HINDU LITERATURE believed to have migrated from Australia

and South Pacific islands. Later, most

India is the second most populous country
invading groups passed through the
in the world behind China. It is also the
mountainous north. These varying cultures
seventh largest in terms of land area; the
interacted with one another and created one
country spans from the Himalayas to the
of the most culturally and linguistically
Indian Ocean with a shoreline of 7,000
diverse territories in the world.
kilometers from Arabian Sea to the Bay of
Bengal. LANGUAGES
the country uses both “India” and According to Ethnologue, there are
“Bharat” as its official name. Early settlers currently 424 living languages in India.
called it “Bharat Varsha” or “Bharat”. These languages stemmed from the Indo-
During medieval times it was known as Arab branch of the Indo-European group
“Hind”. and the Dravidian language group. The
most prominent of all is Hindu, spoken by
History
30% of the population of India—roughly
The earliest Indian civilization 423 million people, it is also the third most
existed in the Indus Valley from 4000 to spoken language in the world next to
2500 B.C. Aryan invaders from Central Asia Mandarin and English.
entered India in 1500 B.C. and intermingled
RELIGION
with the Dravidian people resulting in the
diverse modern Indian population. India Ancient India is the birthplace of
also is the birthplace of ancient religions some of the earliest religions in the planet.
like Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism, and Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism, and
Sikhism. In the beginning of 11th century, Jainism all originated in India. Hinduism
India was subjected to strong Islamic is the largest in India and third in the world.
influences until the Mughal Empire in 1526. According to Pew research Center, 81% of
Unity in India was made possible by the Indians practice Hinduism, 12.9% are
Mughal Empire. Additionally, the empire Muslims, 2.4% are Christians, 1.9% are
was a great patron of the arts, it brought Sikhs, 0.7% are Buddhists, and 0.4% are
forth an era of creative and artistic freedom. Jains. Despite originating in India, the
Some notable architectural marvels built number of Buddhists is surprisingly low.
during the time were the palaces in Delhi, However, the religion spread in the
Agra, and the famous Taj Mahal. Southeast Asia particularly in countries like
Thailand, Myanmar and Cambodia.
GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES
EDUCATION
India has three (3) main
topographical regions: the Himalayan Literacy is higher among men than
Mountain system in the North, The women. It is also higher in urban areas than
northern plains in North Central India, in rural areas of the country. India’s
and Peninsular India in the South. The educational system is highly centralized.
country also features several major rivers The government provides free education
notably the Ganges in the Himalayas and the from primary to tertiary level requiring
Godavari River which is located only 80 every child age 6-14 years old to attend
kilometers east of the Arabian Sea and flows school.
through the Bay of Bengal.
There are two major Sanskrit epic poems of
PEOPLE ancient India. One of them is Mahabharata
and the other one is called Ramayana.
India has one of the most diverse
populations. The earliest Indians were GITANJALI
Rabindranath Tagore – Author of Gitanjali expression resonates with readers of all
backgrounds, transcending cultural and
a towering figure in Indian literature and
linguistic barriers to touch the universal
culture, is the author of "Gitanjali." Born in
aspects of the human experience.
1861 in Calcutta, India, Tagore was a
polymath—a poet, novelist, playwright, In summary, "Gitanjali" is a timeless work
philosopher, painter, and musician. He of spiritual literature that continues to
hailed from a prominent Bengali family and inspire and uplift readers with its profound
received a comprehensive education both in insights, lyrical beauty, and unwavering
India and abroad. devotion to the divine.
Summary of Gitanjali 3 Poems in Gitanjali
"Gitanjali," a collection of poems Poem No. 1
by Rabindranath Tagore, is a spiritual and
Thou hast made me endless, such is thy
lyrical masterpiece that delves into the
pleasure. This frail vessel thou emptiest
essence of human existence and the longing
again and again, and fillest it ever with fresh
for a connection with the divine. Composed
life.
originally in Bengali, Tagore translated the
poems into English himself, ensuring the This little flute of a reed thou hast carried
preservation of their lyrical beauty and over hills and dales, and hast breathed
spiritual depth. through its melodies eternally new.
Throughout the collection, Tagore's poetic At the immortal touch of thy hands my little
voice serves as a conduit for profound heart loses its limits in joy and gives birth to
spiritual exploration, weaving together utterance ineffable.
themes of love, devotion, nature, and the
Thy infinite gifts come to me only on these
human experience. The poems reflect the
very small hands of mine. Ages pass, and
poet's deep reverence for the natural world,
still thou pourest, and still there is room to
often using vivid imagery of landscapes,
fill.
flora, and fauna to convey spiritual truths
and insights. Analysis:
At its core, "Gitanjali" is a testament to the God made man immortal and
human soul's yearning for transcendence and everlasting for His delight. Man's physical
union with the divine. Tagore's poems body is a frail vessel, yet God continually
express a sense of humility and surrender, as gives life, making people eternal. A poet is a
the speaker offers prayers and praises to reed created by God to play delightful songs
God, acknowledging the interconnectedness with their restricted hearts. God's limitless
of all life and the universe. gifts are received by man's finite hands, and
inspiration endures forever.
The collection's title, "Gitanjali," meaning
"Song Offerings," underscores the poetic act Poem No. 2
of devotion and surrender to the divine
When thou commandest me to sing it seems
through song. Each poem serves as a
that my heart would break with pride; and I
heartfelt offering, expressing the poet's
look to thy face, and tears come to my eyes.
longing for spiritual fulfillment and
communion with the divine presence. All that is harsh and dissonant in my life
melts into one sweet harmony - and my
Tagore's language is rich with symbolism
adoration spreads wings like a glad bird on
and metaphor, inviting readers to
its flight across the sea.
contemplate the deeper meanings behind the
seemingly simple verses. His poetic
I know thou takest pleasure in my singing. I can't find his voice. When he talks, his
know that only as a singer I come before thy words do not burst into song, prompting him
presence. to cry out in confusion. The poet feels
caught and captured in the never-ending net
I touch by the edge of the far spreading wing
created by God's melody because he is
of my song thy feet which I could never
unable to break into the song.
aspire to reach.
HEBREW LITERATURE
Drunk with the joy of singing I forget
myself and call thee friend who art my lord Hebrew Language
Analysis: Hebrew is the official language of the state
of Israel. It is a semantic language spoken
The poet describes how God inspired him to
by jews and one of the oldest living
create and sing poetry, which provides him
language on the world. The Hebrew alphabet
great joy and pride. He overcomes his
has 22 letters and is read from right to left.
worries of joy and contentment, bringing
discordant aspects in his life into lovely Hebrew has been the sacred language of the
harmony. His love for God increases like a jewish people. The language of its religion
bird flying over the sea. He recognizes that culture and civilization, it has been in some
God is pleased with his songs and that only the language of gradism and intimately
as a singer can he approach God's presence. identified with the national and religious
His delight in singing fills him with experiences of the jewish people throughout
excitement, causing him to get intoxicated the generation.
and forget himself. He begins to call God his
In addition, The nature of the Hebrew
master and friend, acknowledging that he is
language must be properly considered
only a servant.
firstly. It is most evident flow is it is lack of
abstract and abroad knowledge. There are no
philosophical or scientific terms in it.
Poem No. 3
Almost every word has a definite meaning
I know not how thou singest, my master! I and that may be seen even in figurative
ever listen in silent amazement. usage.

The light of thy music illuminates the world.

The life breath of thy music runs from sky to
The Importance of Hebrew Poetry
sky. The holy stream of thy music breaks
through all stony obstacles and rushes on. The Prominence of Poetry in the Scriptures.
My heart longs to join in thy song, but First is, The poetry and wisdom section of
vainly struggles for a voice. I would speak, the English old testament is cast almost
but speech breaks not into song, and I cry entirely in poetic verse.
out baffled. Ah, thou hast made my heart
The second is A large version of the prophet
captive in the endless meshes of thy music,
section of the English bible is cast also in
my master!
poetic verse.
Analysis
The third is The narrative texts are
The poet is mesmerized by God's interspersed with poetry.
wonderful melody, which illuminates and
And lastly is number four the Approximately
brightens the earth. The singing is holy and
one third of the entire old testament can be
heavenly, has no bounds, and flows from
considered poetry.
one end of the sky to another. The poet
aspires to join God and sing along, but he
 B. The unique relevance of Hebrew Others like funerary dirges, song of wars,
poetic literature. curses, drinking songs and poems.
For many Christians psalms and proverbs Types of Hebrew Prose
are the favorite books of the old testament.
Narrative style a form of writing in which
These works describe humanity’s
the word tells a different story through
relationship to god from the perspective of
actions.
the believer. Because they reflect the entire
range of human emotions. There are For example are saga, tale, novella, legend,
passages that will minister to people in any and myth.
situation in life.
Reportorial which includes historiography or
The prophets also have direct and obvious an analysis of the interpretations of written
relevance. In contrast to Hebrew narrative in by past historians. Biography a written
which the message is of thankful implicit. history of a person’s life. Genealogy the
The prophetic messages are usually explicit, study of family origins and history and List
They tend to be powerful direct and it is a series of particular images details or
evocative even as they call for immediate facts.
application. Thus transference of the
Ecclesiastes can be summarized as a
prophet’s theological insights to the
philosophical exploration of life's meaning
contemporary scene is often more readily
and purpose, grappling with humanity's
apparent.
limitations in the face of mortality, suffering,
There is difficulty in demonstrating the and the fleeting nature of everything
contemporary relevance of the theological earthly.Here are some key aspects that
message of Hebrew poetry than Hebrew capture the essence of the book:
prose. While the technicalities of Hebrew
1.Central Theme: The book revolves around
poetry may render these breaks, Initially
the concept of "hevel" (Hebrew for "vapor"
more difficult to understand an Hebrew
or "vanity"), which signifies the fleeting and
narrative. There is usually little difficulty in
ultimately meaningless nature of pursuing
demonstrating the contemporary relevance
solely worldly things like wealth, pleasure,
of the theological message once it is
and power. These pursuits, according to the
ascertained.
book, offer no lasting satisfaction or
TYPES OF HEBREW POETRY fulfillment.
Psalms is the book of the old testament 2.Human Perspective: The book emphasizes
composed of sacred songs or of sacred our limited human perspective, often using
poems meant to be sung. the phrase "under the sun" to highlight that
our understanding is confined to what we
For example are hymns, thanksgiving, royal
can experience in this life.
sounds, window sounds, wisdom sounds,
laments, liturgies. 3.Seeking Wisdom: Despite the perceived
meaninglessness, the author, referred to as
Wisdom writings it consists of statements by
the "Teacher" or "Preacher", embarks on a
sages and the wise that offered teachings
quest for wisdom, exploring different paths
about divinity and virtue.
like pleasure, work, and wealth. Ultimately,
For example are proverbs, legends, riddles, the book suggests that true wisdom lies in
and sayings. living with awareness of our limitations and
finding meaning within that framework.
Prophecy It isn’t inspired appearance of a
prophet and a declaration of divine will and 4.Fear of God: While not advocating
purpose. specific religious practices, the book
emphasizes the importance of living with The story of Joseph carries several powerful
respect and reverence for a higher power. messages, but a central theme is faith and
This "fear of God" is not presented as fear of forgiveness.
punishment, but rather as an
Faith: Despite facing betrayal, slavery, and
acknowledgement of a grander order and
false accusations, Joseph maintains his faith,
purpose beyond our comprehension.
believing in a higher purpose and trusting
5.Finding Meaning: Although that God is working through his trials. This
acknowledging life's challenges, the book faith allows him to persevere through
doesn't advocate for complete pessimism. It adversity and ultimately achieve his destiny.
encourages finding meaning through living
Forgiveness: Even after experiencing
wisely, appreciating simple pleasures, and
immense suffering at the hands of his
fulfilling responsibilities within one's
brothers, Joseph chooses forgiveness,
circumstances.
demonstrating compassion and
6.Acceptance and Appreciation: The book understanding. This act of forgiveness heals
encourages accepting the limitations of life not only his brothers but also himself,
and focusing on what we can control - our allowing him to move forward with a sense
own actions, attitudes, and choices. It also of peace and reconciliation.
advocates for appreciating the good things in
These lessons of faith and forgiveness
life like relationships, work, and enjoying
remain relevant and inspiring for audiences
the world around us.
of all backgrounds and beliefs, offering a
The Story of Joseph message of hope and resilience in the face of
life's challenges.
Summary:
The Parables of Talent
Joseph, favored by his father Jacob, dreams
of future greatness, sparking jealousy and Summary
resentment from his brothers. They sell him
A master, preparing for a journey, entrusts
into slavery, separating him from his family
varying amounts of "talents" (representing
and dreams. In Egypt, Joseph finds favor
potential or skills) to three servants.
with his master Potiphar but is falsely
accused by Potiphar's wife, leading to One receives five talents, another two, and
imprisonment. Despite hardships, Joseph the last one. Upon his return, the master
remains steadfast in his faith and interprets calls the servants to account for their
dreams for fellow prisoners, gaining the actions.
Pharaoh's attention. Through his
The first two servants who invested their
interpretation of the Pharaoh's dream, Joseph
talents and doubled their amount are praised
predicts a coming famine and proposes
for their initiative and rewarded. The third
strategies to prepare Egypt. As a result, he
servant, who out of fear buried his talent in
rises to become second-in-command, saving
the ground, is rebuked for his inaction and
Egypt and surrounding nations from
punished.
starvation.
THE STORY OF RUTH
Years later, the famine reaches his
homeland, forcing his brothers to travel to It is a part of the biblical canon called
Egypt seeking food. Unrecognized, Joseph KETUVIM or WRITINGS.
tests them, ultimately revealing himself and
KETUVIMS or WRITINGS is the third part
forgiving his brothers. He reunites with his
of the Jewish Scriptures which contains the
family and secures their future in Egypt.
poetic books and the remaining canonical
Moral Lesson: books.
CHARACTERS: husband. Boaz notices Ruth's dedication and
kindness and instructs his workers to leave
RUTH - She is a Moabite woman who
extra grain for her. Naomi recognizes that
becomes the daughter-in-law of Naomi.
Boaz could be a potential kinsman-
NAOMI - Naomi is Ruth's mother-in-law. redeemer, a person who has the
She is a widow who experiences great loss responsibility to marry a widow from his
and hardship. family to continue the family line. Naomi
devises a plan for Ruth to approach Boaz
ELIMELECH – husband of Naomi and
and seek his protection and redemption.
father-in-Law of ruth
Following Naomi's instructions, Ruth goes
BOAZ - is a wealthy landowner and relative to Boaz at night and lies at his feet. Boaz
of Naomi's late husband. Ruth's kinsman- acknowledges Ruth's loyalty and agrees to
redeemer, marrying her and ensuring their take on the role of the kinsman-redeemer.
family's redemption. However, there is another relative who has
the first right to redeem Ruth. Boaz arranges
MAHLOH AND CHILION - sons of
a meeting with this relative and skillfully
Naomi and Elimelech. Mahloh is the
secures his own position as the kinsman-
husband of ruth and chilion is the husband
redeemer. Boaz and Ruth marry, and they
of Orpah but tragically pass away, leaving
are blessed with a son named Obed. Obed
their wives as widows.
becomes the father of Jesse, and Jesse
ORPAH – is the other daughter-in-law of becomes the father of King David, making
Naomi. Ruth an ancestor of the great King David.
THE GOOD SAMARITAN

STORY The story of the Good Samaritan is one of

the parables of Jesus. Parables are stories
- The story takes place during the time
Jesus told about everyday life to help people
of the Judges in Israel. A man named
understand spiritual things. The story is
Elimelech, along with his wife Naomi and
recorded in the Bible, in the Gospel of Luke.
their two sons, Mahlon and Chilion, leave
Jesus used the story to help people
their hometown of Bethlehem-Judah due to
understand the concept of loving their
a famine and settle in the land of Moab.
neighbor. According to Luke 10:25 – 37,
Unfortunately, Elimelech dies, leaving
Naomi a widow with her two sons. Mahlon M
and Chilion marry Moabite women named
JESUS - the one who tells the parable of the
Orpah and Ruth. Tragically, both Mahlon
Good Samaritan. He uses this story to teach
and Chilion also die, leaving Naomi and her
a lesson about loving one's neighbor and
daughters-in-law as widows. Upon hearing
showing compassion to those in need.
that the famine in Bethlehem has ended,
Naomi decides to return to her homeland. LAWYER - the person who initiates the
She encourages her daughters-in-law to stay conversation with Jesus.
in Moab and find new husbands, but Ruth
MAN ATTACKED BY ROBBERS - This
insists on accompanying Naomi, ruth vows
character represents a victim who is
“your people will be my people and your
traveling from Jerusalem to Jericho and falls
God will be my God” declaring her loyalty
prey to robbers. He is left half-dead by the
and faithfulness. In Bethlehem, Ruth takes
side of the road.
on the responsibility of providing for Naomi
by gleaning in the fields. She happens to PRIEST and LEVITE- they are the people
glean in the fields of Boaz, a wealthy who comes across the injured man.
landowner and relative of Naomi's late
SAMARITAN - the central character in the south, Iran is bounded by the Persian Gulf
parable and the one who exemplifies and the Gulf of Oman. Covering an area of
compassion and kindness. approximately 1.65 million square
kilometers (about 636,400 square miles),
STORY
Iran boasts a population exceeding 80
- A lawyer stands up to test Jesus and million people, making it one of the most
asks Him what he must do to inherit eternal populous nations in the Middle East.
life. Jesus responds by asking the lawyer
what the Bible says. The lawyer answers
correctly, stating that one must love God The geography of Iran is diverse, featuring
with all their heart, soul, strength, and mind, deserts, mountains, plateaus, and coastal
and love their neighbor as themselves. regions. The country's rich history, ancient
Wanting to justify himself, the lawyer asks cultural heritage, and notable contributions
Jesus, "And who is my neighbor?" In to fields such as literature, art, and science
response, Jesus tells the story of the Good are widely recognized. Iran is home to
Samaritan: A man is traveling from several UNESCO World Heritage Sites,
Jerusalem to Jericho when he is attacked by including the ancient city of Persepolis, the
robbers. They strip him, beat him, and leave Golestan Palace in Tehran, and the historic
him half-dead by the side of the road. A city of Yazd.
priest happens to come by, but he crosses to
the other side and continues his way without
helping. Likewise, a Levite does the same. Tehran, the capital city, serves as the
Then, a Samaritan, a person despised by the political, economic, and cultural hub of Iran,
Jews, comes upon the injured man. He is while other major cities like Mashhad,
moved with compassion and goes above and Isfahan, Tabriz, and Shiraz also hold
beyond to help him. The Samaritan significant importance. The official language
bandages the man's wounds, pours oil and spoken in Iran is Persian (Farsi), with the
wine on them, and puts him on his own majority of the population being ethnically
donkey. He takes the man to an inn, where Persian. However, Iran is also home to
he cares for him throughout the night. The substantial minority groups such as Azeris,
next day, the Samaritan gives the innkeeper Kurds, Arabs, and Baloch.
money and promises to pay for any
additional expenses when he returns. Jesus
concludes the parable by asking the lawyer Iran has a very rich culture. Persian
which of the three men proved to be a literature has flourished for over a thousand
neighbor to the man who was attacked. The years, with poetry being the most important
lawyer responds, "The one who showed art form. Music and architecture are also
him mercy." Jesus tells him to go and do historically important, as are calligraphy and
likewise. miniature painting. Iran is also famous for
its crafts, including ceramics, silver and gold
PERSIAN LITERATURE
metalwork, and, above all, Persian carpets.
Persia Country: Brief Background The traditional crafts, however, have
declined with industrialization.

Iran, historically known as Persia, is a

country situated in western Asia. It shares Persian Culture
borders with Armenia, Azerbaijan,
Turkmenistan, and the Caspian Sea to the
north, Afghanistan and Pakistan to the east, Iran has a very rich culture. Persian
and Turkey and Iraq to the west. To the literature has flourished for over a thousand
years, with poetry as the most important art During the pre-Islamic Persia that dates
form. Music and architecture are also from 226 to 651 CE, Persian literature was
historically important, as are calligraphy and mostly an oral tradition being utilized for
miniature painting. Iran also is famous for administrative and financial functions as
its crafts, including ceramics, silver, and well as in regal inscriptions. This explains
gold metalwork, and, above all, Persian why it was only accessible to priests or
carpets. The traditional crafts, however, have scribes. Writings were mainly composed of
declined with industrialization. religious poetry and love stories written in
Greek and Aramaic.
Brief History of Persian Literature
The 9th to mid-19th Century makes
Persian literature is the world’s oldest
up the classical period of Persia, wherein the
literature known during the medieval
creation of written literary works was
classical Persian period. Classical Persian
facilitated by the emergence of the first
and poetry flourished during the beginning
printing presses. Its development was also
of the tenth century and lasted well into the
influenced by Arab invaders who spread
sixteenth century. Poetry became the
Islam across the country, allowing Persian
dominant form of literary expression during
historians and spiritual luminaries to bring
the classical period, it was used as the
written works to the Muslim world. Persians
medium for almost all intellectual pursuits, a
developed as the empire’s scribes and
tradition often supported by royal patronage.
officials and eventually became poets and
writers. During this period, writings were
written in Greek, Arabic, and Persian.
Around the eighteenth and nineteenth
centuries, Persia had an increased contact
with Europe, specifically Russia and Britain
Persian literature went through a
that greatly affected the traditions of writing
major transformation during the Modern age
poetry. However, prominent Persian-
that dates from the 19th Century up to the
speaking communities prized Persian
present. The Iranian literature has become a
calligraphy as a high art form therefore the
political requirement of the government to
printing press wasn’t easily adopted by the
advance and modernize the society. New
Persians.
Persian authors write tales that are more
concerned with narrative and action than
with mood or character. Additionally, several
The early modern period of Persian
strategies are tested, ranging from realism
literature evolved to include genres in prose
and naturalism to surreal fantasy.
such as short stories, novels, satire and
comedy.
Persian literature was shaped by a variety The two main divisions of Persian
of ideals, religions, and colonialism. literature are poetry and prose. The latter
Sufism, a religious practice in Islam, receives less attention from most people due
became a staple ingredient in Persian to its ‘serious nature.’ Meanwhile, the
literature. Sufism believes that there exists in former utilizes didactic and mystical writing
the universe only one reality. A part of it is styles, which is natural in a country whose
imprisoned in the human body and this is the traditions abound in maxims, saying, and
human soul. It can only find release by the proverbs. The first great mystical poet was
destruction of the flesh. This also resulted in SANAI of Ghazni, who wrote the best
ordinary terms being mystical in mystical epic “Hadigat at Haquiqa” (The
implications. Walled Garden of Truth). While the most
popular didactic poet was SA’DI, who wrote
“Bustan” (Scented Garden) and “Gullistan” Before Life’s Liquor in its Cup be dry.”
(Rose Garden).
Another well-known Persian author
III
was Omar Khayyam whose surname
means “Tentmaker.” Many Persian poets And, as the Cock crew, those who stood
derived their names from their occupations. before
He even used his surname as a subject in his
The Tavern shouted – “Open then the Door!
piece titled “The Shears of Fate.” The poem
goes: You know how little while we have to stay,
And once departed, may return no more.”
Khayyam, who stitched the tents of science, XCIV
Has fallen in grief’s furnace and been Ah Love! Could thou and I with Fate
suddenly burned, conspire
The shears of Fate have cut the tent ropes of To grasp the sorry scheme of Things entire,
his life,
Would not we shatter it to bits – and then
And the broker of Hope has sold him for
Re-mould it nearer to the Heart’s desire!
nothing!
XCV
RUBAIYAT
Ad, Moon of my Delight who know’st no
“Rubaiyat” is another poem of
wane,
Khayyam. It was translated and adapted into
English by Edward Fitzgerald in 1872. It The Moon of Heav’n is rising once again:
was Edward who made Khayyam the most
How oft hereafter rising shall it look
famous poet of the East in the West.
“Rubaiyat” means “quatrains.” It contains Through this same Garden after me – in
158 quatrains that illustrate pithy vain!
observations on complex subjects such as
XCVI
love, death, and the existence of God and an
afterlife. About 2/3 of the manuscript was And when Thyself with shining Foot shall
translated by Fitzgerald. Some selected pass
stanzas are shown below:
Among the Guests Star-scatter’d on the
I Grass,
AWAKE! For Morning in the Bowl of Night And in thy joyous Errand reach the Spot
Has flung the Stone that puts the Stars to Where I made one – turn down an empty
Flight: Glass
And lo! The Hunter of the East has caught
The Sultan’s Turret in a Noose of Light “Rubaiyat” is a long lyric poem in
quatrains of iambic pentameter with a
II
rhyme scheme of AABA called Limerick.
Dreaming when Dawn’s Left Hand was in The author used symbols to convey deeper
the Sky meanings: “stone” which symbolizes “sun”
and “empty glass” which symbolizes the
I heard a Voice within the Tavern cry,
body of a human being at death that is
“Awake, my Little ones, and fill the Cup suitable to receive God’s fine wine. The use
of kennings was also evident, including the Before the introduction of kanji from China,
“Bowl of Night” (Sky) and the “Dawn’s Left there was no writing system in
Hand” (the phantom of false morning).
Japan. At first, Chinese characters were used
Overall, the message of the poem is to live
in Japanese syntactical formats, and the
the life given to us while it is still ours.
Khayyam wrote it to awaken the people of literary language was classical Chinese;
the East and the West to a deeper awareness resulting in sentences that looked like
of innate divinity in every human being. Chinese
JAPANESE LITERATURE but were phonetically read as Japanese.
Japanese Literature spans a period of almost
two millennia and comprises one of the
Chinese characters were used, not for their
major
meanings, but because they had a
literatures in the world, comparable to
phonetic sound which resembled a Japanese
English literature in age and scope. From the
word. The use of Chinese characters
early seventh
initiated a centuries-long association of
century until the present there has never
literary composition with the art of
been a period when literature was not being
calligraphy.
produced by
Chinese characters were later adapted to
Japanese authors.
write Japanese speech, creating the
Japan adopted its writing system from man'yōgana,
China, often using Chinese characters to
the earliest form of kana, or syllabic writing.
represent
Japanese words with similar phonetic
sounds. Early works were heavily influenced • Kanji
by cultural
- Chinese characters used in the modern
contact with China and Chinese literature Japanese logographic writing system
and was often written in Classical Chinese.
along with hiragana (平仮名), katakana (片
仮名), and the Arabic numerals.
History of Japanese Literature
Japanese literature is one of the major • Nara Period
literatures of the world, comparable to
- the period of the creation of the earliest
English literature in age and variety. From works including:
the seventh century C.E., when the earliest
▪ Kojiki (712) – a work recording Japanese
surviving works were written, until the mythology and legendary history.
present day, there has never been a period
▪ Nihonshoki (720) – a chronicle with a
when
slightly more solid foundation in
literature was not being produced in Japan.
historical records than Kojiki.
▪ Man'yōshū (759) – Ten Thousand Leaves;
I. Ancient Literature (until 894) an anthology of poetry.
II. Classical Literature | The Heian Period
(894 - 1194)
III. Medieval Literature (1195 - 1600)

Classical Japanese literature generally refers

Medieval Japanese Literature is marked by
to literature produced during the
the strong influence of Zen Buddhism,
Heian Period, what some would consider a
and many writers were priests, travelers, or
golden era of art and literature. During this
ascetic poets. Other notable genres in this
period were renga (linked verse) and Noh
time, the imperial court patronized poets, theater. Both were rapidly developed in the
many of whom were courtiers or ladies-in-
middle of the 14th century, during the early
waiting. Editing anthologies of poetry was a Muromachi period.
national pastime. Reflecting the aristocratic
During this period, Japan experienced many
civil wars which led to the
atmosphere, the poetry was elegant and development of a warrior class, and a
sophisticated and expressed emotions in a widespread interest in war tales, histories,
and
rhetorical style.
related stories. Work from this period is
notable for its insights into life and death,
• Important Works of this Period simple

1. The Tale of Genji (early 11th century) by lifestyles, and redemption through killing.
Murasaki Shikibu
- considered the pre-eminent masterpiece of
• Notable Works in this Period
Heian fiction and an early example
1. The Tale of the Heike (1371)
of a work of fiction in the form of a novel.
- an epic account of the struggle between the
- believed to be the earliest full-length novel.
Minamoto and Taira clans for
control of Japan at the end of the 12th
2. Kokin Wakashū (905) century.

- waka poetry anthology. 2. Kamo no Chōmei's Hōjōki (1212)

3. Tsurezuregusa (1331)

3. The Pillow Book (990s) - a tale written by Yoshida Kenko.

- an essay about the life, loves, and pastimes

of nobles in the emperor’s court.
IV. Early Modern Literature (1600-1868)
- written by Murasaki Shikibu's
contemporary and rival, Sei Shonagon.
The literature of this time was written during
the generally peaceful Tokugawa
4. Iroha Poem
Period (commonly referred to as the Edo
- now one of two standard orderings for the Period). Due in large part to the rise of the
Japanese syllabary.
working and middle classes in the new mixing vernacular dialogue into his
capital of Edo (modern Tokyo), forms of humorous and cautionary tales of the
popular
pleasure quarters.
drama developed which would later evolve
5. Jippensha Ikku (十返舎一九)
into kabuki.
- wrote Tōkaidōchū hizakurige (東海道中膝
Many genres of literature made their début
栗毛), a mix of travelogue and
during the Edo Period, inspired by a
comedy.
rising literacy rate among the growing
population of townspeople, as well as the 6. Tsuga Teisho, Takebe Ayatari, & Okajima
Kanzan
development of lending libraries. New
genres included horror, crime stories, - instrumental in developing the yomihon,
morality which were historical romances
stories, and comedy, often accompanied by almost entirely in prose, influenced by
colorful woodcut prints. Chinese vernacular novels such as
Although there was a minor Western Three Kingdoms and Shui hu zhuan.
influence trickling into the country from the
7. Kyokutei Bakin
Dutch settlement at Nagasaki, it was the
- wrote the extremely popular fantasy and
importation of Chinese vernacular fiction
historical romance, Nansō Satomi
that
Hakkenden (南総里見八犬伝), in addition
proved the greatest outside influence on the
to other yomihon.
development of this period.
8. Santō Kyōden
- wrote yomihon mostly set in the gay
• Notable Authors in this Period
quarters until the Kansei edicts banned
1. Chikamatsu Monzaemon
such works, and he turned to comedic
- a joruri and kabuki dramatist who became kibyōshi.
popular at the end of the 17th
century.
V. Meiji, Taisho, & Early Showa Literature
2. Matsuo Bashō (1868-1945)
- wrote Oku no Hosomichi (奥の細道,
1702), a travel diary.
The Meiji era marked the re-opening of
3. Hokusai Japan to the West, and a period of rapid
- perhaps Japan's most famous woodblock industrialization. The introduction of
print artist. European literature brought free verse into
the
- illustrated fiction as well as his famous 36
Views of Mount Fuji. poetic repertoire; it became widely used for
longer works embodying new intellectual
4. Ihara Saikaku
- said to have given birth to the modern
consciousness of the novel in Japan, themes. Young Japanese prose writers and
dramatists struggled with a whole galaxy of
new ideas and artistic schools, but novelists contemporaries and by the magazines Myōjō
were the first to successfully assimilate and Bungaku-kai in the early
some
1900s. Mori also wrote some modern novels
of these concepts. including The Dancing Girl (1890),
Wild Geese (1911), and later wrote historical
novels.
▪ Early Meiji Era (1868 – 1880s)
- Fukuzawa Yukichi and Nakae Chomin
authored Enlightenment Literature, ✓ A new colloquial literature developed
centering on the “I” novel, (Watakushi-
while pre-modern popular books depicted
the quickly changing country. shôsetu), a form of fiction that describes the
world from the author’s point of view

▪ Mid-Meiji Era (late 1880s – early 1890s)

and depicts his own mental states. This style
The following are genres, characteristics,
incorporated some unusual
and notable authors that have transpired
and emerged in this era (onwards):
protagonists such as the cat narrator of
✓ Realism was introduced by Tsubouchi
Natsume Soseki's humorous and satirical
Shoyo and Futabatei Shimei.
Wagahai wa neko de aru (“I Am a Cat,”
1905).
✓ Classicism of Ozaki Koyo, Yamada
✓ Natsume Soseki, who is often compared
Bimyo and Koda Rohan gained popularity.
with Mori Ogai, also wrote the famous
novels Botchan (1906) and Sanshirô (1908),
✓ Higuchi Ichiyo, a rare woman writer in depicting the freshness and purity
this era, wrote short stories on powerless
of youth. He eventually pursued
women of this age in a simple style, between transcendence of human emotions and
literary and colloquial. egoism
in his later works including Kokoro (1914),
and his last unfinished novel Light
✓ Izumi Kyoka, a favored disciple of Ozaki,
pursued a flowing and elegant style and and Darkness (1916).

wrote early novels such as The Operating ✓ Shiga Naoya, the so called "god of the
Room (1895) in literary style and later novel," wrote in an autobiographical style,

ones including The Holy Man of Mount depicting his states of his mind, that is also
Koya (1900) in colloquial language. classified as “I” novel.
✓ Shimazaki shifted from Romanticism to
Naturalism, which was established with
✓ Mori Ogai introduced Romanticism to
Japan with his anthology of translated the publication of The Broken
Commandment (1906) and Katai Tayama's
poems (1889), and it was carried to its
height by Shimazaki Toson and his Futon (1907).
✓ Naturalism led to the “I” novel. Neo- Oguma Hideo, and Ishikawa Jun.
romanticism came out of anti-naturalism
and was led by Nagai Kafu, Junichiro
VI. Post-War Literature
Tanizaki, Kotaro Takamura, Kitahara
Hakushu, and others during the early 1910s.
Japan’s defeat in World War II influenced
✓ Mushanokoji Saneatsu, Shiga Naoya, and
Japanese literature during the 1940s and
others founded a magazine,
1950s. Many authors wrote stories about
Shirakaba, in 1910 to promote Humanism.
disaffection, loss of purpose, and the coping
with
✓ Ryunosuke Akutagawa, who was highly defeat.
praised by Soseki, represented Neo-
realism in the mid-1910s and wrote
• Prominent Authors (1940s – 1950s)
intellectual, analytical short stories including
1. Dazai Osamu
- his novel, The Setting Sun, tells of a
Rashômon (1915).
soldier returning from Manchukuo.
During the 1920s and early 1930s the
2. Mishima Yukio
proletarian literary movement, comprising
- well known for both his nihilistic writing
such writers as Kobayashi Takiji, Kuroshima
and his controversial suicide by
Denji, Miyamoto Yuriko, and Sata Ineko,
seppuku, began writing in the post-war
produced a politically radical literature
period.
depicting the harsh lives of workers,
peasants, 3. Kojima Nobuo
women, and other downtrodden members of - his short story, The American School,
society, and their struggles for change. portrays a group of Japanese teachers
War-time Japan saw the début of several of English who, in the immediate aftermath
authors best known for the beauty of of the war, deal with the American
their language and their tales of love and occupation in varying ways.
sensuality, notably Tanizaki Junichiro and

• Prominent Writers (1970s – 1980s)

Japan's first winner of the Nobel Prize for
- identified with intellectual and moral
Literature, Kawabata Yasunari, a master of
issues in their attempts to raise social and
psychological fiction. Hino Ashihei wrote
political consciousness.
lyrical bestsellers glorifying the war, while
1. Oe Kenzaburo
Ishikawa Tatsuzo attempted to publish a
disturbingly realistic account of the advance - wrote his best-known work, A Personal
on Matter in 1964 and became Japan's
Nanjing. Writers who opposed the war second winner of the Nobel Prize for
include Kuroshima Denji, Kaneko Literature.
Mitsuharu,
2. Inoue Mitsuaki
- had long been concerned with the atomic the elderly in hospitals; the recent past; the
bomb and continued during the 1980’s Pure-Hearted Shopping District in Koenji,
to write on problems of the nuclear age. Tokyo; and the life of a Meiji period ukiyo-e
artist. In international literature, Kazuo
Ishiguro, a native of Japan, who had taken
3. Endo Shusaku
up residence in Britain, won Britain's
- depicted the religious dilemma of the
prestigious Booker Prize.
Kakure Kirishitan, Roman Catholics in
Murakami Haruki is one of the most popular
feudal Japan, as a springboard to address
and controversial of today's Japanese
spiritual problems.
authors. His genre-defying, humorous and
4. Inoue Yasushi
surreal works have sparked fierce debates
- also turned to the past in masterful
in Japan over whether they are true
historical novels, set in Inner Asia and
"literature" or simple pop-fiction: Oe
ancient
Kenzaburo has
Japan, in order to comment on present
been one of his harshest critics. Some of his
human fate.
best-known works include Norwegian
Wood (1987) and The Wind-Up Bird
• Avant-Garde Writers Chronicle (1994-1995). Another best-selling
1. Abe Kobo contemporary author is Banana Yoshimoto.

- wrote fantastic novels such as Woman in

the Dunes (1960).
VII. Contemporary Literature
- wanted to express the Japanese experience
✓ Popular fiction, non-fiction, and
in modern terms without using either
children's literature all flourished in urban
international styles or traditional Japan
conventions, developed new inner visions.
during the 1980s.
2. Furui Yoshikichi
- tellingly related the lives of alienated urban
✓ Many popular works fell between "pure
dwellers coping with the minutiae of
literature" and pulp novels
daily life, while the psychodramas within
(inexpensive, fast-paced literary works),
such daily life crises have been
including all sorts of historical serials,
explored by a rising number of important
information-packed docudramas, science
women novelists.
fiction, mysteries, detective fiction,
3. Todo Shizuko
business stories, war journals, and animal
- won the 1988 Naoki Prize for Ripening stories.
Summer, a story capturing the complex
✓ Non-fiction covered everything from
psychology of modern women. crime to politics.

Other award-winning stories at the end of ✓ Although factual journalism

the decade dealt with current issues of predominated, many of these works were
interpretive, reflecting a high degree of many cases the significance of a simple
individualism. sentence can only be understood by
✓ Children's works re-emerged in the 1950s, someone who is familiar with the cultural or
and the newer entrants into this field, historical background of the work.
many of them younger women, brought new
vitality to it in the 1980s.
2. CULTURAL HOMOGENEITY

▪ Manga (comic books)

Japan’s deliberate isolation during the
- penetrated almost every sector of the seventeenth and eighteenth
popular market.
centuries created a strong cultural
homogeneity, and the literature of that
period
- include virtually every field of human
interest, such as a multi volume high- incorporated many common understandings
that are unintelligible to someone who
school history of Japan and, for the adult
market, a manga introduction to does not share the same background. For
example, Japanese readers of the
seventeenth
economics, and pornography.
century immediately understood the phrase,
“some smoke rose noisily” (kemuri

Characteristics of Japanese Literature tachisawagite), as a reference to Great Fire

of 1682 that ravaged Edo (the modern city
1. AMBIGUITY
of Tokyo).

Japanese literature can be difficult to read

and understand, because in many 3. EMOTIONAL WRITING SYSTEM

ways the written Japanese reflects certain

peculiarities of the spoken language.
Though the Japanese writing system was
Statements are often ambiguous, omitting as first adapted from Chinese, the
unnecessary the particles of speech which
Japanese and Chinese languages are
would normally identify words as the unrelated. The original Japanese language
subject or object of a sentence, or using
contained a great variety of words
colloquial
expressing emotion and feeling, but very
verb forms from a specific region or social few words
class.
for abstract intellectual concepts such as
justice, morality, honesty or rectitude.

Special language used to depict gender, age, Japanese literature tends to be emotional and
social status, or regional origins subjective, rather than

is often the only clue as to who is speaking intellectual, and consequently appeals
or being spoken about in a sentence. In strongly to modern readers all over the
world,
who can relate to sentiments and feelings The Tale of Genji is one of the greatest
which transcend historical changes and Japanese classics of literature, which gives
cultural differences. Japanese writers who amazing insights into Japanese high society
wanted to express more intellectual or in a period of radical change. During the
abstract meanings wrote in Chinese or Heian period (8th-12th Centuries CE), Japan
borrowed from the Chinese language. became more and more independent and
isolated from China, distinguishing itself in
language, customs, and writing. In this
4. LITERARY CRITICISM / ARTISTIC
period,
CODES
women were generally believed to be less
intelligent than men and thus weren't taught
As early as the tenth century, patronage of the
literature and poetry by the court
Chinese language.
and the aristocracy gave rise to literary
criticism and artistic “codes,” developed by
the • About the Author – MURASAKI
SHIKIBU
writers and poets themselves, which dictated
the style and form of poetic Murasaki Shikibu, or Lady Murasaki as she
is sometimes known in English, was a
composition.
Japanese novelist, poet, and a maid of honor
of the imperial court during the Heian
These codes restricted the types of sentence
period. She is best known as the author of
structures which were
The Tale of Genji, written in Japanese
acceptable, and generally prohibited the use between
of words with humble meanings or foreign
about 1000 and 1008, one of the earliest and
origins until the sixteenth century, when less most famous novels in human history.
formal haikai no renga (俳諧の連歌,
"Murasaki Shikibu" was not her real name;
“playful linked verse”) became popular. her actual name is unknown, though
Japanese writers emphasized refinement of
some scholars have postulated that her given
sentiment and elegant phrasing over the name might have been Takako (for Fujiwara
expression of intellectual concepts.
Takako). Her diary states that she was
nicknamed "Murasaki" ("purple wisteria
blossom")
THE TALE OF GENJI (Genji
Monogata9ri) at court, after a character in The Tale of
Genji. "Shikibu" refers to her father's
position in
The Tale of Genji, the first ever novel, was
the Bureau of Ceremony (shikibu-shō).
written by a woman. The novel is
comprised of fifty-four chapters, and it was
written in 11th century Japan by Murasaki Summary of the Prose

Shikibu, an influential court lady-in-waiting. The Tale of Genji talks about the life of
Hikaru no Genji, a son of the Japanese
Emperor, also known as "Hikaru Genji" Kitayama, the northern rural, hilly area of
("Shining Genji"). The tale concentrates on Kyoto, where he encounters a beautiful girl.
Genji’s
He is fascinated by this little girl, Murasaki,
romantic life and describes the customs of and discovers that she is a niece of the
the aristocratic society of the time.
Lady Fujitsubo. He eventually kidnaps
Murasaki, brings her to his own palace and
educates
Genji is depicted as being very handsome.
His most important personality trait is her to be his ideal lady, like the Lady
Fujitsubo. During this same period, Genji
the loyalty he shows to all the women in his
secretly
life; he never abandons any of his wives.
When meets the Lady Fujitsubo, and she bears his
son. Everyone except the two lovers believes
he finally becomes the most powerful man
in the capital, he moves into a palace and the father of this child to be the emperor.
Later, the boy becomes the crown prince and
Lady Fujitsubo becomes the empress,
provides for each of them. Genji is the
second son of a certain ancient emperor and but Genji and Lady Fujitsubo swear to keep
a low- their secret. Genji and his wife Lady Aoi
ranking concubine. reconcile, and she gives birth to a son, but
dies soon after. Genji is sorrowful, but finds
consolation in Murasaki, whom he marries.
His mother died when Genji is three years
Genji's father the emperor dies, and his
old, and the emperor cannot forget her.
political
The emperor then hears of a woman named
enemy seizes power in the court.
Lady Fujitsubo, a princess of the preceding
emperor, who resembles his deceased
concubine, and later takes her as one of his Then, another of Genji's secret love affairs is
wives. exposed when Genji and a concubine
Genji loves Lady Fuitsubo first as his of his brother, the Emperor Suzaku, are
stepmother but comes to love her as a discovered meeting in secret. Genji is not
woman. They officially
fall in love with each other, but their punished but flees to the rural Harima
relationship is forbidden. province. There, a prosperous man named
Akashi no
Genji is frustrated because of his forbidden
love for the Lady Fujitsubo and is on Nyūdō (Monk of Akashi) entertains Genji,
and Genji has a love affair with Akashi's
bad terms with his wife, Lady Aoi (Aoi no
Ue). He also engages in a series of daughter Lady Akashi, who gives birth to
unfulfilling Genji’s only daughter, who later becomes
the
love affairs with other women; in each
instance his advances are rebuffed, his lover empress. Genji is forgiven by his brother
dies and returns to Kyoto.
suddenly during the affair, or he finds the His son by Lady Fujitsubo becomes the
lover to be dull and unsatisfying. Genji visits emperor and Genji finishes his imperial
career. The new Emperor Reizei knows more introspective, realizing the impact of
Genji is his real father and raises Genji to his behavior on those around him.
the
The novel also provides insights into Heian-
highest possible rank. era court culture, which valued
However, when Genji is 40 years old, his beauty, nuance, and harmony. Despite
emotional life begins to decline. He contact with other cultures, the court
remained
marries another wife, the "Third Princess,"
(known as Onna san no miya in the sophisticated and complex, with practices
like blackening teeth for beauty seeming
Seidensticker version, or Nyōsan in Waley's)
unusual
but she is taken advantage of by Genji's
to modern readers.
nephew, and bears his son, whom she names
Kaoru. Genji's new marriage changes his
relationship with Murasaki. Poetry plays a significant role in the novel,
with short poems conveying
Genji's beloved Murasaki dies. In the
following chapter, Maboroshi (“Illusion”), characters' emotions alongside the prose.
Lady Murasaki skillfully blends natural
Genji contemplates how fleeting life is.
imagery
Immediately after Maboroshi, there is a
chapter into both poems and prose, offering readers
a vivid depiction of the Heian world.
entitled Kumogakure (“Vanished into the
Clouds”) which is left blank but implies the While many translations focus on Genji's
death early years, the novel extends beyond his
of Genji. life, offering a comprehensive portrayal of
life in the imperial court during 11th-century
Japan.
Literary Analysis of the Prose
"The Tale of Genji" is a classic novel from
early 11th-century Japan, written by • CHARACTERS
Lady Murasaki Shikibu, who was part of the - These characters help us explore themes
imperial court herself. The story revolves like love, desire, power, and identity in
around Prince Genji, a charming and old Japan. "The Tale of Genji" gives us a
talented young man, as he navigates the peek into court life and the complexities
complexities
of human relationships.
of court life in Heian-era Japan,
characterized by romantic intrigues and
power struggles. 1. Prince Genji: Genji is the main character,
a charming and talented man admired by
Throughout the novel, Genji's character
many.
evolves as he learns the consequences of
He struggles with love and desire, but
his actions on others. Initially somewhat
throughout the story, he grows and becomes
thoughtless in his pursuits, he gradually
more
becomes
understanding. His relationships with Lady The story focuses a lot on Prince Genji's
Aoi, Princess Wistaria, and Violet show us a romantic adventures. He's always
lot
looking for the perfect woman, but he's not
about love, desire, and life in medieval entirely sure what he wants. In one part,
Japan. Genji
2. Lady Aoi: Genji's first wife, Lady Aoi, and his friends talk about different types of
shows us the expectations on women in old women and why they're not good enough.
Japan.
Genji's idea of the perfect woman is
Despite Genji's unfaithfulness, she stays influenced by his late mother, Kiri-Tsubo,
loyal and represents the limited choices and he sees
women
aspects of her in Princess Wistaria and
had. Violet.
3. Princess Wistaria: She's important to
Genji and reminds him of his late mother.
2. The Power of Art
Princess
Art is a big deal in the story. The people in
Wistaria is kind and stable, contrasting with
the imperial court, where Genji lives,
Genji's romantic adventures.
are expected to be really good at things like
4. Violet: A young girl Genji adopts; Violet
poetry, music, dance, and painting. Genji is
represents innocence and vulnerability.
Genji's amazing at all of these. Poems are used a lot
to express feelings, and even Genji's son
relationship with her raises questions about
gets
love and consent.
a poem from him before he leaves. Music
5. Lady Rokujō: She's an older woman who
and painting are important too, with
becomes obsessed with Genji, showing how
characters
passion can lead to madness.
playing instruments and having competitions
to find the best paintings.
• LITERARY DEVICES
- Themes 3. Status and How to Get It
- Symbols The society in the story has a strict
hierarchy, meaning there are clear levels of
- Motifs
importance and power. Family connections
are super important and can even be a matter
• THEMES
of life or death. For example, Genji's mom,
- These themes help us understand the Kiri-Tsubo, is treated badly because she
characters, their relationships, and the doesn't

society they live in within "The Tale of have a powerful family. Marriage is a big
Genji." way to climb the social ladder, even for
those at
the top. The story doesn't explain much
1. Defining—and Finding—the Ideal
about how the court actually works, but it's
Woman
clear
that status matters a lot. Lady Koki-den is a • MOTIFS
powerful woman who can make big
- These motifs add depth to the themes of
decisions
the story and offer insight into the
because of her family connections and
characters' motivations and interactions.
intelligence. Even though she's a woman,
They contribute to the rich tapestry of
she's a
"The Tale of Genji" by exploring elements
force to be reckoned with at court.
of human nature, societal norms, and
the complexities of court life.
• SYMBOLS
- These symbols help us understand the
1. Obscurity
themes of beauty, power, and transience in
In the story, things are often hidden or
"The Tale of Genji." They add depth to the
unclear, both literally and figuratively.
story and give insight into the
Women, in particular, are often depicted
characters and their world.
behind screens or in dimly lit rooms,
reflecting
1. Storms represent chaos and unrest in the the cultural norms of seclusion for women
story. When there's a storm, it's a sign that during that time. The meaning of the text
things itself
are not peaceful. For example, when Genji is can be elusive, with veiled references and
exiled, there's a big storm, showing his inner indirect language. This adds layers of
complexity
turmoil and longing to return home.
to the narrative, inviting readers to interpret
and unravel its hidden meanings.
2. Silk represents power and beauty in
Genji's world. It's a valuable fabric used for
gifts and 2. Nature
art. Silk is special because it can hold color Despite the focus on court life, nature plays
and capture delicate details, making it a significant role in the story. Genji's
perfect
experiences in nature reflect his emotional
for scarves and screens. It's a symbol of state, with scenes of beauty and tranquility
luxury and refinement. often
3. Flowers and trees in bloom symbolize the mirroring his inner feelings. The natural
fleeting nature of beauty. They're often world offers moments of peace and
harmony,
associated with female characters like
Princess Wistaria and Violet, showing their especially during dawn, dusk, and under the
natural moonlight. Whether in enclosed gardens or
grace and charm. Genji is drawn to flowers, vast seas, nature serves as a backdrop for
connecting his fascination with women to expression and reflection, enriching the
the narrative
beauty of nature. with its symbolic significance.
3. Competition during the Heian period.
Despite the emphasis on harmony,
competition is prevalent throughout the tale.
2. Literary Innovation
Characters vie for status, romantic partners,
This story is like a pioneer in Japanese
and recognition through various contests and
storytelling. It introduced new ways of
challenges. This competition is not only
writing novels, focusing on characters'
politically driven but also arises in personal
feelings and experiences rather than just
relationships. Genji and Tō-no-Chūjō, for events. It's
instance, engage in friendly rivalry and
a bit like how modern TV shows delve into
sometimes serious competition, highlighting characters' lives and emotions.
the dynamics of ambition and rivalry within
the courtly setting.
3. Cultural Impact
"The Tale of Genji" has become a part of
• WRITING STYLE Japan's cultural identity. It's been retold
"The Tale of Genji" is renowned for its in various forms like plays, movies, and
elegant and lyrical prose, even manga. Many Japanese phrases and
ideas in
characteristic of classical Japanese literature.
Lady Murasaki Shikibu employs a the book have become common in everyday
language.
sophisticated narrative structure, intricate
character development, and poetic language
to create a rich tapestry of courtly life during 4. Language Influence
the Heian period. The prose is marked by
The book has also influenced the Japanese
its attention to detail, nuanced descriptions language itself. It introduced new
of emotions and environments, and the use
words and phrases, and its poetic style
of symbolism and metaphor to convey shaped how people wrote and spoke in Japan
deeper layers of meaning. Murasaki's for
writing
centuries.
style reflects the aesthetic sensibilities of the
KOREAN LITERATURE
time, emphasizing beauty, refinement, and
VIETNAMESE LITERATURE
subtlety in both form and content.
History and Background of Vietnam
BRIEF OVERVIEW OF VIETNAM
• SIGNIFICANCE IN JAPANESE
LITERATURE Vietnam, located in Southeast Asia on the
South China Sea, is a small country
1. Cultural Insight
acknowledged for its beaches, rivers,
The book gives us a peek into what life was Buddhist pagodas, and lively cities like
like in ancient Japan, particularly Saigon.
among the aristocracy. It helps us understand The Asian country has 310,070 square
their customs, beliefs, and social structure kilometers of land and 21,140 square
kilometers of sea, making it the 66thlargest When the French took over Vietnam in the
nation in the world. 19th century, they promoted “quoc ngu.”
Ironically, Vietnamese nationalists
Vietnam's national language is Vietnamese,
encouraged uneducated people to learn the
although it was used to rule by Chinese
simple writing style so they could be handed
powers. Overall, Vietnam is a small, dense,
anti-French political publications. Another
and attractive country.
major development in the early twentieth
century was the increasing popularity of
quoc nguin the northern half of the country,
VIETNAM’S LITERARY HISTORY
which resulted in an abundance of new
During the millennium before the 10th publications written in that script. There had
century, Vietnam was ruled by various been quoc ngu publications in Cochinchina
Chinese dynasties, leading to a significant since 1865, but in 1898, a decree of the
amount of written material in Chữ Hán (Văn colonial administration prohibited
ngôn). ChữNôm, developed around the 10th publishing without permission in the
century, enabling writers to produce in authority areas of magazines in quoc ngu or
Vietnamese using local characters inspired Chinese that were not published by a French
by Chinese characters. In the 18th century, citizen.
many Vietnamese writers and poets used chữ
Since coming into existence, Vietnamese
nôm, and it temporarily became the nation’s
literature has been rich in folklore and
official written script.
proverbs; tales that have been handed down
The Chữ Quốc ngữ script was developed in from generation to generation, gradually
1631, however it was not widely used becoming valuable treasures.
outside of missionary organizations until the
Vietnam has always admired its literary
early 20th century, when the French colonial
accomplishments, particularly poetry, and
rulers ordered its use in French Indochina.
the initial appearances of literary works in
By the mid-20thcentury, almost all
Vietnam can be traced back to the Ly period
Vietnamese masterpieces of literature were
(1009-1225), when theatre was first
written in quốc ngữ. Several critics believe
introduced, particularly by a prisoner
Francophone Vietnamese and English-
captured by the Mongols known as Ly
speaking Vietnamese as the most significant
NguyenCat, who contributed significantly to
contributors to the ongoing history of
its success.
Vietnamese literature.
A short time later, the Tran Dynasty (1225-
Vietnam has an extensive, rich history in
1400) was mostly viewed as the beginning
relation to its literature, so a single
of Vietnam’s national literature. It was the
paragraph would not do it proper justice.
period when Vietnam was regaining its
independence, which allowed for a
significant development in writing. During
There are three main types of literature
this period, popular pieces of literature were
present in Vietnam:
developed and passed down through
Truyen (traditional oral literature), generations, including one by a monk named
Van Hanh, who penned “. / Greatness and
Han Viet (Chinese- Vietnamese literature)
decline: why should we care?/ The fate of
and
people and empires is like a drop of dew on
Quoc Am (modern literature with a grass leaf.
Romanised characters).
This literary achievement and progress can
also be attributed to the birth of one of
Vietnam’s earliest national languages, a
Chinese variety converted into a script for Religious freedom is protected by
Vietnamese use. Because of this creation the nation's constitution, even though the
throughout their reign, the Tran Dynasty government only formally recognizes six
promoted Chinese literacy, making religions for administrative purposes: Islam,
Buddhists the first authors of Chinese- Protestantism, Roman Catholicism,
Vietnamese literature. Following this rapid Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism, and
surge of literary triumphs, the Vietnamese indigenous religions. As of 2018, Indonesia
went on to create great pieces to gratify has the largest Muslim-majority
future generations, such as the Water Buffalo population in the world, with 231 million
folk legends, the Iconic Dragon Legends, adherents (86.7%).
and The Legend of the Watermelon.
INDONESIAN LITERATURE
Historical Background of Indonesia
Geographical Background and
The Netherlands East Indies, often
Archipelago
known as the Dutch East Indies, was the
Southeast Asian nation of Indonesia, previous name for Indonesia. A German
formally known as the Republic of geographer first used the name Indonesia in
Indonesia, is located between the Pacific 1884; it is believed to have originated from
and Indian oceans. Its five main islands are the Greek words indos, which means
Sumatra, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, Jawa, "India," and nesos, which means "island."
and Papua. It is made up of more than Following a Japanese occupation of the
17,000 islands, however, only an estimated country from 1942 to 1945 during World
6,000 of the nation's many islands are home War II, Indonesia declared its independence
to its people, despite its vast number. from the Netherlands in 1945. Nonetheless,
Indonesia's independence movement
persisted until 1949, when the Dutch
Population and Resources formally acknowledged Indonesian
sovereignty. The country did not take on its
With an area of 1,904,569 square
current form until 1969, when the United
kilometers, Indonesia is the largest
Nations (UN) recognized the western
archipelagic state in the world and the
portion of New Guinea as a part of
fourteenth largest nation by land area
Indonesia. The former Portuguese territory
(735,358 square miles). There are 38
of East Timor (Timor-Leste) was
provinces in all, nine of which are
incorporated into Indonesia in 1976.
particularly autonomous. The second-most
Following a UN-organized referendum in
populated metropolitan region in the world
1999, however, East Timor declared its
is Jakarta, the capital of the nation. In
independence and became fully sovereign in
addition to sharing marine borders with
2002.
Singapore, Vietnam, Thailand, the
Philippines, Australia, Palau, and India,
Indonesia also shares land borders with
Ethnic Groups
Papua New Guinea, East Timor, and the
eastern portion of Malaysia. Even with its "Bhinneka tunggal ika," or "Unity
sizable population and heavily populated in diversity," is the national motto of
areas, Indonesia preserves sizable wilderness Indonesia, and it alludes to the remarkable
areas with the second-highest levels of diversity of the Indonesian people that has
biodiversity in the world, only to Brazil. resulted from the continuous blending of
peoples, languages, and cultures. The nation
is home to over 300 distinct ethnic groups,
Religion over twice as many different languages, and
a vast array of indigenous religions in a. Syair - traditional narrative
addition to the majority of the world's major poetry.
religions. Examples:
- Syair Bidasari
The majority of Indonesians are
- Syair Raja Siak
descended from Austronesian peoples,
- Syair Ken
presumably from Taiwan, whose languages
Tambuhan
started in Proto-Austronesian. The
- Syair Raja
Melanesians, who live in eastern Indonesia,
Mambang Jauhari
are another significant group. At present,
with 40.2% of the population, the Javanese
b. Pantun - quatrains made up
are currently the largest ethnic group and
of two seemingly
have a majority in politics. They can be
disconnected couplet.
found in significant quantities throughout
Example:
the majority of provinces as well as in the
Buah cempedak di luar
central to eastern regions of Java.
pagar,
ambil galah tolong jolokkan,
saya budak baru belajar,
Language
kalau salah tolong
The official language of the nation is tunjukkan.
Indonesian, a Malay dialect derived from
its prestige dialect that served as the lingua English translation:
franca for centuries throughout the Outside the fence lies the
archipelago. Under the name Bahasa cempedak fruit,
Indonesia, it was officially recognized in please use a pole to retrieve
1945 after being pushed by nationalists in it,
the 1920s. It developed from a literary I am a novice just starting
Malay language used in the eastern Sumatra out,
region's royal families in Riau-Jambi, but it if I make a mistake, please
also has many characteristics with other point it out.
Malay dialects that have long been utilized
as local lingua francas. The main areas of c. Gurindam – brief
distinction between standard Malay and aphorisms.
standard Indonesian are their idioms and Example:
specific language items. Jika hendak mengenal orang
berbangsa,
Lihat kepada budi dan
Periods of Indonesian Literature Bahasa

1. Pujangga Lama: "Literates of

English Translation:
Olden Times”
If the well born you would
- Pujangga lama or "the old
identify,
poets" was written before
Look for their kindness and
the 20th century.
courtesy
- A lively oral tradition using
traditional Malay-language
d. Hikayat - stories, fairy-
literature.
tales, animal fables,
Genres in Pujannga Lama: chronicles.
Example: The Parrot's
Seventy Tales, an Indian
 work in which a parrot tells - SanusiPane
70 stories to keep a
woman from going astray.
5. Angkatan 1945: the "Generation
of 1945"
2. Sastra Melayu Lama: "Older - Dominated by the
Malay Literature" thoughts of
- The works from this independence and
period were predominantly political manner
popular among the people - Inspiration and
in Sumatra, the Chinese leaders are:
and the Indo- - Chairil Anwar -
Europeans(1870-1942). the great poet
- The first works were - Pramoedya
dominated by syair, Ananta Toer -
hikayat and, translations of most prominent
western novels. writer

3. Angkatan Balai Pustaka: 6. Angkatan 1950 - 1960-an: the

"Generation of the [Colonial] "Generation of the 1950s"
Office for Popular Literature" - characterised by the
(1908) Kisah magazine,
- National consciousness established by H. B.
emerged among educated Jassin.
Indonesians. - dominated by
- Balai Pustaka is a Dutch collections of short
government-supervised stories and poetry.
publisher.
- Themes: forced marriages,
adat (traditional law), 7. Angkatan 1966 - 1970-an: the
modernization and "Generation of 1966 into the 1970s
adventure. Rrising the Horison
- In 1928, "Bahasa magazine led by
Indonesia" became the Mochtar Lubis.
National Language. - Dozens of writers
previously
associated with
4. Angkatan Pujangga Baru: the Lekra or leftist
"New Literates" (1933) groups went into
- National consciousness exile overseas.
among young Indonesian
intellectuals was well-
developed. 8. Angkatan 1980-an: the "Decade of
the 1980s"
Greatest Poets were:
- dominated by
- Sutan Takdir romance novel
Alisjahbana - poets explored ideas
- Amir Hamzah such as femininity
- Armijn Pane
 - Lupus - a popular premarital
story written by sex.
Hilman Hariwijaya
KOREAN LITERATURE
9. Angkatan Reformasi: the post (Historical Background)
Suharto"Reformation Period"
-produced in Korea or by Korean writers.
- And The War Is
Written in classical chinese and Korean.
Over ( 1977 )
- Author: Ismail -first using transcription systems idu and
Marahimin gugyeol, to finally using Korean script
hangul.
Set in Indonesia
following the Japanese  King Sejong (1446)
invasion, this book was
-created the new language and writing
awarded the Pegasus
system, the hangul.
Prize for Literature in
1984. Originally titled: -but that time, chinese characters were
Dan Perang Pun Usai essential in philosophy and literature, so
hangul remained neglected in literature and
useful only for women and low class people.
10. Angkatan 2000-an: the
 Japanese Occupation (1910-1945)
"Generation of 2000s"
-korean scholars aimed recovering what was
Dewi Lestari (Dee Lestari) - is one of the
purely Korean in language and literature
front runners in the modern Indonesian book
scene -today, a common agreement to accept
both hangul and works in chinese
Eka Kurniawan –
characters
first Indonesian
writer nominated for -Korean literature was first orally
the Man Booker transmitted and written much later in mixed
international for his form, hyangchal or hangul.
novel, Man Tiger,
TWO TRANSCRIPTS
translated by
Labodalih Sembiring. (1) HANJA
(2) HANGUL
- Ayu Utami -
wrote the most
 Korean Modern Literature
talk about book
Saman. -first literary form was literature poetry
- Saman - -korean always loved to sing and dance
dealt with and first poems were sung
subjects that
-Sirhak scholars played a role infusing
until that time
new ideas through satirical short stories
had been
opening people to modernity
taboo:
political, -Korean excelled in Sijo poetry and
repression, short novel that express more mind and
prejudice emotion
towards the
Korean Classical Literature
Chinese, and
  Roots in folk beliefs and folk tales of 2 Yeonjanche – extended form, several
the Korean peninsula stanzas
 Influences from Confucianism,
 Sijo and Gasa
Buddhism, and Taoism.
-early Joseon period
 Hyangga
-sijo word is made of time and harmony
-hyangga means “native songs,” from
- sijo reflected in Confucian thought
korea in opposition to chinese songs
-theme of loyalty, regrets about aging ,
-idu means “clerk’s writings”. The
sorrow over spurned love, loss of power and
variety of idu used to write hyangga and
honor
sometimes called hyangchal.
-sijo is characterized by three stanzas, 1st
-hyannga was the first uniquely Korean
foot- 3 syllables
form of poetry , 25 poems survived
2nd foot- as many as seven syllables
-characterized by number of formal rules
-Gasa is a simple form of verse with twinned
-consist or four,eight, or ten lines. Ten-
feet of three or four syllable. Some regard
line poems are most developed, three
gasa as essay
sections; four, four, and two lines
respectively and written by Buddhist -gasa theme: nature, virtues of gentlemen,
monks love between man and woman

-Buddhist theme and inspiration that are The evolution of Korean Literature
reflected in poems, folk songs, elegies to
New Literary Genres
heroic hwarang knights, shaman
exorcism or Buddhist prayer-poem Besides poetry other genres were taking
shape durin Koryo period, during the age of
 Goryeo (Koryo) songs Changga
military under dictatorship of the family
-songs of goryeo are called long poems Ch’oe
in contrast with later period Sijo that
Historical writing: Kim Pu-sik – samguk
included only three lines. Only 21 poems
sagi with a Confucian view ,and later on
have been transmitted
Iryon , history of three kingdoms
-hyangga had religious tones but
Biographical works like the Tongmunson,
changga mostly secular songs
Eastern Korean Anthology of Literature
expressing the life of ordinary people
(1478-1518)
-transmitted orally and later on written
-various text such as memorials,
down at end of 15th century and
inscriptions, and critical writings
beginning of 16th century
-Tongmunson is an anthology with an
 Koryo songs are considered as
ecyclopedic dimension going back as far as
oldest Korean songs
koguryo but written during Koryo period
Theme of poem: life close to nature,
-Chuk puinjon, story of madame bamboo of
ordinary love, mother’s love
yi kok (1297-1351) speaks of objects if they
-poetic form of of goryeo songs is known as were human beinga
byeologok
-it makes us think of fables of Aesop in
TWO FORMS Greece or La Fontaine in France.

1 Dallyeonche – shorter, single stanza