface as short wave and earth and its atmosphere losses energy to
outer space in longer wavelengths (Fig. 2.5). The basic form of radiation
balance equation for the earth and its atmosphere is:
Rn = RA (1-r) - RL
Where,
Rn = Radiation balance/net radiation
r = Global albedo
RL = Outgoing long wave radiation from earth to space
(l-r) = Solar radiation absorbed by earth and its atmosphere
• Out of total incoming (RA) about 25 per cent is reflected by clouds and 7 per cent
scattered back to space by clouds, dust and gas molecules without heating the air,
2 per cent is reflected to space from the earth surface. This total 25+7+2=34 per
cent reflected radiation is called as earth albedo. Although its value at poles is
greater than at equator.
• About 19 per cent of insolation is absorbed in atmosphere by the gases, clouds
and solid particles suspended in air.
• Ozone absorbs most of UV radiation, which is the main source of energy for
circulation in stratosphere.
• Water vapour, clouds and dust are main absorber of the incoming long wave
radiation in troposphere.
• The earth surface absorbs 47 per cent solar radiation of which 24 per cent as
direct and 23 per cent as indirect or diffuse radiation. Thus, 66 per cent of
radiation is absorbed by earth and its atmosphere.
• The total absorbed solar energy is radiated back to space as long wave radiation.
Out of which 6 per cent is radiated back to space directly by earth and 60 per cent
is radiated to space by atmosphere.
RA = 100 units r = 34 percent = 0.34
RA (1-r) = 66 per cent RL= 66 per cent
Rn = 100 (1-0.34) – 66 = 0

Solar radiation absorbed by earth : 47 per cent

Energy radiated directly to space by earth : 6 per cent
Radiated energy from earth to atmosphere : 11 per cent
Energy lost by earth as sensible or convection to atmosphere : 7 per cent
Energy lost by earth as latent heat by evaporation
and released in atmosphere by condensation : 23 per cent
Solar radiation absorbed by atmosphere : 19 per cent
Solar radiation reflected and scattered back space
by earth and its atmosphere : 34 per cent
Energy radiated back to space by atmosphere : 60 per cent

The gain and loss of energy by earth, atmosphere and space are presented in Table 5.
Factors affecting insolation or radiation distribution over earth surface
Radiation intensity received on the surface of earth varies according to
the conditions of the atmosphere as well as seasons. The following
factors control the radiation distribution over earth surface:
1. Angle of incidence: It is an angle between sun rays and normal to the
surface at a point of observation and also called as altitude of sun.
Radiation intensity is more when the sunrays are normal to the surface
as compared to the sun rays are oblique to the surface or s the incident
angle of sun rays decreases, radiation intensity increases. This is
because of the fact that normal rays cover less surface area (A),
whereas oblique rays cover more area (B) as shown in Figure 2.6 and
therefore, radiation per unit surface area is decreased.
2. Latitude: Latitude of place determines
the angle of sun rays. With increase in
latitude the radiation intensity decreases.
Therefore, radiation intensity is higher
over equator as compared to poles. The
sunrays are normal to earth surface over
equator and the sunrays become more
and oblique as we move toward the poles.
The normal rays over equator travel less
path (A) whereas oblique rays over higher
latitudes travel more path (C) through
atmosphere as shown in Figure 2.7.
Longer atmospheric path causes more
depletion of radiation.
3. Duration of sunshine: It is the duration of shining of sun over a place.
It also affects the amount of radiation received at earth surface. The
longer periods of sunshine supply more radiation to the surface as
compared to shorter sunshine periods. Sun shine duration also Table 6.
Maximum day length (hours) in different latitudes determines day
length, which varies with latitude (Table 6)
• On summer solstice (June 21) the
length of the day is maximum
and on winter solstice (December
21) it is minimum and vice versa
in Southern hemisphere. The day
and night are equal on autumnal
(September 21) and vernal
(March 21) equinoxes (Fig. 2.8).
4. Solar constant: The solar constant varies not much, rather the change in its value is
negligible and therefore, it is called constant. Periodic disturbances and explosions in
the surface of sun cause the variation in its value. As the sunspots appearance
increases, the radiation intensity over earth surface increases.

5. Distance between sun and earth: The distance between earth and sun varies because
of elliptical orbit of revolution of earth around sun. The mean distance between sun
and earth is 150 million km. The earth comes closer to sun at perihelion (the distance
is 147 million km on January 3) and goes little farther from sun at aphelion (the
distance is 152 million km on July 4). Therefore, the radiation intensity is 7 % greater
at perihelion than at aphelion position of earth.
6. Atmospheric condition: Reflection and absorption of radiation by
clouds, and other atmospheric constituents control the radiation
intensity reaching the earth surface. Therefore, areas with cloudy and
turbid atmosphere receive less radiation as compared to areas with
clear and less turbid atmosphere.
7. Thickness of atmosphere: With the increase in thickness of
atmosphere the radiation has to pass more path in the atmosphere.
Therefore, as the path length increases, the depletion of radiation
increases or the atmospheric absorption of radiation increases with the
thickness of atmosphere, thereby, less radiation reach the earth
surface.
Energy balance
The solar energy available at the earth surface is utilized in different ways. The equation
used to express the energy balance is of the form:
Rn = LE + A + G + Mi
Where,
Rn = Net radiation
LE = Latent heat of evaporation. It is the energy flux used in evaporation as latent heat. LE
utilizes 70-80 per cent of net energy available
A = Sensible heat of flux : It is the energy flux used in heating the air. 10-15 per cent energy
used as sensible heat.
G = Soil heat flux : It is the energy flux used in heating the soil. Soil heat flux varies from 5 to
10 per cent
Mi = Miscellaneous energy flux : The energy utilized in photosynthesis and other
biochemical processes. This flux is very small in comparison to above mentioned fluxes, so it
is neglected.
Rn = LE + A + G
Greenhouse effect
The atmospheric gasses (water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane,
chlorofluorocarbons and nitrous oxide) allow short wave radiation coming
from sun to pass through but they absorb the long wave radiation emitted by
earth. So, they trap some of the heat energy radiated from earth. The
trapping of heat radiation and warming of atmosphere is somewhat
analogues to a green house and the effect is called green house effect. In
green house the glass walls and roof allow the short wave radiation to pass
through them where it is absorbed by ground. But the emitted long wave
radiation by ground is not allowed to escape by glass walls and roof of green
house. That heat inside the green house is maintained and warms the green
house. This warming or trapping of heat energy is called green house effect.
The trapping heat in the atmosphere might better be called as atmospheric
effect, because the dominant process responsible for heating the air in a
green house is quite different from that which heats the lower atmosphere.
Radiation Laws
1. Stefan-Boltzman law
This law states that the radiation intensity emitted by a black body is directly proportional to fourth power of its surface temperature (0K) i.e.
E = εσ T4
Where, E = Radiation emitted by the surface
σ = Stefan-Boltzman constant (8.14×10-11 ly min-1 0K-4)
T = Surface temperature (°K)
ε = Emissivity = 1 for black body
Exercise: The temperature of a hot iron plate is 500C & its emissivity is 0.90. Calculate the intensity of radiation emitted from the hot plate.
σ =8.14×10-11ly min-1 0K-4.
Solution
The radiation emitted from a material is given by the formula:
E = ε σ T4
T = 50 °C = 50 + 273 = 323 °K
ε = 0.90
σ = 8.14 ×10-11 ly min-1 °K-4.
E = 0.90 × 8.14 ×10-11 ×1.09 ×1010
= 0.90 × 0.814 = 0.673 ly min-1
2. Plank's law
The law states that energy per unit wave length emitted by a black body is a function of its
temperature.
2 Πh c2 [exp (hc/bλT)-1]-1
Eλ = _______________________________
λ5
Where, Eλ= Radiation energy emitted per unit wavelength
h = Plank's constant (6.626×10-34 J sec)
c = Speed of light
b = Boltzman constant (1.381 × 10-23 J 0K-1)
λ = Wavelength
Energy content of a quantum is directly proportional to its frequency, as expressed below:
E = hν
Energy of 1 mole of quantum (E) = Nhν; E = Energy content of radiation
N = Avagadro's number (6.02×1023); ν = frequency
------end of presentation-----------
Quiz No. 2